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Importance of orchard floor management in organic fruit growing (nutritional aspects)

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Worldwide research goals and concerns are to soil conservation and improve. This conception is mostly actual in horticulture where the numbers of high-density plantings are continuously increasing. High-density orchards cause more intensive nutrient and water uptake. So that the preservation of soil moisture and nutrient level are key factors in qualified fruit growing. On the other hand due to the climatic changes the water supply of trees will be satisfied among worse conditions than some decades ago. Appearance of water supply problems and water stress is increased in organic growing, where the number of corrections is limited anyway. Furthermore, floor management is a successful tool in weed management which causes many problems for organic growers due to the prohibition of synthetic herbicides. This paper will mainly focus on the nutritional aspects of methods of orchard floor management for growers adopting organic fruit management to make their production profitable.
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Introduction
Preserving soil moisture as well as weed control are in
focus of organic production all over the world. The practise
of ground cover is suitable to solve these problems
simultaneously.
According to Libik & Wojtaszek (1973) the practise of
mulching, well known to horticulture, is perhaps as old as
agriculture itself. Mulching with organic materials is highly
beneficial in many orchard crops because it is a traditional
weed control method that offers important potential benefits
by maintaining a high quality soil environment (Hogue &
Neilsen, 1987, Holb, 2002, 2005, 2006).
Moreover, mulching has used generally in organic fruit
farming all over the world due to benefits of it (Skroch &
Shribbs, 1986).
Mulches are not only highly effective in checking
evaporation and in preventing weed growth, but also have
influence on several processes in the soil. The benefits are
variously attributed to the suppression of weed growth, to the
conservation of moisture by reducing evaporation and run off,
to protection from erosion, to increased infiltration of water, to
the increase or decrease of soil temperature fluctuations, to the
enhancement of mineral nutrient availability, to the enhance-
ment of nitrification, to additional nutrients and organic matter
derived from a decomposing mulch, or to the preservation or
improvement of soil structure (Merwin et al., 1994). Moreover,
mulching has a positive effect on nutritional and biological
factors as well (Faust, 1989). On the one hand mulching
produces an increase in the nutrient content of the soil by
leaching of nutrients from the mulch, but at the same time the
entire condition of nutrient availability may be modified for
better or worse by changes induced by the mulch in the
moisture and temperature regimes of the soil. On the other hand
applying mulches increases root length density and brought the
roots closer to the surface (Merwin and Stiles, 1994). In a
review of orchard floor management, Skroch and Shribbs
(1986) provide some general guidelines for several aspects,
including soil quality, water relations, and microclimate. They
statement that the favourable effects on soil quality can be
achieved in the following order: legumes > grass > mulch >
bare ground > cultivation (Skroch and Shribbs, 1986).
Role of floor management in weed control
To grow large fruit, trees must be unstressed and provided
with adequate water and nutrition. Weeds can compete with
fruit trees for both water and nutrients. Research has
demonstrated that weed competition in young fruit trees
reduces tree growth and efficiency, and therefore decreases
fruit production and fruit size (Merwin and Stiles, 1994).
Importance of orchard floor management in organic fruit
growing (nutritional aspects)
Nagy, P. T.1, Kincses, I.1, Lang, T.2, Szôke, S. L.3, Nyéki, J.2& Szabó, Z.2
1Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, University of Debrecen, Centre of Agricultural and
Applied Economic Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences and Environmental Management,
Böszörményi st. 138. Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary nagypt@agr.unideb.hu
2Institute for Research and Development, University of Debrecen, Centre of Agricultural and Applied Economic
Sciences, Debrecen, Hungary
3University of Debrecen, Centre of Agricultural and Applied Economic Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Food
Sciences and Environmental Management, Institute of Horticulture, Debrecen, Hungary
Summary: Worldwide research goals and concerns are to soil conservation and improve. This conception is mostly actual in horticulture
where the numbers of high-density plantings are continuously increasing. High-density orchards cause more intensive nutrient and water
uptake. So that the preservation of soil moisture and nutrient level are key factors in qualified fruit growing. On the other hand due to the
climatic changes the water supply of trees will be satisfied among worse conditions than some decades ago. Appearance of water supply
problems and water stress is increased in organic growing, where the number of corrections is limited anyway. Furthermore, floor
management is a successful tool in weed management which causes many problems for organic growers due to the prohibition of synthetic
herbicides. This paper will mainly focus on the nutritional aspects of methods of orchard floor management for growers adopting organic fruit
management to make their production profitable.
Key words: floor management, mulching, weed control, organic growing
International Journal of Horticultural Science 2010, 16 (3): 61–67.
Agroinform Publishing House, Budapest, Printed in Hungary
ISSN 1585-0404
62
Therefore weed control is essential to young tree
establishment and good tree growth and has an important
role in organic production where the methods of it are
strongly limited.
Moreover, it is no doubt that the organic fruit production
is increasing in Hungary in the last few years, but the
production is limited by a lack of effective weed control
methods. When weeds are not managed, reductions in yield
and fruit size occur. Despite of it, currently, organic growers
have few alternatives for weed management and lack
information on which alternatives are most effective.
Growers need much more information on the effectiveness of
weed management strategies in order to maximize yield and
fruit quality.
Furthermore, weed control, particularly in the tree row, is
also more labour intensive in organic orchards. Some
growers report twice as much labour for weed control than in
conventional systems, while other only require slightly more
(Granatstein, 2000b).
Methods of weed control
Current widely used strategies of floor management era
in use, including mechanical tillage, mulching, flaming,
cultivation, living mulch, cover crops and mowing (Table 1).
Each method has disadvantages that determine whether or
not they will be adopted by growers.
Furthermore weed control can be started prior to orchard
establishment and when you have an existing orchard.
Weeds can be controlled mechanically or by manual
cultivation, but control is usually delayed until after
unfavourable weed competition has occurred. Tillage
incorporates crop residues and other organic wastes into
topsoil. However, deep tillage is deleterious to tree roots and
soil moisture relations and should be avoided except in
serious cases of soil compaction. Frequently, very shallow
tillage is recommended to control weeds without damaging
tree roots and without causing undue soil drying. This
shallow tillage permits good water penetration without
exposing additional weed seeds from deeper levels of the
soil, thereby reducing weed pressure over time.
Mowing of sod middles, with shallow tillage along the
tree rows and/or mulches beneath the tree, reduces soil
compaction and erosion and fosters soil microbes and
macrobes. However, sod middles compete for available water
and nutrients. Electrical or flame weeding equipment can
also be used, but may not be practical or safe under orchard
conditions. Careless or uncontrolled fire can kill fruit trees
rapidly (Daar, 1987).
Weed Management Prior to Orchard
Establishment
It is an old statement that easier to manage weeds before
an orchard is established. Cover crops produce a thick stand
that will shade or choke out weeds. Combined with a well-
planned sequence of tillage, cover cropping is an effective
pre-plant weed suppression strategy that also contributes to
soil fertility and stable humus. The basic strategy begins with
plowing under or disking the existing vegetation, ripping to
loosen compaction, planting a cover crop to suppress weed
growth, mowing down and tilling under the cover crop(s),
and finally planting the fruit crop (Kuepper et al., 2004).
Specific cover crops and management strategies must be
varied with location and purpose. The length of the warm
season may allow more than one cover crop to be grown in
succession. Some cover crops may also be cut and allowed to
regrow.
Legume cover crops of purple hull peas (cowpeas),
crotolaria, and sesbania all demonstrated good-to-excellent
weed suppression, while supplying nitrogen and biomass to
the soil.
Weed management an established
organic fruit orchard
Very important to maintenance orchard floor manage-
ment during growing season to can be control erosion,
improve the soil, and provide beneficial insect habitat.
The orchard floor the tree rows and alleyways can be
managed in a variety of ways, using tillage or mowing with
cover crops, grazing, or mulching.
A system that provides full ground-cover provides the
best protection against erosion. However, a ground cover that
is actively growing in the summer uses up water. This is a
severe disadvantage in irrigated orchards where water is
limited and expensive.
Where they are adapted, orchard grass, fescue, and other
cool-season grasses are practical fruit crop for water. With
proper fertility management, these grasses can also provide
plentiful mulch. Likewise, grasses are a good choice in apple
orchards, for example, where the excess nitrogen provided
by legumes can actually reduce fruit yields.
Many warm-season legumes are deep-rooted and
compete with the trees for water. Normally, they should not
be allowed to grow under the tree canopy. However,
Nagy, P. T., Kincses, I., Lang, T., Szôke, S. L., Nyéki, J. & Szabó, Z.
Table 1. Commonly used mulching materials
Organic materials Inorganic materials
Straw Breakstone
Straw with manure Plastic foil
Manure Agro-textile
Sawdust Shredded paper
Bark mulch
Turf
Cover crops (grass, legume, hay etc.)
Natural weed cover
Green manure
Source: basic on Hrotkó (2003)
63
leguminous ground covers can provide significant nitrogen
to fruit trees or vines (Haynes, 1980). Grass and legume
ground covers alike promote water infiltration and hold the
soil in place during the rainy season. Ground covers help
maintain and increase soil organic matter, which increases
the soil’s ability to retain moisture. Cool season legumes,
such as bell beans, vetches, and clovers, also can achieve
these goals (Kuepper et al., 2004).
Cover crops
Orchard cover crops can perform four main functions.
They prevent soil erosion and reduce soil compaction from
equipment; improve soil quality and nutrient cycling; and
improve orchard.A good cover crop might be considered one
that has limited competition with the tree, is a poor habitat
for rodents and other pests while being a good habitat for
beneficial species, and can improve soil quality (Granatstein,
2000a).
When you managing a ground cover you should state
your objectives and take into the following considerations
and aims in order of priority:
suppress weeds,
break up soil compaction,
add organic matter to the soil (increase tilth, water
infiltration rates, and water-holding capacity),
enhance soil fertility (nitrogen fixation),
attract and sustain beneficial insects,
serve as a trap crop for pests.
In addition, you must take into account the climate,
rainfall pattern, soil type, and potential for soil erosion
because these parameters basically determine your choosing.
Characteristics of cover crops should be considered
before using. The main questions are the following:
Does this cover crop have a tap root? Will it regrow if
mowed? Does it fix nitrogen? How much biomass does it
produce? Is it fibrous? How long will it take to break down?
Will I need to mow or chop it to speed its decomposition?
When should I incorporate it? Will it reseed itself?What is its
potential to become weedy if it goes to seed? Does it attract
insects? What kinds? Will it serve as beneficial insect
habitat? Is it a host for pests? Can it be used as a trap crop?
(Kuepper et al., 2004).
Animal manures
Animal manures are the most common amendments
applied to the soil. In floor management they are used as
laying down on the soil surface. The quantity of nutrients in
manures varies with type of animal, feed composition,
quality and quantity of bedding material, length of storage
and storage conditions (Dewes and Hunsche, 1998; Loch,
2000).
A typical application of 10 t ha-1 of farmyard manure
from housed organic cattle will contain 30 kg of N, 35 kg of
P2O5and 60 kg of K2O (Loch, 2000). In organic systems it is
particularly important to conserve manure nutrients for both
economic and environmental reasons. Composted manure
thus has a more long-term role in building soil fertility, and
has been shown to be more effective in building soil
microbial biomass and increasing activity than uncomposted
manure. Livestock manures influence soil fertility by two
major routes, through physical effects associated with
organic matters and also through the return of nutrients in
dung and urine.
Mulches
Mulching is a powerful weed management strategy that
can also contribute to good soil management, if appropriate
natural materials are used. After a planting is established,
weeds can be suppressed by applying thick layers of mulch.
Organic mulches are usually applied in a circle around tree
trunks or vines, and down the whole row.
Schupp, 2004 reported that a three- to four- foot-wide
weed-free strip under the trees is maintained to lessen the
competition between trees and weeds. This is particularly
important during the first several seasons of the orchard.
Newly transplanted trees have impaired root systems and this
further weakens the ability of the trees to compete with
weeds. An effective weed management program fosters rapid
early tree growth and early fruit production, resulting in a
faster return on investment.
Mulch materials may include straw, spoiled hay, leaves,
yard trimmings, woodchips, and sawdust. Many of these
materials are inexpensive. Still, it’s wise to weigh the
benefits and risks of each, including hauling costs and the
risks of their containing impurities and prohibited materials
(Kuepper et al., 2004).
Because organic mulches decompose over time, they
require periodic re-applications in order to continue
suppressing weeds. Mulches can provide adequate weed
control if renewed every one or two years, but are expensive,
and create a favourable habitat for voles and rodents.
Further advantage of mulching is that their decom-
position provides other benefits. The decomposition of
mulches contributes organic matter to the soil in the long
term, but ties up mineral nutrients in the short term,
especially N, the lack of which can be limiting to tree growth
and productivity. Coarse shredded bark or woodchip mulch
will decompose more slowly than finer materials and is less
favourable to voles (Merwin, 1995). Bark or woodchip mulch
should be supplemented with hand or flame weeding when
the trees are young (Schupp, 2004).
Mulching with organic matter enhances soil aggregation
and water-holding capacity (Haynes, 1980). Researchers
from 1937 to the present have consistently found that
mulching is the best orchard-floor management system for
retaining moisture (Skroch & Shribbs, 1986).
Kesner (1989) pointed out that mulching was as effective
as irrigation in encouraging tree growth.
Importance of orchard floor management in organic fruit growing (nutritional aspects)
64
Mulching reduces the soil temperature as well, which has
other aspects on growing. Growth in the spring could be
delayed, and transient micronutrient deficiencies do occur
under cold soil temperatures. Cooler soil temperatures are
not particularly favourable for freeze-prone or frost-sensitive
crops, as lower soil temperature means less energy in the soil
to warm trees on cold nights. Too, mulches inhibit the release
(as well as the absorption) of radiant energy, which could be
important on cold nights. Thus, mulches should be applied to
cold- sensitive crops only after the danger of late frost has
passed (Sauls et al., 2005).
Organic mulches can have positive effects on tree growth,
with improvements in soil quality and shifts toward beneficial
nematodes (Granatstein, 2000a).
Organic mulches provide slow-
release nutrients for the long-term
health and fertility of the soil. Research
indicates that potassium, phosphorus,
and nitrogen (primarily from the slow
breakdown of the mulch) are more
available in mulched systems than in
non-mulched systems (Haynes, 1980).
Some growers express concern that
sawdust may acidify their soil or bind
nitrogen in the soil. However, these
effects are minimal if the sawdust is not
tilled into the soil.
Wood chips have been used as
successful mulches. However, since
wood chips have a high carbon:nitrogen
(C:N) ratio, their breakdown in the soil
may immobilize nitrogen reducing its
availability to the trees.We suppose that
this effect may be minimal because the
sizes of wood chips are large enough
that they are not rapidly incorporated
into and decomposed within the soil.
One main problem of mulching is to
ensure sufficient mulching material.
Raising organic matter on the
plantation is one way to ensure
sufficient, clean mulching material.
Farm-raised hay grown outside the
orchard can provide weed-free mulch.
Cover crops may be grown between
tree rows, mowed, and gathered around
the trees. Some small-scale growers use
the biomass from orchard alleyways,
cutting cover crops with a sickle-bar
mower and hand-raking the material
under the trees. Larger-scale operations
often use forage wagons, straw-bale
spreaders, or specialized equipment to
mechanize mulching jobs.
Another problem is the monitoring
system of incoming production.
Gowers must monitor the incoming
product and remove any trash to keep undesirable material
out of their fields. Growers should ask compost producers
about the sources of their materials and any pesticides that
may persist in them. Of particular concern are clopyralid and
picloram, herbicides that are extremely resistant to
breakdown, even after composting. The sale and use of these
materials is restricted in most of areas.
Geotextiles, foils
For suppress weed growth geotextile mulches, paper or
woven plastic fabrics are using generally. While they allow
Nagy, P. T., Kincses, I., Lang, T., Szôke, S. L., Nyéki, J. & Szabó, Z.
Figures 1. and 2.: Mulching in young non bearing pear orchard (Tedej) (left) (P. T. Nagy)
Mulching in peach orchard (Siófok) (right) (T. Lang)
Figures 3. and 4.: Use of black foil in sour cherry plantation (Újfehértó) (left) (P. T. Nagy)
Grass between rows in an apricot plantation (Boldogkôváralja) (right) (P. T. Nagy)
65
some air and water penetration, they may reduce water
infiltration, whereas organic mulches increase infiltration
(Granatstein, 2000). Geotextile mulches do not provide the
advantages of adding matter and nutrients to the soil, and if
synthetic, they must eventually be removed. Geotextiles have
a high intial cost, though this may be partially recouped in
lower weed control costs over the materials expected field-
life 5 to 10 years for polyester fabric; 2 to 3 years for paper
weed barriers. Still, some growers find them useful for weed
suppression in orchard, tree plantations, and cane fruit
culture.
Weed barriers by sheet mulching: laying down layers of
cardboard or newspaper and covering them with organic
material has also widely spread in the USA. Sheet mulching
increases the efficacy of organic mulch as a barrier against
emerging weeds. Organic growers should avoid cardboard
that is waxed or impregnated with fungicide, as well as
colour print and glossy paper (Kuepper et al., 2004).
In a mulching study (Hogue, 1998) found that several
organic mulches had positive impacts on water infiltration
and retention while a geotextile mulch reduced infiltration.
Cultivation
Cultivation using mechanical tillage is the most
widely used weed-management practice in fruit production.
Some fruit growers have practiced “clean cultivation,
eliminating vegetation throughout the orchard, but this
system has many disadvantages, even if accomplished with
allowed tillage practices instead of organically prohibited
herbicides. In system cultivation may be limited not reaches
the tree row under the dripline. A bare orchard floor is prone
to erosion, gradual depletion of organic matter, increased soil
compaction, and reduced water infiltration. It’s also difficult
to move equipment through the orchard in wet weather.
Flame Weeding
Flame cultivation uses directed heat to kill weeds. It
works not by burning the weeds but by searing them and
causing the plant cells to rupture. Farmers began using
tractor-mounted flamers in orchard and row crops in the
1940s (Daar, 1987, Holb, 2005). Technology and technique
have both been refined considerably in recent years. Several
tools now commercially available, including flame, infrared,
and steam weeders, make heat a viable option for some weed
management applications.
Nutritional aspects of floor management
As sources of available mulches have diversified, a
revival of interest in this method has recently been
documented (Merwin et al., 1995). Several recent field trials
in humid regions have identified beneficial effects of
mulching on apple tree performance (Merwin & Stiles,
1994), soil moisture content (Merwin et al., 1994) and
biological activity in orchard soils (Hartley et al., 1996).
Moreover, there is little information available concerning the
effects of mulching in high density orchards in irrigated
regions where daily irrigation and fertigation might be
expected to reduce potential nutrient and water stresses. Of
particular interest would be the effect of mulching on several
problems associated with fertigation of coarse-textured soils,
including acidification (Neilsen et al., 1999) and the
development of nutrient deficiency (Neilsen et al., 2000).
Also of interest would be the effect of using mulches in
association with organic waste amendments. Biosolids and
other biowaste amendments have improved the growth of
annual horticultural crops in sandy soils, but their effects in
perennial cropping systems have received little attention
(Neilsen et al., 1998).
Nielsen et al., 2003 pointed out that no increases in leaf
nutrient concentration were consistently associated with
improved tree performance. Notable effects included in
creased leaf P concentration associated with biosolids
application, increased leaf K concentration after alfalfa
mulch application and temporary in creases in leaf Zn and Cu
concentration associated with application of biosolids high in
Zn and Cu. Use of both mulches and biosolids amendments
benefits growth of trees in high density plantings de spite
daily drip irrigation and annual fertigation.
Mulch application most consistently affected tree growth,
as indicated in a long term field trial where cumulative yield
after 5 crop years was increased by surface application of
shredded paper, alfalfa and biosolid mulches. Soil nutrient
status and soil biological activity were altered by surface
mulching and at another site trees were buffered against
moisture stress. Initial growth stimulation from mulching
was not sustained at a site where excessive irrigation reduced
N availability. Rotovation of a biosolid-amendment to 0.3 m
depth prior to planting improved the P-nutrition and initial
growth of apple. Amendment treatment did not always affect
apple tree performance (Nielsen et al., 2004).
Mulch increased root length density and brought the roots
closer to the surface. The mulch also increased the
concentration of calcium, potassium, and magnesium in the
soil and the soil’s cation exchange capacity (Lang et al.,
2001).
Marsh et al., 1996 reported in a long term experiment that
after four years, the tree row mowing treatment had
significantly increased soil pH, available P, K, and Ca, and
total N. Soil organic carbon was 4.4% with the tree row
mowing and 2.8% with the in-place control. The choice of
cover crop had less of an influence on soil fertility, and there
were no yield differences. However, fruit quality
characteristics (bitterpit, fruit Ca, background color, fruit
firmness) were influenced by the treatments, in part likely
due to changes in N timing and amount.
The concentrations of soil biomass C, biomass N and
respiration rates were consistently greatest under the straw
mulch and contact herbicide, suggesting that C and N was
Importance of orchard floor management in organic fruit growing (nutritional aspects)
66
incorporated into the soil biomass most efficiently under
these treatments. The soil solution nitrate concentrations also
were lowest under straw mulch and contact herbicide. The
straw mulch increased the concentration of K in the surface
soil (0-15 cm) compared to the other treatments, and was
reflected by consistently higher concentrations in the leaves
of trees. The contact herbicide treatment had lower leaf
concentrations of N in most years. The fruit mineral
concentrations reflected leaf mineral concentrations. The
trees growing in the straw mulch had the greatest shoot
growth and those in the contact herbicide treated soil had the
least. These increases are ascribed to the greater conservation
of moisture within the profile during the shoot extension
period. The differences in harvest yield between treatments
were generally small in individual years, however cumulative
differences occurred over 6 crops. The trees in the straw
mulch had the greatest yields and mean fruit weights. The
ground vegetation management systems did not influence
fruit quality except in the second harvest, when yields were
low and the individual fruits were large (Hipps et al., 2004).
Regarding plant uptake several authors stated that there
were no significant differences in any leaf or fruit nutrients in
long term floor management experiments (Shribbs & Skroch
1986; Lang et al., 2001; Hipps et al., 2004).
Nagy et al., 2009 different livestock manures (cow, horse
and pig) and different mulch-matters (straw, pine bark
mulch, black foil) were applied to the surface to test the
effectiveness of these materials. Applied treatments were
divided into two groups according to origin and effect. Their
results can be summarized as follows:
Our results pointed out that used ground covering
matters divided into more categories regarding its
effect.
Available N, P and K content of soil was mostly
increased by applying manures.
Effectiveness of straw, mulch and mostly black foil
was lower.
Differences were found between nutrient supplying
treatments and those treatments which did not supply
nutrients.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to OM-00042/2008, OM-00265/2008 and OM-
00270/2008 projects for financial assistance.
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Importance of orchard floor management in organic fruit growing (nutritional aspects)
... A cover crop offers soil protection, planting protection, and soil improvement between crop cycles (Ramesh et al. 2019). Typically, cover crops are put between crop rows to control weed development and reduce erosion, runoff, nutrient depletion, and soil compaction (Nagy et al. 2010;Montanaro et al. 2017;Winter et al. 2018). Additionally, cover crops in orchards have been shown to have several positive effects, such as increased organic matter and nutrient availability, increased soil porosity, disease inhibition through the presence of beneficial insects, increased pollinator affinity, enhanced biodiversity, and the ability to act as trap crops for pests (Guerra and Steenwerth 2012;Hammermeister 2016;Winter et al. 2018). ...
Chapter
The saline soil has electrical conductivity (EC) of more than 4 dS mL−1 (approximately 40 mM NaCl) in the root zone at 25 °C and an exchangeable Na concentration of 15%. From an agricultural perspective, the presence of neutral soluble salts may inhibit the development of most crop plants. However, a tropical legume grows in nutrient-deficient, high-salinity sandy soil, known as Vigna marina, which has the potential as a leguminous cover crop under high-salinity soil conditions. The symbiotic connection with root-nodulating bacteria had been established, which was adapted to these hard circumstances and contributes to nitrogen fixation. Thus, these cover crops may contribute to low input of sustainable agriculture systems. As a potential leguminous cover crop, V. marina can reduce soil environmental stress conditions and improve soil fertility and nutritional status. The development and nodulation of V. marina were better established under high-salinity soil conditions compared to conventional leguminous cover crops, Pueraria javanica and Mucuna bracteata. V. marina could quickly outgrow P. javanica and M. bracteata and was a potential alternative leguminous cover crop, especially for high-salinity soil conditions.
... Laboratory field experiments were carried out taking into account agrotechnical technological and technical and economic requirements [22], a priori information and conclusions made on the basis of engineering calculations [23]. Processing and analysis of the obtained data were performed using the methods of mathematical statistics [24].The program of experimental researches provided definition: productivity of nutritious and cross conveyors [25], geometrical parameters of the last, distance of laying of mulch in a roll depending on height of its placement over a soil surface and speed of rotation of a drive drum [26], norms of mulch introduction at change of a mode of operation of the unit and its components [27]. ...
Article
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The article presents the results of experimental studies to improve the productivity and quality of mulch substrate application in the stem bands of perennial orchards. The authors proposed a model of an effective means of mechanization and substantiated the optimal parameters of its operation when performing this operation. In the article the authors presented the results of experimental studies to determine: the productivity of feed and transverse conveyors, geometric parameters of the latter, the distance of laying mulch in the roll depending on the height of its placement above the soil surface and the speed of rotation of the drive drum component mechanisms. The authors proved that to prevent the undesirable excessive accumulation of substrate in the receiving hopper of the machine, the productivity of the feed conveyor should not exceed 5 m ³ /min. The article establishes that the required application rate is provided by the selection of the optimal operating speed of the unit and the productivity of the feed conveyor and can be 0.03-0.25 m ³ /m ² , and changing the same parameters allows depending on the needs to change the height of the roll within 0.05–0.15 m.
... Based on the functional analysis of digging plows, it was found that the function of loosening the soil chunk with the root system of seedlings is the most important in minimizing the effort to pull dug up seedlings from the soil [20]. It was also established that in the process of loosening the soil should be separated from the root system of seedlings with the possibility of moving it to the bottom of the furrow [21]. The ripper must be active, and the effective loosening and separation of the soil from the root system of the seedling is significantly influenced by the mode of oscillations with the separation of the soil slice from the surface of the ripper, the angle of the ripper surface to the horizon [7], the distance between the shape of the ripper surface should allow the movement of the soil slice with the seedling with the lowest energy consumption for movement [16]. ...
... In organic perennial cropping systems, where floor management is a key aspect for production, the maintenance of a green cover (natural or by introducing cover crops) combined with minimum tillage is considered very effective to prevent soil erosion, facilitate wheel traffic of the operating machines, minimize soil structure degradation and compaction, and prevent nutrient leaching. However, at the same time, green cover can negatively impact new planted orchards due to direct competition for resources (Mia et al., 2020;Nagy et al., 2010). Several studies have analysed the effect of tillage on weed abundance and diversity (Navarro-Miró et al., 2019;Armengot et al., 2016 andDorado and Lopez-Fando, 2006) and the dynamics of the weed community over medium-long term (Hossain et al., 2020;Benaragama et al., 2019;Alarcón et al., 2018;Plaza et al., 2011) in vegetable and arable systems. ...
Article
Biodiversity conservation and promotion of agroecology (including organic farming) are focused as priorities by European Commission, as reported in the Biodiversity and Farm to Fork Strategies. In this context, agricultural practices can be considered for their contribution to harnessing ecosystem services to sustain agricultural production, while minimising negative environmental effects. Among these, redesigning agricultural systems through diversification practices can be very promising by exploiting the natural biodiversity in space and time, and connecting farms with natural environments. Being an interface between above and belowground, spontaneous plants (i.e., the weeds) are considered valuable agroecosystem components that, if properly managed, provide ecosystem functions and services, and holding key role for biodiversity conservation within agroecosystems. In this study, we explored the response of spontaneous flora communities in terms of abundance, diversity, and functional traits to different soil and agrobiodiversity management strategies (soil ripping vs reduced tillage at orchard planting, soil tillage vs minimum/no tillage in orchard floor management over 5 years) and cover crop introduction in a new planted organic apricot orchard. Our results showed the strong impact of the planting operation on pre-existing spontaneous flora community structure but a resilient trajectory in the following years in recovering the previous community traits distribution. Interannual variability was the main factor affecting communities. However, the reduced tillage condition showed a conservative trend of the incidence of perennials in the community, while the introduction of cover crops generally decreased species richness and abundance. Understanding the mechanisms by which soil management practices affect weed communities can guide the designing of sustainable agroecosystems, preserving their functionality and biodiversity over time.
... Cover crops are usually seeded in the alleyways between crop rows to limit weed presence and reduce erosion, runoff, nutrient losses, and soil compaction (Lisek, 2014;Mauro et al., 2015;Montanaro et al., 2017;Nagy et al., 2010;Winter et al., 2018). Studies have also revealed that cover crops in orchards can produce other beneficial effects: improved soil organic matter and nutrient levels, increased soil porosity, disease suppression by hosting beneficial organisms (i.e., insects), elevated pollinator attraction, enhanced biodiversity, and can act as trap crops for pests (Guerra and Steenwerth, 2012;Hammermeister, 2016;Mauro et al., 2015;Winter et al., 2018). ...
Chapter
Glyphosate is the world's most used herbicide to control weeds in tree and herbaceous crops, and in non-agricultural areas. However, health and environmental concerns, as well as the spread of weed resistance, may lead to a ban or limitations of its use. This event would necessitate that alternative weed control techniques be made available quickly. Potential chemical alternatives include herbicides authorized for the same uses as glyphosate that in this review were identified through searches of the pesticide databases of Italy, Spain, France, Germany, The Netherlands, and Estonia. Non-chemical control measures encompass mowing, tillage, and cover crops in agricultural areas and mowing, flaming, hot water, hot foam, and steam in non-agricultural areas. Examination of the data reveals that a loss of glyphosate availability would not only require more complex and expensive weed managements, but also integration of multiple weed control techniques.
... Nevertheless, the effect of the mulch was positive. It can be caused by advanced activity of microorganisms and nitrogen mineralization [10], less fluctuations of soil temperature [18] as well as by high water necessity of the cherries. Drip irrigation caused sour cherry yield increase of 25% in research carried out in Poland; drip irrigation was applied on 15 years old productive cherry orchard [12]. ...
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The productivity of sour cherries grown in Latvia is insufficient. Yielding of sour cherries can be advanced providing appropriate soil moisture and control of diseases. Cherry leaf spot as well as spur and twig blight are the most important sour cherry diseases which cause economical losses of the yield. The influence of woodchip mulch and drip irrigation on sour cherry yielding and resistance to the diseases is investigated. The drip irrigation and woodchip mulch increased the yield of cherries. The cultivar ‘Bulatnikovskaya’ was the most productive. Drip irrigation slightly improved resistance to cherry leaf spot for the cultivars ‘Zentenes’, ‘Orlica’ and ‘Tamaris’.
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The present article explores the importance of vineyard soil management. Studies on under-vine management have yielded a wide range of results, with some indicating potential benefits for vine growth and productivity. However, the methods of under-vine management and their specific effects on vineyard parameters require further research. The aim of this study is to evaluate the relationships existing between the different types of management of under-vine areas and the vegetation grown in this zone and to determine the effects of under-vine management on the yield and quality of Traminer grapevines. By examining various approaches, the research aims to provide insights into the optimising of vineyard management methods to achieve enhanced biodiversity and grape quality in this specific geographical context. The findings indicated that management of the under-vine area can impact the composition of plants, grape yield and quality. Under-row management had an effect on the number of plant species and their composition. The highest weight of bunches was found in MIX (a species from the Fabaceae family), while the lowest was found in the MECH treatment (bare soil). MULCH, MONO and MIX consistently had higher yeast assimilable nitrogen (YAN) in grapes than other treatments. In many of the evaluated parameters, the influence of the seasons was evident.
Preprint
Since most of the potato virus is transmitted by aphids and is the main cause of aphid damage, the use of the method Chemicals also do not show good performance. It has been shown that the use of organic or inorganic mulch, which creates a color contrast in the field, can interfere with the landing of winged aphids and thus reduce the damage caused by virus transmission. It plays an important role by aphids. Research on potatoes in recent years has shown that the use of mulch can reduce the damage of the potato virus by 30%. In addition, mulching can directly affect potato yield by maintaining soil moisture, nitrogen fixation and increasing soil organic matter.
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One of the authors (Skroch) has been asking himself since the early years of a long-term study initiated in 1966 (77) “What is a weed to a tree?” Apple trees in the mowed grass check plots grew less than in plots with woody vines. In another test comparing mowed sod, contact herbicide, and residual plus contact herbicide, trees having an herbicide program yielded 400 bushels/acre more fruit in the 5th year than those without. Apples in another orchard were of higher grade in plots with over 50% trailing blackberry ( Rubus sp.) and poison ivy ( Rhus radicans L.) ground covers than those from an area with a mowed-lawn appearance. The practice of frequent mowing, which increased grass covers in the 1960s, may have been a factor in the small fruit problem of the 1970s.
Article
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Two-year-old ‘Smoothee Golden Delicious’ apples ( Malus domestica Borkh.) on seedling rootstock were planted in Spring 1981. Twelve different ground cover systems were then established. After one growing season, trees in mulch, bare ground, red sorrel ( Rumex acetosella L.), and nimblewill ( Mulenbergia schreberii J. F. Gmel.) treatments had greater shoot length than trees in legume, tall broadleaf, Kentucky bluegrass ( Poa pratensis L.), orchardgrass ( Dactylis glomerata L.), and ‘KY31’ tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea L.) treatments. In the 4th year, the trunk diameter of trees in straw mulch plots were greater than all other treatments. Tree growth in bare ground and cultivation treatments was not different over the 4 years and was as great or greater than in treatments with living ground covers. Trees in tall broadleaf, Kentucky bluegrass, orchardgrass, and tall fescue treatments were smaller than in all other treatments. Nimblewill, a native species to North Carolina mountains, has potential for replacing Kentucky bluegrass, orchardgrass, and tall fescue in orchard soil management systems.
Article
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This study was conducted to compare various orchard groundcover management systems (GMSs)—including a crownvetch “living mulch” (CNVCH), close-mowed (MWSOD) and chemically growth-regulated (GRSOD) sodgrasses, pre-emergence (NDPQT) and two widths of post-emergence (GLY1.5 and GLY2.5) herbicides, hay-straw mulch (STMCH), and monthly rototillage (tilled)—during the first 6 years in a newly established apple ( Malus domestica Borkh.) planting. Mean soil water potential at 5 to 35 cm deep varied substantially among treatments each summer, and treatment × year interactions were observed. During most growing seasons from 1986 to 1991, soil water availability trends were STMCH > NDPQT > GLY2.5 > GLY1.5 > tilled > GRSOD > MWSOD > CNVCH. Soil organic matter content increased under STMCH, CNVCH, and MWSOD and decreased under NDPQT and tilled treatments. Water infiltration and saturated hydraulic conductivity after 4 years were lower under NDPQT and tilled, and soil under STMCH and GRSOD retained more water per unit volume at applied pressures approximating field water capacity. Mid-summer soil temperatures at 5 cm deep were highest (25 to 28C) in tilled and NDPQT plots, intermediate (22 to 24C) under GRSOD, and lowest (16 to 20C) under CNVCH and STMCH. These observations indicate that long-term soil fertility and orchard productivity may be diminished under pre-emergence herbicides and mechanical cultivation in comparison with certain other GMSs.
Article
Full-text available
This study compared various conventional and alternative orchard groundcover management systems (GMSs)—including a crownvetch “living mulch” (CNVCH), close-mowed (MWSOD) and chemically growth-regulated (GRSOD) sodgrasses, pre-emergence (NDPQT) and two widths of postemergence (GLY1.5 and GLY2.5) herbicides, hay-straw mulch (STMCH), and monthly rototillage (tilled)—during 6 years in a newly established apple ( Malus domestica Borkh.) planting. Trunk cross-sectional area and fruit yield were higher in STMCH, GLY, and NDPQT, intermediate in tilled, and lower in GRSOD, MWSOD, and CNVCH treatments after 5 years. Despite N and K fertilizer applications, extractable soil N and leaf N concentrations were reduced under MWSOD and GRSOD, and soil K, P, and B concentrations were greater under STMCH. Leaf K concentrations were usually highest in STMCH trees, even when heavily cropped; leaf K declined below the sufficiency range in GLY, NDPQT, and tilled trees as they began to bear fruit. Leaf Ca was marginally deficient in all trees and was unaffected by GMS. Foliar Mn, Zn, and B concentrations declined rapidly in all treatments during 2 years without micronutrient fertilizers. Leaf Cu was higher in herbicide and tilled treatments where seasonal soil water content was intermediate (22% to 27%) and lower where soil was very wet or dry for most of the 1988 growing season. Multiple regression analysis indicated that leaf N and B and soil organic matter in 1990, and mean soil water content during the unusually dry Summer 1988, were the best predictors of fruit yield in 1990. Phytophthora root rot and meadow vole depredation were serious problems in STMCH and CNVCH trees. GMSs greatly affected tree establishment, nutrition, and yield; each system involves tradeoffs among important short- and long-term impacts on the orchard agroecosystem.
Article
Contact and residual herbicide, polypropylene woven (plastic) and straw mulches were compared as ground vegetation management systems in a newly planted Bramley/M.9 apple orchard at HRI-East Malling, UK over an eight year period. The effects of these treatments on weed control, soil quality, tree nutrition, tree growth, crop yield and fruit quality were measured. Contact herbicide gave the poorest weed control, followed by residual herbicide. Very little weed intrusion occurred in the plastic and straw mulch treatments. The concentrations of soil biomass C, biomass N and respiration rates were consistently greatest under the straw mulch and contact herbicide, suggesting that C and N was incorporated into the soil biomass most efficiently under these treatments. Soil solution nitrate concentrations also were lowest under straw mulch and contact herbicide. The straw mulch increased the concentration of K in the surface soil (0-15 cm) compared with the other treatments, and this was reflected by consistently higher concentrations in the leaves of trees. The contact herbicide treatment had lower leaf concentrations of N in most years. Fruit mineral concentrations reflected leaf mineral concentrations. Trees growing in the straw mulch had the greatest shoot growth and those in the contact herbicide treated soil had the least. These increases are ascribed to the greater conservation of moisture within the profile during the shoot extension period. Differences in harvest yield between treatments were generally small in individual years, however cumulative differences occurred over six crops. Trees in the straw mulch had the greatest yields and mean fruit weights. The ground vegetation management systems did not influence fruit quality except in the second harvest, when yields were low and the individual fruit were large.
Article
The locations of root intersections were mapped relative to micro-emitters in spring, 1996 for Gala apple (Malus domestica Borkh) on M.26 rootstock, which were established and grown for 8 yr under micro-irrigation with fertigation. Root distribution was mapped for trees that had been irrigated daily between May and October using drip or microjet systems and fertigated each year during May. Drip-irrigated trees had nearly half of their total root intersections within 30 cm depth and lateral distance from the emitter. Roots of microjet-irrigated trees were more widely distributed over a soil volume extending to 60 cm depth and 90 cm lateral distance from the trees. Leaf K concentrations had decreased to near deficient concentrations for drip-irrigated trees after 5 yr. Root distribution mapping and soil sampling were undertaken in spring 1997 for N-fertigated Gala on M.9 apples, planted in 1992 on the same soil, with or without annual K applications during 1992-1996. Fertigation of 15 g K tree-1 each year in July-August did not affect root distribution, which remained laterally and vertically restricted but prevented the decline of exchangeable soil K below 50 mg kg-1, exchangeable K/Ca + Mg + K ratios below 0.04 and the appearance of K deficiency symptoms in the trees. There was no evidence of long-term soil-K enrichment after 5 yr of K fertigation.
Article
Minimizing use of agrochemicals in fruit growing is a goal of integrated fruit production (IFP). Recently, a range of locally available organic materials have been advocated for possible orchard use. Over the past decade, a series of randomized, replicated field trials were established in grower and research orchards in British Columbia to test the effectiveness of these materials when applied to the surface as mulches or mixed to 30 cm depth as soil amendments. Mulch application most consistently affected tree growth, as indicated in a long term field trial where cumulative yield after 5 crop years was increased by surface application of shredded paper, alfalfa and biosolid mulches. Soil nutrient status and soil biological activity were altered by surface mulching and at another site trees were buffered against moisture stress. Initial growth stimulation from mulching was not sustained at a site where excessive irrigation reduced N availability. Rotovation of a biosolid-amendment to 0.3 m depth prior to planting improved the P-nutrition and initial growth of apple. Amendment treatment did not always affect apple tree performance. Effects were not observed at sites with strong fertigation regimes or fertile soils or when sites had overriding growth limitations unaffected by treatment (e.g. replant disease, K deficiency).
Article
In New Zealand many apple cultivars must receive up to 12 foliar calcium sprays to raise fruit calcium level sufficiently for storage and export to distant markets. However, calcium spraying represents a significant investment in time and materials and it is not always enough. This 2-year project aimed to discover effective, more practicable and more sustainable alternatives to calcium spraying. The alternative discussed here is a combination of mulch and a surface application of gypsum. The mulch used was of black polyethylene topped with sawdust, to hold it in place and to afford mechanical protection and to provide thermal insulation. Coarse-ground gypsum was sprinkled onto the soil surface prior to applying the mulch. Trial plots each contained two trees. In each plot mulch was either present or absent, gypsum was applied at three levels and these treatments were replicated four times. For the duration of the trial, normal foliar calcium spraying was abandoned. Mulch increased root length density and brought the roots closer to the surface. The mulch also increased the concentration of calcium, potassium, and magnesium in the soil and the soil's cation exchange capacity. These below ground changes were reflected in increases in leaf potassium and calcium. Although significant effects on fruit mineral concentration were not detected, the incidence and the severity of the calcium-related bitter pit (a serious storage disorder) was significantly reduced. The gypsum applications had no significant effect on any of the variables measured. It is concluded that mulching is a sustainable and low input management option that enhances apple fruit quality. This beneficial effect is apparently mediated via improved growth and distribution of feeder roots and via improved soil nutrient cycling.