Flaubert's overriding concern throughout his career was social critique: to satirize the habits, institutions, and beliefs that undergird and bond human communities throughout history. In 1651, Thomas Hobbes had warned: 'words are wise men's counters, they do but reckon by them; but they are the money of fools' (22). After Hobbes, the Enlightenment—of which Flaubert was a spiritual descendent—was
... [Show full abstract] 'preoccupied with the implication that words as arbitrary signs, dependent for their meaning both upon individual perception and upon consensus, can be employed for the purposes of moral obscurity and personal gain as much as for mutual benefit' (Schellenberg 13). As a realist, however, to implicit condemnations of the unscrupulous manipulators of discourse Flaubert adds scathing portrayals of both the villains' and the victims' conversational mediocrity and ineptitude. Like most skilful authors, he shows more than he tells. His characters unwittingly expose their ignorance, weaknesses, vices, and vanities, hoisting themselves upon their own petards. Critics have richly analysed the themes of Flaubert's attacks of society, but they have seldom scrutinized the form—as distinguished from the content—of the most extensively used vehicle for these attacks: conversations among Flaubert's fictional characters (but see Haig, and Gothot-Mersch 1981 and 1969). For clarity and precision, let us propose a working definition of 'conversation' as limited to one particular type of dialogue. In this sense, conversation would exclude conventional, predictable social routines that state the obvious and function mainly for social maintenance rather than task, by politely acknowledging the existence of one's interlocutor. Neither would it include artificial disquisitions intended mainly to provide background for the audience or readership. Nor would 'conversation' include one-sided exchanges—repartee—in which one character serves mainly as a foil for the