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Variación de color de la serpiente marina Pelamis platura (Serpentes: Elapidae) en el Golfo Dulce, Puntarenas, Costa Rica

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The yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platura) is the most widely distributed of the marine snakes, and throughout its range this species exhibits extensive variation in color and pattern. The coloration of most individuals is black with brown and/or yellow, displayed within a variable pattern, although patternless bright-yellow individuals have been reported from certain localities in Costa Rica and Panama. Recently, within Golfo Dulce in southern Costa Rica, a population was discovered in which all individuals displayed extensive amounts of yellow coloration. The evidence suggests that the circulation patterns of the surface currents within and outside of this fjord-like gulf apparently are strong enough to interrupt the flow (or genetic interchange) among the oceanic and gulf populations. The lack or loss of dark pigment in the dorsum of the Golfo Dulce population might be due to the water temperatures and other specific conditions in the interior of this anoxic basin, the only one in the Pacific coast of Western Hemisphere.KEY WORDSReptilia, Serpentes, Elapidae, Pelamis platura, color pattern, Golfo Dulce,Costa Rica.
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89
Cuadernos de Investigación UNED (Edición en Línea, ISSN: 1659-441X) Vol. 3(1): 89-96, Junio, 2011
Variación de color de la serpiente marina Pelamis platura
(Serpentes: Elapidae) en el Golfo Dulce, Puntarenas, Costa Rica
Alejandro Solórzano
Investigador Asociado, Museo de Zoología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, San José, Costa Rica
Serpentario Nacional de Costa Rica, INBioparque, Santo Domingo, Heredia, Costa Rica; solorzano29@gmail.com
Recibido 17-I-2010 Corregido 10-II-2011 Aceptado 28-II-2011
ABSTRACT
Color variation of the sea snake Pelamis platura (Serpentes: Elapidae)
in Golfo Dulce, Puntarenas, Costa Rica. The yellow-bellied sea snake
(Pelamis platura) is the most widely distributed of the marine snakes,
and throughout its range this species exhibits extensive variation in
color and pattern. The coloration of most individuals is black with brown
and/or yellow, displayed within a variable pattern, although patternless
bright-yellow individuals have been reported from certain localities in
Costa Rica and Panama. Recently, within Golfo Dulce in southern Costa
Rica, a population was discovered in which all individuals displayed
extensive amounts of yellow coloration. The evidence suggests that
the circulation patterns of the surface currents within and outside of
this ord-like gulf apparently are strong enough to interrupt the ow
(or genetic interchange) among the oceanic and gulf populations. The
lack or loss of dark pigment in the dorsum of the Golfo Dulce population
might be due to the water temperatures and other specic conditions
in the interior of this anoxic basin, the only one in the Pacic coast of
Western Hemisphere.
KEY WORDS
Reptilia, Serpentes, Elapidae, Pelamis platura, color pattern, Golfo Dulce,
Costa Rica.
RESUMEN
La serpiente marina de vientre amarillo (Pelamis platura) tiene el mayor
ámbito de distribución entre todas las serpientes marinas, y a lo largo
de su rango la especie exhibe gran variación en su patrón y color. El
color de la mayoría de los ejemplares es negro con café y/o amarillo, que
se muestran dentro un patrón variable, aunque ejemplares sin patrón
de color amarillo brillante se han reportado de ciertas localidades de
Costa Rica y Panamá. Recientemente en el interior de la cuenca del
Golfo Dulce, al sur de la costa Pacíca de Costa Rica, se descubrió una
población donde todos los ejemplares muestran cantidades extensivas
de color amarillo. La evidencia sugiere que los patrones de circulación
de las corrientes superciales en el interior y exterior de este golfo de
tipo ordo, aparentemente son sucientes para interrumpir el ujo o
intercambio genético entre la población oceánica y la del Golfo Dulce.
La falta o pérdida de la pigmentación oscura en el dorso de la población
del Golfo Dulce puede haber sido el resultado de las temperaturas del
agua y otras condiciones particulares en esta cuenca anóxica, única en la
costa Pacíca del Hemisferio Occidental.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Reptilia, Serpentes, Elapidae, Pelamis platura, patrón de color, Golfo Dulce,
Costa Rica.
La serpiente marina pelágica Pelamis platura es la es-
pecie con el mayor ámbito de distribución entre todas las
especies de serpientes marinas (Dunson 1975, Kropach
1975, Minton 1975, Greene 1997, Heatwole 1999, Cam-
pbell & Lamar 2004) y es la única especie de serpiente ma-
rina presente en la costa oeste de América (Kropach 1975,
Tu 1976, Voris 1983, Savage 2002, Savage & Bolaños 2009,
Solórzano 2004, Sasa et al. 2010). En esta región se extien-
de en aguas tropicales y subtropicales de desde el golfo
de California en Norteamérica hasta Ecuador y el norte de
Perú en Suramérica, incluyendo las Islas Galápagos y la Isla
de Pascua (Campbell & Lamar 2004). En Costa Rica es co-
mún a lo largo de la costa Pacíca (Fig. 1), especialmente
en golfos y bahías, por lo general entre 1 y 20 km de la
costa (Solórzano 2004).
A lo largo de su extenso ámbito geográco exhibe
una gran variación en el patrón de color (Fig.2), que se
caracteriza por presentar tres tonalidades básicas: negro
90 Research Journal of the Costa Rican Distance Education University (Online Edition, ISSN: 1659-441X) Vol. 3(1): 89-96, June, 2011
FIG. 1. Distribución de Pelamis platura en la costa Pacíca de Costa Rica. La banda gris clara muestra la población
oceánica, y la gris oscura la población interna del Golfo Dulce, posterior al Cabo Matapalo.
uniforme (a veces café o gris oscuro) en el dorso y amarillo
y/o café en la región lateral-ventral (Kropach, Tu 1976, So-
lórzano 2004). En los extremos de esta notable plasticidad
fenotípica se observan ejemplares casi totalmente negros
y otros completamente amarillos. Los ejemplares con esta
vistosa fase de coloración amarilla han sido considerados
como muy raros o poco comunes de observar (Kropach
1975, Tu 1976, Voris 1983, Savage 2002, Campbell & La-
mar 2004) y se han reportado únicamente en tres locali-
dades: Bahía Culebra y Golfo Dulce en Costa Rica y en el
Golfo de Panamá (Kropach 1975, Tu 1976). Sin embargo,
recientemente se comprobó que en el interior del Golfo
Dulce, en el sur de la costa Pacíca de Costa Rica, se en-
cuentra una población residente y compuesta en su to-
talidad por ejemplares completamente amarillos o con
solo algunos discretos componentes oscuros sobre el
fondo amarillo.
En este trabajo presentamos las características que dis-
tinguen a esta población del Golfo Dulce con el resto de
las poblaciones oceánicas de esta especie, así como los
posibles eventos involucrados en el origen de esta nota-
ble variación.
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Cuadernos de Investigación UNED (Edición en Línea, ISSN: 1659-441X) Vol. 3(1): 89-96, Junio, 2011
FIG. 2. (A-F) Variación de color en la población oceánica de Pelamis platura en Costa Rica.
METODOLOGÍA
Este trabajo se realizó entre febrero del 2009 y marzo
del 2010. Durante este período se efectuaron 8 viajes de
observación y recolecta en el Golfo Dulce, tanto en el in-
terior de la cuenca como en los alrededores de la boca de
este golfo. Los recorridos de búsqueda se efectuaron en-
tre la 7:30 y las 11:30 am. En total, se lograron observar
42 serpientes, de las cuales 15 fueron recolectadas para
su estudio (Cuadro 1). Tres tipos de medidas se tomaron:
longitud hocico-cloaca, longitud total, y longitud de la
cabeza. Se registró el estado del clima y la condición de la
supercie del mar en el momento en que fueron observa-
dos y\o recolectados los ejemplares.
Se realizaron también una serie de entrevistas con pes-
cadores residentes en el área con el n de obtener una
referencia histórica de la presencia y características de
estas serpientes.
Se analizaron los patrones de circulación y la temperatu-
ra de las corrientes superciales en el interior y exterior del
Golfo Dulce, con base en los estudios de Quesada-Alpízar
92 Research Journal of the Costa Rican Distance Education University (Online Edition, ISSN: 1659-441X) Vol. 3(1): 89-96, June, 2011
& Morales-Ramírez 2004, Quesada-Alpízar & Cortés (2006)
y Svendsen et al. (2006) y su posible relación con los movi-
mientos de las serpientes marinas entre el sector oceánico
periférico a la entrada y en el sector interno de esta cuenca.
Descripción del hábitat
En Costa Rica P. platura es especialmente abundante en
golfos y bahías y por lo general se encuentran asociadas
a las líneas o cordones de espuma y residuos orgánicos
(Fig. 3) que se forman en la supercie (Kropach 1975, Tu
1976, Solórzano 2004). El Golfo Dulce es un ordo tropical
que se ubica en la parte sur de la costa Pacíca de Cos-
ta Rica (8°27’ N y 8°45’ N). Este ecosistema representa la
única cuenca anóxica en la costa Pacíca del Hemisferio
Occidental y uno de los cuatro sistemas con estas carac-
terísticas que existen en los trópicos (Quesada-Alpízar &
Morales-Ramírez 2004, Quesada-Alpízar & Cortés 2006,
Svendsen et al. 2006). El área posee una supercie aproxi-
mada de 680 km de longitud y de 10 a 15 km de ancho.
Su profundidad máxima alcanza los 215 m, mientras que
a su entrada es poco profundo, con alrededor de 60 m,
características que tienden a limitar la circulación de agua
en la cuenca interna de este golfo. De hecho, la entrada de
Especimen Longitud hocico-cloaca (mm) Longitud total (mm) Longitud cabeza (mm)
MZUCR-20612 541 604 28
MZUCR-20614 489 545 28
MZUCR-20615 555 622 34
MZUCR-20616 540 598 32
MZUCR-20618 502 566 29
MZUCR-20619 472 539 27
MZUCR-20648 285 320 21
MZUCR-20649 297 336 21
MZUCR-20677 443 500 27
MZUCR-20691 461 520 29
MZUCR-20817 492 558 30
MZUCR-20818 409 564 26
MZUCR-20836 463 523 29
MZUCR-20837 275 305 19
MZUCR-20840 369 419 24
CUADRO 1
Medidas de especímenes de Pelamis platura recolectados en el Golfo Dulce, provincia de Puntarenas
agua oceánica en la cuenca de este golfo es disminuida
en su frecuencia e intensidad debido al umbral externo
(Quesada-Alpízar & Cortés 2006, Svendsen et al. 2006).
RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN
El patrón de color de los ejemplares de P. platura en el
Golfo Dulce es amarillo uniforme, ya sea claro o intenso,
sin embargo, algunos presentan puntos negros dispersos
irregularmente, pequeñas barras longitudinales, líneas
continuas o fragmentadas en el centro del dorso, o discre-
tos puntos verdosos y raramente diseños vestigiales en la
cola (Fig. 4). Cuando está presente, el diseño más frecuen-
te de observar es una especie de capuchón negro sobre el
dorso de la cabeza que cubre las escamas parietales, fron-
tal y supraoculares (Fig. 4 b, c, g).
En el extenso ámbito de distribución de P. platura y su
alto grado de variabilidad en el patrón de color, no se ha-
bían reportado particularidades especícas a nivel geo-
gráco (Dunson 1975, Kropach 1975, Tu 1976, Campbell &
Lamar 2004, Solórzano 2004). Dentro de este mosaico de
variación, los resultados de esta investigación conrman
que el patrón amarillo uniforme, que fue tradicionalmente
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Cuadernos de Investigación UNED (Edición en Línea, ISSN: 1659-441X) Vol. 3(1): 89-96, Junio, 2011
FIG. 3. (A-B) Celdas de convergencia de corrientes o cordones de espuma y desechos orgánicos (también
llamadas franjas de otación o puntos lisos) que se forman en la supercie del mar, y que representan el
hábitat más frecuente de Pelamis platura.
94 Research Journal of the Costa Rican Distance Education University (Online Edition, ISSN: 1659-441X) Vol. 3(1): 89-96, June, 2011
FIG.4. (A-H) Variación de color en la población del Golfo Dulce de Pelamis platura.
95
Cuadernos de Investigación UNED (Edición en Línea, ISSN: 1659-441X) Vol. 3(1): 89-96, Junio, 2011
considerado como raro o inusual en la literatura (Kropach
1975, Tu 1976, Voris 1988, Savage 2002, Campbell & Lamar
2004), no constituye un caso de ejemplares aislados con
este fenotipo, sino que se trata de una población residente
y claramente establecida con esta característica en el in-
terior de la cuenca del Golfo Dulce. Asimismo, las versio-
nes de varios pescadores consultados y que han sido resi-
dentes en el área por períodos que abarcan entre 30 y 40
años, son congruentes con nuestros datos, pues conrman
el hecho de que el patrón amarillo uniforme es predomi-
nante en las serpientes marinas que se encuentran en el
interior del Golfo Dulce y que los ejemplares bicolores o
tricolores se localizan hacia el exterior de esta cuenca.
Analizándolo en retrospectiva, es probable que las re-
colectas reportadas no se realizaran en la parte interna del
Golfo Dulce, sino en el sector exterior (conocido como la
boca del Golfo Dulce) y posterior al Cabo Matapalo en di-
rección a mar abierto donde se encuentran las poblaciones
oceánicas de patrón bicolor o tricolor de P.platura, como el
caso reportado por Voris (1983) donde solamente un tres
por ciento de 276 ejemplares recolectados en la “boca del
Golfo Dulce” correspondían al patrón amarillo uniforme.
Debido a las características morfológicas particulares
de este golfo de tipo ordo, el ujo e intensidad de agua
oceánica que entra hacia el interior de esta cuenca es
lento y se ve limitado por el umbral externo de este gol-
fo (Quesada-Alpízar & Cortés 2006, Svendsen et al. 2006).
En la parte interna del golfo, la capa de agua supercial
es movida principalmente por los vientos (Svendsen et al.
2006). Es probable que este patrón de circulación consti-
tuya una especie de barrera natural que actúe como un
elemento potencialmente restrictivo para el tránsito de
serpientes marinas oceánicas hacia el interior del Golfo
Dulce y viceversa, pues los movimientos de esta especie
pelágica están principalmente determinados por las co-
rrientes superciales (Kropach 1975). Este eventual aisla-
miento parece interrumpir el ujo reproductivo entre la
población de serpientes marinas oceánicas y las del inte-
rior del Golfo Dulce, lo que podría favorecer el aislamiento
genético que origina este patrón de color, visiblemente
dominante en el interior de la cuenca de este golfo. La
evidencia sugiere que el sector interior del Golfo Dulce es
el centro de origen y dispersión de este notable patrón
de color amarillo, por lo que es probable que los esca-
sos ejemplares con este aspecto reportados por Kropach
(1975) en el Golfo de Panamá y por Tu (1976) en Bahía
Culebra en el noroeste de la costa Pacíca de Costa Rica
hayan sido eventualmente trasladados por la dinámica
de la Corriente Costera de Costa Rica, que uye mayor-
mente del sureste al noroeste (Quesada-Alpízar & Cortés
2006). Un factor que posiblemente esté relacionado con
la pérdida del color negro dorsal en esta población es la
temperatura del agua supercial, ya que las aguas oceá-
nicas que entran en este golfo se hunden con rapidez,
desplazando así las capas internas hacia arriba donde se
observan aumentos en la termoclima (Quesada-Alpízar &
Morales-Ramírez 2004, Quesada-Alpízar & Cortés 2006).
Los alcances taxonómicos de esta variación se están estu-
diando a nivel molecular y se presentarán en la segunda
parte de esta investigación (Solórzano et al. en prep.).
Esta especie se encuentra íntimamente asociada a las
líneas o cordones de espuma y detritos orgánicos que se
forman en la supercie del mar (también llamadas celdas
de convergencia) y que representan un hábitat idóneo
por la abundancia de recurso alimenticio, así como por las
posibilidades de camuarse entre los escombros otantes
y de apareamiento (Kropach 1975, Solórzano 2004). En el
caso del Golfo Dulce, ninguno de los ejemplares observa-
dos o colectados se halló dentro de estas líneas super-
ciales. La mayoría fueron localizados en aguas limpias y
tranquilas, con poco viento, lo que parece sugerir que este
tipo de hábitat supercial no es determinante para la esta-
bilidad de dicha población.
AGRADECIMIENTOS
Quiero destacar los valiosos datos, comentarios y su-
gerencias a lo largo de esta investigación proporcionados
por Louis W. Porras, Harvey Lillywhite, Jorge Cortés, Omar
Lizano y Héctor Guzmán. De igual manera a Federico Bo-
laños y Gerardo Chaves por las facilidades brindadas en el
Museo Zoología de la Universidad de Costa Rica, así como
a Esteban Ocampo por los diseños grácos y fotográcos.
Agradezco también a Catalina Torres (Esquinas Rainforest
Lodge) y a Gerardo Sequeira por el apoyo logístico durante
el trabajo de campo en el Golfo Dulce, al igual que a Adán
Barrera en Playas del Coco y Bahía Culebra, Guanacaste.
Este trabajo se realizó bajo el permiso de investigación y
colecta del Instituto Costarricense de Pesca y Acuacultura
(INCOPESCA) Resolución A. J .D. I. P. 138/2010.
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... However, a recent discovery has challenged this notion. A population composed entirely of yellow specimens was reported for Golfo Dulce in the Southern Pacific of Costa Rica (Solórzano, 2011), suggesting that infrequent alleles may not be sufficient to explain the prevalence of that phenotype there. ...
... The discovery of a population of H. platurus established in the interior of the Golfo Dulce basin of Costa Rica, where yellow morphos predominate, was an unexpected event (Bessessen, 2012;Solórzano, 2011). On the one hand, the species is remarkably pelagic, and in the Eastern Pacific, it is distributed uninterruptedly close to the American continental shelf, where bicolored morphotypes dominate. ...
... These bicolored morphs resemble those observed in the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean populations (Heatwole, 1987). The recent report of a population dominated by yellow-pattern snakes from Golfo Dulce (Solórzano, 2011) was also surprising due to the extensive history of herpetological exports in Costa Rican territory (Savage, 2002). Nevertheless, the available literature shows that only a few sea snake-collecting expeditions took place on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica during 20th century. ...
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Introduction: The pelagic sea snake Hydrophis platurus has the broadest distributional range of all the snakes and is the only sea snake of tropical waters off the west coast of the Americas. Within the variation in the color pattern of this species, completely yellow specimens were considered very rare or occasional. However, a yellow pattern dominates a population established in the interior of the Golfo Dulce in the Southern Pacific of Costa Rica. Objective: We studied the abundance, activity patterns, morphometry, and feeding behavior of the yellow H. platurus within the Golfo Dulce. Methods: Between February 2009 and July 2018, we conducted surveys for sea snakes from a boat within the perimeter of the Golfo Dulce. Results: Adults from the gulf population are smaller than the bicolor oceanic population, with females having larger bodies. Sea snakes within the gulf float and move with surface currents without being linked to drift lines and debris. These snakes are mainly found in clean, calm waters with little turbulence. They feed on a wide diversity of small fish, which they capture using passive stalking predatory behaviors floating on the surface. Prey are quickly captured and swallowed alive. This species has an almost total absence of predation, a pattern that extends to this yellow population. Conclusions: The characteristics of the gulf and the direction and strength of the surface currents at its entrance might restrict the transit of this yellow population to the outside and the entry of the bicolored snakes of the oceanic population. We do not consider making taxonomic changes in this Golfo Dulce population prudent. This yellow population is relatively common within the basin. However, the high tourist traffic and other activities are risk factors for its conservation. Protection policies must be created to preserve and protect this small population of yellow sea snakes unique within this species’ distribution range.
... Hydrophis platurus xanthos is endemic to the inner-basin waters of Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, an area with higher sea surface temperatures (SST) and lower salinity than those found in the neighboring Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean (Rasmussen et al., 2011;Rincón-Alejos & Ballestero-Sakson, 2015;Wellington & Dunbar, 1995). This allopatric population has transitioned from a black-backed, yellow-bellied phenotype to monochromatic xanthic (yellow) coloration and smaller body size (Bessesen & Galbreath, 2017), presumably to avoid overheating under solar exposure (Bessesen, 2012;Solórzano, 2011). Though, with numerous avian predators in Golfo Dulce (personal observation), such conspicuous coloration and lost countershading could negate certain survival advantages. ...
... to evolve its nearly all-yellow coloring. It has already been suggested that cooling in xanthic sea snakes is promoted by lighter skin color (Bessesen, 2012;Solórzano, 2011), and a smaller body size (Bessesen & Galbreath, 2017) increases the surface-area-to-mass ratio for more rapid thermal exchange (Ashton & Feldman, 2003 (Greene, 1997;Lillywhite, 2014;Porter & Norris, 1969). Dark skin over venom glands may specifically protect venom from degradation (Pough et al., 1978). ...
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Abstract Diel activity patterns are an important aspect of wildlife ecology and evolution and provide valuable information for conservation and monitoring, yet for many species, activity patterns remain unstudied and may be presumed to mirror related taxa. Here, we describe the distinct diel patterns of an endemic population of venomous sea snakes Hydrophis platurus xanthos inhabiting a narrow range (circa 320 km2) in Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica. To investigate, we conducted a systematic visual survey over five 24‐h cycles and evaluated 339 h of previously obtained sighting data from different studies spanning a decade. While sporadic diurnal surfacing does occur, mostly for respiration, our observations revealed marked crepuscular peaks with regular surfacing through the night. We also report on observed surface behaviors that were also found to vary in frequency at different phases of the photoperiodic cycle. In particular, we show feeding as more common at night. Hydrophis platurus xanthos has developed a circadian rhythm that differs noticeably from its taxonomic parent (H. p. platurus is reported as diurnal across its Indo‐Pacific range), and no congeners have been categorized as crepuscular. Our work thus contributes to the ecological knowledge of this evolutionarily distinct marine elapid and offers insights into the potential role of environmental conditions in shaping animal activity.
... Its body is adapted for swimming, as it is laterally compressed with a flat tail like a paddle (Fig. 2). Several skin color patterns have been described; the majority are black or dark brown back, with yellow sides and a light cream belly [9,10] (Fig. 3). The occurrence of specimens with completely yellow coloration have been recognized and considered very rare to observe [11,12]. ...
Article
In Colombia, 317 species of snakes have been recognized, of which 51 (17%) have medical importance due to the toxicity of their venom. A total of 95% of envenomations are caused by snakes of the family Viperidae and 5% of the family Elapidae. The latter form of envenomation is mainly caused by snakes of the genus Micrurus. The only sea snake described is the yellow-bellied snake (Hydrophis platurus), present in the Pacific Ocean. Although Colombia has approximately 1300 km on the Pacific coast and a significant presence of H platurus, envenomation is rare. As a result of the care of a patient with this type of envenomation and of the donation of a H platurus specimen to our laboratory, we decided to conduct this review on the most relevant biological, epidemiological and clinical aspects of this enigmatic and interesting species.
... Abundance of Hydrophis platurus xanthos habitat, these snakes have already lost the melanistic dorsum of their ancestors (Solórzano, 2011) and switched to a nocturnal diel cycle (Bessesen, 2012;Lillywhite et al., 2015). During the day, light skin and eyes risk damage from solar radiation and it is possible that conspicuous yellow coloring exposes the snakes to predation, especially by avian hunters (Bessesen and González-Suárez, 2022), as well as harassment by dolphins ; because they must regularly surface to ventilate, nocturnal feeding mitigates but does not eliminate those risks. ...
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Population abundance and density estimates provide key information for conservation assessment and prioritization of efforts and management. However, data are still largely unavailable for many taxa, including sea snakes, which appear to be facing global declines. Here, we present the first quantitative abundance and density estimates for the geographically isolated sea snake Hydrophis platurus xanthos endemic to the inner basin of Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica. Using systematic distance sampling methods, we obtained and analyzed 199 snake detections from 46 transect lines covering the entire known distribution (totaling nine days and 469 km of effort). Our modeling methods accounted for (i) the probability of detecting a snake given it was available to be detected (ii) the average availability of snakes at the water surface during a 24-hr cycle, and (iii) the by-hour variance in the taxon’s activity pattern. The best estimate of population abundance was 29781 individuals (95% CI=20104–44115) with an estimated density of 76 snakes/km². Without historical abundance estimates or minimum viable population size, it is unknown whether this number represents a healthy population. However, with all individuals inhabiting a relatively small inlet increasingly exposed to anthropogenic impacts, the long-term persistence of H. p. xanthos may be threatened by ongoing impacts (boat propeller strikes, agricultural runoff, and climate change), as well as unforeseen events in the future.
... Extensive variation in color patterns of this species has been documented, with almost completely black and entirely yellow specimens represented at each end of the spectrum Tu (1976). (Solórzano, 2011). In addition, the patterns of the black dorsal band vary from straight to completely curved, and spots may be completely absent (Tu, 1976). ...
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Introduction: The yellow-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis platurus, formerly Pelamis platurus) is known to occur along the Pacific coast of Central America. However, there are no marine records of this species off the coast of Nicaragua. Objective: Report the first in situ marine observations of the yellow-bellied sea snake observed on three occasions in 2020 during cetacean surveys off the southwestern Pacific coast of Nicaragua. Methods: During the sightings, photographs were taken which allowed the identification of the species based on morphology. Sea surface temperature, sea state, and distance to the coast are presented as descriptors of the habitat of the records. Results: Three field observations of yellow-bellied sea snakes were recorded on separate occasions. Sightings occurred within 30 km of each other and 3.3 km from the coast. Average sea surface temperature was 26.6 °C with low swell and sea state. Conclusions: The present information offers new knowledge about the presence of the yellow-bellied sea snake on the Pacific coast of Central America, contributing to the biodiversity record in Nicaragua.
... Extensive variation in color patterns of this species has been documented, with almost completely black and entirely yellow specimens represented at each end of the spectrum Tu (1976). (Solórzano, 2011). In addition, the patterns of the black dorsal band vary from straight to completely curved, and spots may be completely absent (Tu, 1976). ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: The yellow-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis platurus, formerly Pelamis platurus) is known to occur along the Pacific coast of Central America. However, there are no marine records of this species off the coast of Nicaragua. Objective: Report the first in situ marine observations of the yellow-bellied sea snake observed on three occasions in 2020 during cetacean surveys off the southwestern Pacific coast of Nicaragua. Methods: During the sightings, photographs were taken which allowed the identification of the species based on morphology. Sea surface temperature, sea state, and distance to the coast are presented as descriptors of the habitat of the records. Results: Three field observations of yellow-bellied sea snakes were recorded on separate occasions. Sightings occurred within 30 km of each other and 3.3 km from the coast. Average sea surface temperature was 26.6 °C with low swell and sea state. Conclusions: The present information offers new knowledge about the presence of the yellow-bellied sea snake on the Pacific coast of Central America, contributing to the biodiversity record in Nicaragua.
... Color pattern as described by Tu (1976). (Solórzano, 2011). In addition, the patterns of the black dorsal band vary from straight to completely curved, and spots may be completely absent (Tu, 1976). ...
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The North Pacific and the South Pacific of Nicaragua is a region of great biological, geological, economic and social wealth. There the dry forest mixes with the rain forest, the sea with the islands and nature with the people. It is a region influenced by the Papagayo upwelling, the emergence of cold marine waters during the dry season, which generates an abundance of life in the sea. As a sample of this marine wealth, in this Special Issue, more than half of the contributions are dedicated to advances in the knowledge of the marine biodiversity of the region. Contributions from the social sciences, geology and physics of the region are also included. Within these areas, the publications provide information on maritime border management, archaeology and sustainable tourism, coastal geology, projected climate changes, as well as various oceanographic aspects of the area. We hope that this Special Issue on the North Pacific of Costa Rica and the South Pacific of Nicaragua will promote more research in the region and help inform decision-making processes and educational activities. We thank the authors for their manuscripts, as well as the more than sixty reviewers who with their comments and suggestions helped to improve the quality of the manuscripts.
... There is an important base of information on air breathing vertebrates that live on this ecosystem. There are reports on the population of the sea snake Pelamis platurus (Bessesen, 2012) and its colour variability (Solórzano, 2011), and on a recently described subspecies (Bessesen & Galbreath, 2017). The population and habitat use of the green turtle Chelonia mydas has been described by Chacón-Chaverri et al. ...
... There is an important base of information on air breathing vertebrates that live on this ecosystem. There are reports on the population of the sea snake Pelamis platurus (Bessesen, 2012) and its colour variability (Solórzano, 2011), and on a recently described subspecies (Bessesen & Galbreath, 2017). The population and habitat use of the green turtle Chelonia mydas has been described by Chacón-Chaverri et al. ...
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Introduction: Coastal ecosystems worldwide are under the influence of local, regional and global stressors, such as pollution, eutrophication and climate change. Golfo Dulce is a relatively pristine and accessible deep tropical ecosystem that provides opportunities for comparative and collaborative research. Objective: To summarize published reports on past research conducted in this ecosystem, identify topics for further study, and suggest new research issues. Methods: A search was made on the web for reports based on research conducted in Golfo Dulce and published in scientific journals. Reports focusing on environmental parameters and on the biota were included. Results: A total of 123 studies that include data from Golfo Dulce are cited. The four topics more frequently addressed were reports based on the results of the R/V Victor Hensen expedition (1993-1994) and follow-up work on microbiology, studies on water parameters, research on vertebrates, and zooplankton studies. The reports focusing on vertical profiles of oxygen and temperature are discussed in detail, followed by those on the biota. Conclusions: Golfo Dulce has low oxygen concentrations below 50 m and is frequently anoxic at the 200 m deep basin with occasional formation of H2S. However, the ecosystem contains a relatively high diversity of identified organisms, from bacteria to whales. Of particular relevance for future studies are multidisciplinary surveys aiming at obtaining data on primary productivity, the diversity and biomass of the main groups of planktonic, demersal and benthic organisms, and the frequency and magnitude of the influx of deep offshore waters over the sill into the basin. These data, as well as the information gathered in the past, are essential for updating the trophic model developed more than 25 years ago and in support of new predictive models on the functioning of the ecosystem.
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Hydrophis platurus xanthos is a marine reptile endemic to the inner basin of Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica, and one of only two sea snake taxa found in the New World. In this study we assessed several marine conditions that describe its habitat, and we define its geographical distribution range. We used 423 occurrence records of H. p. xanthos collected during multiple studies to model habitat suitability in Maxent considering water depth and 12 interpolated hydrographic variables: Beaufort wind force, sea surface temperature, and averages of temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and pH at 0.5 and 10 m based on probe readings collected in 2020 and 2021 at 68 sampling locations. We used area under the curve (AUC) to evaluate our Maxent models and the cloglog minimum training presence threshold to render our suitable habitat maps. The most influential environmental predictor was depth, but occurrences were also affected by hydrographic conditions. Indeed, a model excluding depth consistently identified only areas in and around the inner basin area as suitable, suggesting the sea snakes are not only restricted by depth but likely have adapted to water conditions that differ from those farther to the south and outside the gulf in the broader Pacific Ocean. Anthropogenic and climate‐induced changes may already be impacting the marine environment of this single, isolated population. Our study offers the first quantitative evaluation of habitat suitability for H. p. xanthos and we estimate its extent of occurrence (282 km2) and current area of occupancy (260 km2) to inform conservation assessments and guide protection measures.
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World-renowned for its biological diversity and model conservation system, Costa Rica is home to a wide variety of amphibians and reptiles, from the golden toad to the scorpion lizard to the black-headed bushmaster. Jay M. Savage has studied these fascinating creatures for more than forty years, and in The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica he provides the most comprehensive, up-to-date treatment of their biology and evolution ever produced. Costa Rica has played, and continues to play, a pivotal role in the study of tropical biology as well as the development of ecotourism and ecoprospecting, in part because more than half of the amphibians and reptiles in Costa Rica are also found elsewhere in Central America. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica will be an essential book for a wide audience of nature lovers, naturalists, ecotourists, field biologists, conservationists, government planners, and those interested in Central America more generally. "Written for the enthusiast as well as for the field researcher, this work is an excellent reference source for each of the 396 species of amphibians and reptiles that can be found in Costa Rica. Includes complete full-color photographs of all known species in the region, as well as maps showing their distribution patterns. . . . A must-have book for any library with interests in this subject area."—J. Elliott, Southeastern Naturalist
Article
Sea snakes, Pelamis platurus, (Yellow-bellied sea snake), were collected on the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica, Central America, in 1973. Unlike many species of sea snakes in the southwestern Pacific, P. platurus is largely a surface-going sea snake. The snake tends to float motionlessly on the surface of the sea and moves along with the sea currents. The most common color pattern of P. platurus is a tri-color pattern of black-yellow-brown. The next most common one is a bi-colored pattern of black-yellow. The unicolor, all yellow pattern of the sea snake is very rare; we obtained only 4 out of 3077 specimens. There are many other combinations of color patterns. Scale patterns and other biological data were recorded. P. platurus obtained from Costa Rica were comparable to those of P. platurus obtained from Asia as investigated by others. The average yield of venom from P. platurus was 2.6 mg per snake, based on the extraction of venom from the glands of 3069 sea snakes.
The venomous reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. 2 vols
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The yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus in the Eastern Pacific
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