Petroselinum crispum: A Review

Abstract

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym. ex A.W. Hill which belongs to the family Apiaceae is a bright green plant, which is cultivated widely in the tropic, subtropic, and temperate regions. It is a biennial plant which is widely cultivated as an annual plant. Traditionally, roots of P. crispum has been used as a powerful diuretic, seeds have been used as antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, and in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, inflammation, halitosis, kidney stones, and amenorrhea. Leaves of P. crispum have been employed in the treatment of hemorrhoids, gastrointestinal disorders, diuretic, and as a food-flavoring agent in addition to its common usage as vegetable. P. crispum has been found to possess many pharmacological effects including, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, analgesic, spasmolytic, immunosuppressant, and gastroprotective properties. Hence this section reviews the phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities of P. crispum.

Full text

Chapter 25
Petroselinum crispum: A review
Christian Agyare1, Theresa Appiah1, Yaw Duah Boakye1, John Antwi
Apenteng2
1Department of Pharmaceutics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana
2Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central University College, Accra, Ghana
Short title: P. crispum
Abstract
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym. ex A.W. Hill which belongs to the family Apiaceae is a
bright green plant, which is cultivated widely in the tropic, sub-tropic and temperate regions.
It is a biennial plant which is widely cultivated as an annual plant. Traditionally, roots of P.
crispum has been used as a powerful diuretic, seeds have been used as antimicrobial,
antiseptic, antispasmodic and in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, inflammation,
halitosis, kidney stones and amenorrhea. Leaves of P. crispum have been employed in the
treatment of hemorrhoids, gastrointestinal disorders, diuretic and as a food flavouring agent
in addition to its common usage as vegetable. P. crispum has been found to possess many
pharmacological effects including, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, hepatoprotective,
anti-diabetic, analgesic, spasmolytic, immunosuppressant and gastroprotective properties.
Hence this section reviews the phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities of
P. crispum.
Keywords: Petroselinum crispum; Apiaceae; pharmacological activities; chemical
composition; parsley
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1. Introduction
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym. ex A.W. Hill belongs to the family Apiaceae or
Umbelliferae and the genus Petroselinum. It is commonly called parsley/garden parsley in
English, ‘patraseli’, ‘patrasoli’ or ‘potrasoli’ in Indonesia, ‘phakchi-farang’ in Thailand,
‘vannsuy baraing’ in Cambodia, ‘paseri’ in Japan, ‘pietersielie’ in Africa, ‘persil’ in France
and ‘bagdouness or ‘maadnous’ in Arab (Ipor and Oyen, 1999; Quattrocchi, 2012).
Synoymons of P. crispum are Apium crispum Mill., Apium petroselinum L., Petroselinum
hortense Hoffm. and Petroselinum sativum Hoffm.
Petroselinum crispum is believed to be originally grown in Sardinia (Mediterranean area) and
was cultivated from circa 3rd century BC. Linnaeus stated its wild habitat to be Sardinia,
whence it was brought to England and apparently first cultivated in Britain in 1548; Bentham
considered it a native of the Eastern Mediterranean regions; De Candolle of Turkey, Algeria
and the Lebanon. Since its introduction into these islands in the sixteenth century it has been
completely naturalized in various parts of England and Scotland, on old walls and rocks.
In ancient times, parsley was not only used for culinary and medical purposes, it was
subjected to wide variety of superstitious beliefs by the Greeks and ancient Romans.
The ancient Greeks mainly used parsley as a form of decoration for funeral wreaths and
crowns of parsleys to honour the winners of Nenena and Isthmain sport games (Tucker, and
DeBaggio, 2009). The ancient Roman used parsley for deodorizing the corpse and cover up
the alcohol on their breath. Parsley was used in Hebrew celebration of Passover as the symbol
of spring and rebirth. It was rumoured that Catherine de'Medici (Queen consort
of France) was responsible for popularizing parsley in the 16th century, when she brought it
back to France from Italy. Later, Christianity carried on this tradition by associating parsley
with the Apostle Peter because of his designation as warder of the gates of heaven. The
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ancient Greeks and Romans did not commonly eat parsley. However, they did grow it in their
gardens as a border, and it was thought to be wonderful fodder for chariot horses.
Parsley was appreciated for its medicinal properties long before it became accepted as a food
or spice. It was probably first commonly eaten in Europe in the Middle Ages. The flat leafed
variety was not initially eaten because it was easily confused with false-parsley (a noxious
weed). However, the curly leafed variety soon found its way to plates and dishes since it has
the ability to cleanse the breath and the palate (Yanardag et al., 2003). It was soon commonly
used as a garnish (Grieve, 2014). Today parsley is found in a wide variety of dishes. It is
commercially sold in both fresh and dried forms (Rayment, 2016).
2. Plant Description
Petroselinum crispum is a bright green, annual herb in subtropical and tropical areas. In
temperate climates, it grows as a biennial, where in the first year, it forms a
rosette of tripinnate leaves with numerous leaflets and a taproot used as a food store over the
winter. In the second year, it grows as a flowering plant with sparser leaves and flat-topped
diameter umbels with numerous yellow to yellowish-green flowers (Simon, 1990).
It is an erect copiously branched, herb that can grow up to 30 to 100 cm tall, aromatic in all
parts and smooth. The stem is cylindrical, grooved and hollow. The leaves are arranged
alternately, 1-3-pinnately compound, dark green, glossy, flat or curled and with sheath at the
base. The petiole is longest in the lower leaves. The pinnae are long-stalked, with obovate-
cuneate to finely linear leaflets, which are divided into acute segments. The higher leaves are
gradually less divided while the topmost leaf consists of a few acute segments only.
The inflorescence is a terminal or axillary compound umbel. The 1-3 foliolate bracts are
rather short. There are 3 to 15 secondary rays (pedicels) which are 2 to 5 mm long. The
flowers are small, yellow-green and bisexual. The sepal is obscure. The petal consists of 5
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petals which are sub-orbicular to obovate, measuring up to 1 mm x 0.5 mm and sub-
marginate with an inflexed apical lobe. There are 5 stamens. The pistil is with an inferior and
2-carpelled ovary where each carpel is with a thickened stylopodium, a style and a spherical
stigma.The fruit is a schizocarp, measuring 2 to 3 mm long, ovoid and it splits into 2
mericarps when ripen with each having 5 narrow ribs.
The root system is slender, fibrous with taproot measures up to 1 m long, sometimes
thickened and with a radical rosette of leaves when young (Ipor and Oyen, 1999).
The seeds are ovoid, 2 to 3 mm long, with prominent style remnants at the apex. The plant
normally dies after seed maturation (Huxley, 1992).
Though several cultivated varieties exist, the three main varieties of P. crispum are; P.
crispum var. neapolitanum, P. crispum var. tuberosum and P. crispum var. crispum. P.
crispum var. crispum-curled-leaf parsley and P. crispum var. neapolitanum-flat-leafed
(Italian) parsley. Flat-leafed parsley is generally harder than the curled-leaf (Herbst, 2001). P.
crispum var. tuberosum is grown as a root vegetable (Grin, 2008). It is commonly known
as ‘Hamburg parsley’ or ‘turnip-root parsley’. This type of parsley produces much thicker
roots than types cultivated for their leaves, with a root as much as six times the size as that of
garden parsley (Hanrahan and Frey, 2005). Many cultivars exist for both the curled-leaf and -
flat-leaf types. The curly leaf and plain leaf types are cultivated for their foliage, whereas root
parsley is grown as a root vegetable (Tuckerand DeBaggio, 2009)
3. Geographical distribution
Petroselinum crispum probably originated in the Western Mediterranean. It occurs naturally
in most Mediterranean and many temperate countries. It is an old crop, which was already
well-known in classical Greece and Rome. It is now widely grown in many tropical areas
including East and West Africa. P. crispum is widely grown for its leaves in most
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Mediterranean countries, Europe and North America. In the tropics, including South East
Asia, it is cultivated on a small scale. Varieties with thickened, edible taproot are of recent
origin and probably developed around 1500 AD in Northern Germany. Their cultivation is
concentrated in North-Western and Eastern Europe and among North Americans. Parsley is
widely distributed in Turkey, and grown in gardens and fields (Yanardag et al., 2003).
In Africa, P. crispum is occasionally found as an escape or relic of cultivation. Itis cultivated
in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Mozambique, South Africa, Morocco and Tunisia as a medicinal herb
used in treating cardiovascular diseases such as arterial hypertension (Gadi et al., 2009). In
most African countries, P. crispum is usually grown on small plots for market gardening,
though no statistical information on areas under production or market volumes are available
(Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1988). The plant prefers a sunny to half-shady
environment on fresh to moist soil. The substrate used is usually sandy loamy soil with a pH
between 6.5 and 7.5. P. crispum tolerates temperatures down to -29°C.
4. Ethnomedicinal uses
Petroselinum crispum has been used as a medicinal plant for ailments and complaints of the
gastro-intestinal tract, as well as the kidney and lower urinary tract, and for stimulating
digestion (Blumenthal et al., 2000). The root of P. crispum is used as a powerful diuretic
(Pharmacopoeia Jugoslavica, 1951). Furthermore, it is used for the treatment of dyspepsia,
cystitis, dysmenorrhea, functional amenorrhea and myalgia (Wichtl and Bisset, 1994). P.
crispum is used for the management of menstrual disorders, and as emmenagogue,
galactagogue and stomachic. It is also applied externally against head lice (Wichtl and Bisset,
1994).
Apart from it wide usage as a green vegetable and garnish, P. crispum is used for different
medicinal purposes in traditional and folklore medicine of different countries. Seeds have
been used as antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic and sedative agents and in the treatment
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of gastrointestinal disorders, inflammation, halitosis, kidney stones and amenorrhea, and also
as carminative, astringent and gastrotonic in Iran (Behtash et al., 2008; Moazedi, et al., 2007;
Aghili et al., 2009; Tonkaboni et al., 2007; Avicenna, 1983). It is used as diuretic in Turkey
(Marczal et al., 1997) and carminative as well as treatment for gastritis in Peru (Rehecho et
al., 2011).
Leaves of P. crispum have been employed as food flavour, antitussive and diuretic
and also in the treatment of kidney stones, hemorrhoids, gastrointestinal disorder, blurred
vision and dermatitis (Aghili et al., 2009; Tonkaboni et al., 2007; Avicenna, 1983). The
leaves are also used to manage bleeding, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, hepatic disorders and
diabetes in Turkey. Leaves serve are employed as food flavor (Wong and Kitts, 2006) and for
treatment for skin diseases (Aljanaby, 2013) in China and Iraq, respectively. In Moroccan
traditional healing system, the leaves are used in arterial hypertension, diabetes, cardiac
disease, renal disease, lumbago, eczema and nose bleed (Ziyyat et al., 1997; Eddouks et al.,
2002; Jouad et al., 2001; Merzouki et al., 1997). The leaves are also used for the treatment of
amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhea, kidney stones, prostatitis, diabetes, halitosis, anaemia,
hypertension, hyperuricaemia, constipation, odontalgy, pain, baldness and induction of
abortion in Spain (Benítez et al., 2010) and urinary tract diseases and management of fluid
retention in Serbia (Savikin et al., 2013). Its aerial parts are used as abortifacient in Italy
(Montesano et al., 2012).
5. Pytochemical constituents
The healing properties and medical use of P. crispum are mostly related to a wide range of
active biomolecules present in the plant. Phytochemical constituents and compounds have
been isolated from seeds, roots, leaves or petioles through bioassay-guided separation,
essential oils obtained by methods such as simultaneous distillation–extraction (SDE) and
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analyzed by techniques such as multilayer coil countercurrent chromatography (MCCC), gas
chromatography (GC), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis, gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry (GC-MS), Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV-VIS) or high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These phytochemical constituents can be
grouped into the flavonoids, carbohydrates, coumarins, essential oils and other miscellaneous
compounds.
5.1. Essential oil components
Seeds of P. crispum produce high amount of essential oils. Root and leaf also contain
essential oils (Bruneton, 1999). Myristicin (phenylpropene) (1) and apiol (phenylpropanoid)
(2) are the two main components of P. crispum essential oil which are responsible for its
antioxidant activity (Zhang et al., 2006). α-pinene (sesquiterpene hydrocarbon) (3),
monoterpene hydrocarbons [(sabinene (4), β-pinene (5), ρ-cymene (6), limonene (7), β-
phellandrene (8) and γ-terpinene (9)], phenylpropenes [1-allyl-2,3,4,5-tetra-methoxy-benzene
(10), eugenol (11) and elemicin (12)] have also been isolated from seeds of P. crispum
(Zhang et al., 2006; Wagner and Bladt, 1996). Zhang et al. (2006) and Wagner and Bladt
(1996) also reported the presence of carotol (alcohol sesquiterpene) (13), myristicin and apiol
in P. crispum seeds. Roots of P. crispum has been found to contain two C17 polyacetylenic
alcohols [heptadeca-1,9(Z)-diene-4,6-diyn-3-ol (14) and heptadeca-1,9(Z)-diene-4,6-diyn-
3,8-diol (15)] (Nitz et al., 1990; Christensena and Brandtb, 2015).
Essential oil obtained from the leaves of P. crispum have been revealed to contain
sesquiterpene hydrocarbons [β-caryophyllene (16), γ-elemene (17) and β-elemene (18)],
aldehydes [phenylacetaldehyde (19), benzaldehyde (20) and hexanal (21)], monoterpene
hydrocarbons [β-pinene, sabinene, 3-carene (22), camphene (23), α-thujene (24), myrcene
(25), α-phellandrene (26), β-phellandrene, α-terpinene (27), cis-β-ocimene (28), trans-β-
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ocimene (29), α-terpinolene (30) and ρ-1,3,8-menthatriene (31)], monoterpene alcohols [α-
terpineol (32) and 2-(ρ-Tolyl) propan-2-ol (33)], aromatic compounds [toluene (34) and m-
xylene (35) and/or ρ-xylene (36)], sesquiterpene hydrocarbons [α-cubebene (37), α-copaene
(38), β-bisabolene (39) and α-elemene (40)], 2-pentylfuran (ether) (41), cis-Hex-3-en-1-ol
(alcohol) (42), cryptone (ketone) (43), δ-cadinol (sesquiterpene alcohol) (44), elemicin, α-
pinene, limonene, γ-terpinene and ρ-cymene (Macleod et al., 1985).
Analysis of volatile oil from P. crispum plant, cell culture and callus showed that
monoterpenes were the main constituent. ρ-1,3,8-menthatriene was the most abundant
compound among the monoterepenes followed by β-phellandrene and apiol. Aldehydes
[nonanal (45) and decanal (46)] and also fatty acids (Free and bound) were found in the
volatile oil (López et al., 1999). The triacylglycerol, tripetroselinin (47) has been isolated
from the seeds of P. crispum (Destaillats et al., 2009). Guieta et al. (2015) showed that seeds
of P. crispum containsthe fatty acid and petroselinic acid (48). The chemical structures of
compounds from essential oils are shown in Figure 1-25.
[Figure 1-25]
5.2. Other constituents
The most dominant compounds of P. crispum are the flavonoids (Pápay et al., 2012).
Flavonoids (Figure 2-25); isorhamnetin (49) , apigenin (50), quercetin (51), luteolin (52) and
chrysoeriol (53) were identified in cell suspension cultures of P. crispum (Kreuzaler and
Hahlbrock, 1973; Hempel et al., 1999). Gadi et al. (2012) isolated kaempferol (54) and
apigenin in P. crispum leaf extract. Flavonoids apigenin and flavonoid glycosides [apiin (55)
and cosmosiin (56)] were obtained from aqueous leaf extract of P. crispum (Chaves et al.,
2011). A flavone glycoside, 6-acetylapiin (57) and petroside (58), its monoterpene glucoside,
8

the furanocoumarin cnidilin (59) and the flavone glycosides [diosmetin 7-O-β-D-
glucopyranoside (60) and kaempferol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (61)] have been isolated from
the methanol aerial part of P. crispum (Yoshikawa et al., 2000). However, the main reported
flavonoids in P. crispum are apiin and luteolin (Fejes et al., 1998; Nielsen et al., 1999; Fejes
et al., 2000).
Apiose (62) is a sugar detected in the stem, seed and leaf of P. crispum (Hudson,
1949). Apiose and D-glucose (63) (Figure 2-25) have also been identified in cell suspension
cultures of P. crispum (Kreuzaler 1973). These sugars mostly contribute to the structure of
flavonoid glycosides (Farzaei et al., 2013).
Furocoumarins (Figure 2-25) including oxypeucedanin hydrate (64) oxypeucedanin
(65), psoralen (66), isopimpinellin (67), 8-methoxypsoralen (68), 5-methoxypsoralen (69)
and imperatorin (70) have been isolated from the leaves and roots of P. crispum.
Oxypeucedanin is the major furocoumarin of P. crispum and is reported to be mainly
responsible for contact photodermatitis induced by this plant (Chaudhary et al., 1986).
Davey et al. (1996) isolated ascorbic acid (71) (Figure 2-25) from the whole aerial
parts of P. crispum. Leung and Foster (1996) reported high levels of vitamins A, C, some
vitamins of the B complex, calcium and iron in P. crispum. It is a well-known herb used to
give fragrance to different food products. The use of P. crispum as a natural deodorant is
related to the presence of a high amount of chlorophyll (Leung and Foster, 1996). The
sesquiterpenes; crispane (72) and crispanone (73) have been isolated from the ethanol seed
extract of P. crispum (Spraul et al., 1992). Carotenoids such as neoxanthin (74), β-carotene
(75), lutein (76) and violaxanthin (77) were isolated from the leaf and stem acetone extracts
of P. crispum (Francis and Isaksen, 1989). The oxygenated derivative of monoterpens, 1-
methyl-4-(methylethenyl)-2,3-dioxabicyclo [2.2.2] oct-5-ene (78) and 4-methyl-7-
(methylethenyl)-3,8- dioxatricyclo [5.1.0] octane (79) (Behtash et al., 2008; Moazedi, et al.
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2007; Aghili et al., 2009) were isolated from ethanol leaf extract of P. crispum (Nitz et al.,
1989).
[Figure 2-25]
6. Pharmacological properties
P. crispumhas been found to possess various pharmacological activities such as antibacterial,
antifungal, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, hypotensive, hepato-protective, neuroprotective,
analgesic, spasmolytic, immunosuppressant, anti-coagulant, anti-ulcer, and estrogenic
properties (Table 1-25).
6.1. Antimicrobial activity
The antibacterial and antifungal activities of some isolated compounds and extracts from P.
crispum have been reported (Manderfield et al., 1997; Wong and Kitts, 2006; Aljanaby,
2013; Kim et al., 1998; Holton and Basset, 2005). Seyyednejad et al. (2008) reported that 0.1
and 0.2 g/mL of ethanol seed extract of P. crispum exhibited antibacterial activity against
Brucella melitensis.Hot-water extract of P. crispum leaves (250 mg/mL) has been shown to
possess antimicrobial activity against P. Aeruginosa (Aljanaby, 2013). Furocoumarins 65-69
isolated from aqueous extracts of P. crispum leaves (0.12 to 8.0%) have been found to exhibit
inhibitory activity against Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Erwinia carotovora and
Listeria innocua (Manderfield et al., 1997) using a media-modified and photobiological assay
(Table 1-25).
6.2. Antioxidant activity
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Using the 2,2,1-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging and potassium
ferricyanide-ferric chloride assay, Marín et al. (2016) reported that essential oils extracted
from parsley flowers by hydrodistillation exhibited antioxidant activity at 500, 1000, 2000
and 5000 mg/mL with the highest concentration exhibiting inhibition of DPPH radical at
64.28% and ferric reducing power of 0.93 mmol/L Trolox. Haidari et al. (2011) by means of
the ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), lipid peroxidation and spectrophotometry (high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and bicinchoninic acid kit) assay reported that
aqueous extracts of P. crispum leaves and its isolated flavonoids (quercetin and kaempferol)
at a concentration of 5 mg/g significantly (p<0.001) increased the total antioxidant capacity
and decreased malondialdehyde concentration in hyperuricemic rats.
Leaf and stem aqueous and methanol extracts of P. crispum have been identified to
possess antioxidant activity in vitro via the DPPH radical-scavenging, ion-chelating and
hydroxyl radical assays (Wong et al., 2006). Methanol-derived leaf extracts exhibited
significantly (p<0.05) greater radical-scavenging activity towards both lipid-and water-
soluble radicals, which was attributed to the total phenolic content. Ferrous ion-chelating
activity was significantly (p<0.05) greater in the stem methanol extracts.
Sęczyk et al. (2015) using the Folin-Ciocalteu assay reported that wheat pasta
fortified with powdered P. crispum leaves [1 to 4% (w/w)] exhibited antioxidant activity in
vitro. Essential oil from seeds of P. crispum exhibited antioxidant activity using beta-carotene
bleaching, DPPH free radical scavenging and Fe2+- metal chelating assays. The EC50 values of
the b-carotene bleaching assay and DPPH free radical scavenging assay of the crude P.
crispum oil dissolved in methanol were 5.12 and 80.21 mg/mL, respectively (Zhang et al.,
2006) (Table 1-25).
6.3. Anti-diabetic activity
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Tunali et al. (1999) reported that aqueous extract of P. crispum leaves (2 g/kg) prevented an
increase in blood glucose level in rats by using the o-toluidine and 2-thiobarbituric acid
assays. Aqueous extract of P. crispum leaves (2 g/kg) was identified to increase lipid
peroxidation and decrease glutathione levels in hyperglycemia-induced heart and aorta
oxidative damage in rats via its antioxidant activity in the heart and aorta tissue (Sener et al.,
2003). Using the o-toluidine and two point assay, Bolkent et al. (2005) reported that aqueous
extract of P. crispum leaves (2 g/kg) demonstrated significant hepato-protective effect in
diabetic rats. Yanardağ et al. (2003) showed that experimental rats administered with 2 g/kg
of P. crispum extract by intragastric intubation containing water for 28 days, significantly
(p<0.0001) reduced blood glucose in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats using the o-
toluidine assay (Table 1-25).
6.4. Cardiovascular activity
Crude aqueous extract of P. crispumhas been identified to exhibit anti-platelet activity in
experimental animals on platelet aggregation in vitro and ex vivo, and on bleeding time in
vivo. The crude extract which contained aglycone flavonoids 50, 54 and 56 as the active
compounds significantly (p<0.001) inhibited platelet aggregation at 3g/kg body weight ex
vivo and prolonged bleeding time (p<0.001) without changes in the amount of platelet (Gadi
et al., 2009; Gadi et al., 2012).
Chaves et al. (2011) reported that flavonoids including 50 and 56 isolated from
aqueous extracts of P. crispum leaves in the platelet aggregation model exhibited strong in
vitro antiplatelet aggregation activity (IC50 of 0.036 mg/mL for 50 and IC50 of 0.18 mg/mL
for 56). Though the aqueous P. crispum extract showed no inhibition on clotting activity
when compared with the control, it exhibited strong antiplatelet aggregation activity (IC50 of
1.81 mg/mL).
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6.5. Immuno-modulating activity
Essential oil from seeds of P. crispum at concentrations of 0.01 to 100 μg/mL blocked
humoral and cellular immune response by inhibiting splenocytes and macrophages function
in the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide(MTT) assay (Yousofi et
al., 2012).
6.6. Gastrointestinal activity
Aqueous seed extract of P. crispum showed laxative activity in rat by reducing the absorption
of sodium and water on net fluid absorption from rat colon using a perfusion technique. The
extract also enhanced Na-KCl2 transporter activity in the rat colon (Kreydiyyeh et al., 2001).
Ethanol leaf extract of P. crispum at doses of 1 and 2 g/kg body weight has been reported to
exhibit beneficial effects on different peptic ulcer models in rats via its anti-secretory and
cyto-protective activities using the cold-restraint ulcer (CRU) technique (Al-Howiriny et al.,
2003).
6.7. Genitourinary activity
Methanol aerial parts extract of P. crispum (1.0 and 10 mg/mL) showed proliferative activity
in estrogen-sensitive MCF-7 breast cancer cell line using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-
2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide(MTT) assay. This estrogenic activity was related to these
isolated compounds including aglycones of compound 60, compounds 50 and 54. The EC50
values of these aglycones were as follows, 50 (1.0 mM), aglycone of 60 (2.9 mM) and 54
(0.56 mM). The methanol extract and compound 50 restored the uterus weight in
ovariectomized mice when orally administered for consecutive 7 days (Yoshikawa et al.,
2000).
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P. crispum oil (0.6 mL/kg body weight.) showed protective activity against
zearalenone-induced reproductive toxicity and improved testosterone levels in matured male
mice (Abdel-Wahhab et al., 2006). Ethanol seed extract of P. crispum (5 mg/kg) reduced the
dysfunction in rats kidney caused by prostadin-induced abortion via immuno-histochemical
and immune-fluorescent staining and biochemical analysis (Rezazad and Farokhi, 2014).
6.8. Analgesic activity
Ethanol seed extract of P. crispum showed significant (p<0.001) analgesic activity by
reducing KCl and CaCl2-induced contractions on rat isolated ileum (Moazedi et al., 2007) via
the pressure transducer test. The ethanol leaf extract of P. crispum at doses of 100, 150 and
200 mg/kg body weight has been found to exhibit analgesic effects on mice by formalin and
acetic acid tests (Eidi et al., 2009).
6.9. Spasmolytic activity
Ethanol seed extract of P. crispum has been found to exhibit relaxation effect on isolated ilea
from adult male Wistar rat in a concentration-dependent manner (p<0.01) by measuring
contractions of the isolated ilea, induced by 60 mM potassium chloride (KCl) in the presence
of two antagonists' of α - and β-adrenoceptors (Damabi et al., 2010). Brankovic et al. (2010)
reported that aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts of P. crispum in dose dependent manner
decreased the tonus of spontaneous contractions of isolated rat ileum by 62.22% and 79.16%
respectively, thereby exhibiting antispasmodic activity on rat ileum in the pressure transducer
test.
6.10. Anti-cancer activity
The ethanol seed extract and oil of P. crispum in the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl)-2, 5-
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biphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and neutral red uptake (NRU) assays showed that seed
extract and oil of P. crispum significantly reduced cell viability, and altered the cellular
morphology of MCF-7 cells in a concentration dependent manner. Cell viability at 50, 100,
250, 500 and 1000 μg/mL of seed extract was recorded as 81, 57, 33, 8 and 5%, respectively,
whereas at 100, 250, 500, and 1000 μg/mL of seed oil values were 90, 78, 62, and 8%,
respectively. Concentrations of 50 μg/mL and above of P. crispum seed extract, and above
100 μg/mL of P. crispum seed oil were found to be cytotoxic in MCF-7 cells (Farshori et al.,
2013).
Compound 1, an essential oil constituent isolated from P. crispum through glutathione
S-transferase (GST) assay-guided fractionation inhibited (65% inhibition of the tumor
multiplicity in the lung) benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P)-induced tumor formation in female mice
(Zheng et al. 1993).
6.11. Nutraceuticals
P. crispum has been used as a nutraceutical intervention in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
via multi-omics evaluation using dextran sodium sulphate (DSS)-induced colitis. Seven-
week-old male C57BL/6J mice fed either 2% P. crispum leaves or basal diet and drank
normal-drinking-water for 1 week after which colitis was induced by administering 1.5%
(w/v) DSS-drinking-water for 9 days. P. crispum supplementation improved colon shortening
and increased disease activity index (Huijuan et al., 2014).
Al-Daraji et al., 2012 reported that supplementing the ration of geese with different
levels of fresh parsley (P. crispum) leaves (control diet + 80, control diet + 160 and control
diet + 240 g/d parsley) resulted in significant (p<0.05) improvement in most of the blood
plasma traits (concentrations of glucose, total protein, albumen, globulin, uric acid, total
cholesterol, triglycerides, high density lipoprotein (HDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL),
15

very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), calcium, phosphorus and creatinine and blood plasma
activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase) of Iraqi geese
using various biochemical assays.
6.12. Neuroprotective effect
P. crispum leaf juice (10 g/kg body weight per day) has been found to exhibit significant
effects in neutralizing and reducing the deleterious changes due to cadium exposure during
pregnancy on the behavioral activities, neurotransmitters, oxidative stress and brain neurons
morphology of newborn mice using the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer, grip-
strength meter, rota-rod, acetylcholine determination, lipid peroxidation, glutathione and
peroxidase assays (Allam et al., 2016).
7. Toxicity
The toxicity of P. crispum and its essential oil has not been thoroughly investigated. In
ethnomedicine, it has been claimed that P. crispum is abortifacient. Photodermatitis due to
furocoumarins particularly 55 are responsible for its contact photodermatitis activity in pigs
exposed to P. crispum (Chaudhary et al., 1986). Eighteen sows of mixed age from an outdoor
herd of 400 sows and boars were put in a field of parsley for 4 to 5 days and after this period,
vesicles were noted on the snouts with erythema and skin fissures. In an adjoining paddock of
parsley, 14 out of 18 gilts were affected with lesions, principally on their ears. In other
paddocks, up to 16 out of 18 sows showed similar lesions; suckling sows and those about to
furrow were most severely affected. History, clinical signs and pathology were consistent
with phytophotodermatitis (Griffiths and Douglas, 2000). Awe and Banjoko (2013) reported
that ethanol leaf extract of P. crispum exhibited hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic activities
determined by colorimetric method using bromocresol green and urease cleavage Berthelot’s
16

reaction) at continued oral doses equal to or more than 1000 mg/kg, but no obvious toxicity
when used at lower doses (Awe and Banjoko, 2013).
[Table 1-25]
8. Clinical trials
Randomized crossover clinical trial involving seven men and seven women was carried out to
study the effect of intake of parsley (P. crispum), containing high levels of the flavone
apigenin, on the urinary excretion of flavones and biomarkers for oxidative stress (Nielsen et
al., 1999).
The subjects received a strictly controlled diet low in flavones and other naturally
occurring antioxidants during the 2 weeks of intervention. This basic diet was supplemented
with parsley providing 3⋅73 to 4⋅49 mg apigenin/megajoule in one of the intervention
weeks. Urinary excretion of apigenin (50) was 1⋅59 to 409⋅09 µg/MJ per 24 h during
intervention with parsley and 0 to 112⋅27 µg/MJ per 24 h on the basic diet (p<0⋅05). The
fraction of apigenin intake excreted in the urine was 0.58% during parsley intervention.
Erythrocyte glutathione reductase (GR) and superoxide dismutase activities increased during
intervention with parsley (p<0⋅005) as compared with the levels on the basic diet, whereas
erythrocyte catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities did not change. No significant
changes were observed in plasma protein 2-adipic semialdehyde residues, a biomarker of
plasma protein oxidation.
Nielsen et al. (1999) also observed an overall decreasing trend in the activity of
antioxidant enzymes during the 2-week study. The decreased activity of SOD was strongly
correlated at the individual level with an increased oxidative damage to plasma proteins.
17

However, the intervention with parsley seemed, partly, to overcome this decrease and
resulted in increased levels of GR and SOD.
9. Patents
The following are some patents secured on P. crispum.The patented products contain either
P. Crispum alone or in combination with other pharmacologically active agents. The products
are; Composition for the treatment of halitosis; Good living tea; Breath scent camouflage
spray; Formulation for alleviation of kidney stone and gallstone symptoms; Nutraceutical for
the prevention and treatment of cancers and diseases affecting the liver; Skin care product;
Parsley Variety 'Fidelio'; Caffeoyl-coa3-O-Methyltransferase genes from parsley (P. crispum)
(Table 2-25).
[Table 2-25]
Conclusion
P. crispum has several traditional uses including anti-inflammatory, treatment of
gastrointestinal disorder, hypertension, cardiac disease, urinary disease, diabetes and various
dermal disease in traditional and folklore medicines. Phytochemical constituents; flavonoids
and phenolic compounds especially apiin, apigenin and 6-acetylapiin; essential oil including
myristicin and apiol as well as coumarins have been isolated from P. crispum. It has several
pharmacological activities such as antibacterial and antifungal, antioxidant, hepatoprotective,
anti-diabetic, analgesic, spasmolytic, immunosuppressant, anti-platelet, gastroprotective and
estrogenic effects in in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo models. Several patents have been secured
on P. crispum, which is either used alone or in combination with other pharmacologically
18

active agents. It can be concluded that P. crispum is a useful and important medicinal plant
with wide range of proven medicinal activity.
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Ziyyat, A., Legssyer, A., Mekhfi, H., Dassouli, A., Serhrouchni, M., & Benjelloun, W.(1997).
Phytotherapy of hypertension and diabetes in oriental Morocco. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, 58(1), 45-54.
29

Table 1-25. Pharmacological properties of P. crispum
Plant part Extractive solvent Pharmacological activity
Hot and cold water Antimicrobial (Aljanaby, 2013)
Water Antimicrobial (Manderfieldet al., 1997)
Ethanol Antimicrobial (Kim et al., 1998)
Methanol Antimicrobial Ojalaet al., 2000)
Methanol and water Antioxidant (Fejeset al., 1998)
Water Hyperuricemia and antioxidant (in vivo)(Haidari et al.,
2011)
Ethanol Brain protective (in vivo) (Vora et al., 2009)
Water Antidiabetic and skin damage (in vivo) (Tunaliet al., 1999)
Water Antidiabetic (in vivo) (Yanardağet al., 2003)
Water Antidiabetic and heart damage (in vivo) (Seneret al., 2003)
Water Antidiabetic and hepato-protective (in vivo) (Bolkentet al.,
2005)
Water Anti-platelet (in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo) (Gadiet al.,
2009)
Water Anti-platelet (in vitro) (Gadiet al., 2012)
Water Anti-platelet (in vitro) (Chaveset al., 2011)
Ethanol Peptic ulcer protection (in vivo) (Al-Howirinyet al., 2003)
Leaf and stem Methanol and water Antioxidant (in vitro) (Wong and Kitts, 2006)
Diethyl ether extract Antioxidant (in vitro) (Al-juhaimi and Ghafoor, 2011)
Leaf and root Methanol Antioxidant (in vitro) (Popovićet al., 2007)
Seeds Essential oil Antioxidant (in vitro) (Zhang et al., 2006)
Ethanol Antimicrobial (Seyyednejadet al., 2008)
Essential oil Antioxidant and Hepato-protection (in vivo) (Ozsoyet al.,
2006)
Essential oil Immunosuppressant (in vitro) (Yousofiet al., 2012)
Ethanol Spasmolytic (in vitro) (Moazedi and Mirzaie, 2007)
Hydroalcoholic extract Analgesic (in vivo) (Behtashet al., 2008)
Water Laxative (in vitro and in vivo) (Kreydiyyeh and Usta,
2001)
Water Diuretic (in vitro and in vivo) (Kreydiyyeh and Usta,
2001)
Alcohol and oil Anti-cancer (Farshori et al., 2013)
Aerial part Methanol Estrogenic function (in vitro) (Yoshikawa et al., 2000)
Water and ethanol Spasmolytic (in vitro) (Brankovićet al., 2010)
Hot water Cytotoxic (in vitro) (Lanttoet al., 2009)
Flowers Essential oil Antimicrobial (Marín et al., 2016)
Essential oil Antioxidant (in vitro) (Marín et al., 2016)
Table 2-25. Patents secured on P. crispum
Patent
Application
Publication
Number
Product Name Composition
30

Number
WO99/39686 US 6350435 B1 Composition for the
treatment of
halitosis
Mixture of olive oil (Oleaeuropea L.) and
parsley oil (P. crispum) (Hernandez, 2002)
US 10/726,146 US 20050118324
A1
Good living tea Dried bitter melon leaves, ground fenugreek,
ground cinnamon, dried parsley (P. crispum)
flakes and pathimukham(Anna and Mathew,
2005)
US 10/771, 063 US 20050169854
A1
Breath scent
camouflage spray
Chlorophyll, parsley (P. crispum) and
dandelion extracts (Carlos, 2005)
US 13/605,602 US 20130064912
A1
Formulation for
alleviation of
kidney stone and
gallstone symptoms
Chancapiedra (Phyllanthusniruri), gravel root,
hydrangea root, marshmallow root, juniper
berry, corn silk uvaursi, parsley (P. crispum)
root, agrimony dandelion leaf, horsetail,
orange peel, peppermint and goldenrod extract
(Barron, 2013)
US 10/560, 558 US 8012510 B2 Nutraceutical for
the prevention and
treatment of cancers
and diseases
affecting the liver
Brassica oleracea, Daucuscarota, P. crispum,
SpinaciaoleraceaL, Beta vulgaris, aloe vera
and honey (Can, 2011)
US 13/723, 906 US 8790720 B2 Skin care product Camellia and feverfew serum fractions and/or
kelp and parsley (P. crispum) serum fractions
(Richards et al., 2011)
US 61/974,900 US 20150282449 Parsley Variety
'Fidelio' (Schieder
and Ladenburg,
2015)
US 08/988, 054 US 6160205 A Caffeoyl-coa3-O-
Methyltransferase
genes from parsley
(P. crispum)
(Matern et al.,
2000)
31