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Global environmental problems like the destruction of the rainforest ecosystem call for an international solution. International agreements need to provide the mechanisms for the internalizing of cross-border externalities. In the case of tropical rain forests the protection of these ecoystems would trigger transfer payments by non-tropical countries to countries with tropical rain forests to comöensate them for the protection this ecosystem. The level of such transfers depends on the opportunity costs of the protection and the costs of clearing in in individual countries. In addition, the relative bargaining power of tropical and non-tropical countries determines the level of transfers. In order to make this system reliable and enforceable compensation payments should be rather given through periodical payments rather than lump-sum transfers.
"Möge Gott verhüten, dass lndien je die westliche lndustrialisierung übernimmt. Der wirtschaftliche Imperialismus eines einzigen kleinen lnselkönigreiches (Grossbritannien) hält heute die Welt in Ketten. Wenn eine Nation von insgesamt 300 Millionen eine ähnliche wirtschaftliche Ausbeutung ausübte, würde diese die Erde wie Heuschrecken kahlfressen". ( Mahatma Gandhi, 1928 )
Gandhis Schreckensvision von 1928 scheint heute aktueller denn je. Viele Menschen hier in den lndustrienationen drücken es offen aus, andere denken es zumindest. Möge Gott verhüten dass Länder wie Indien, China, lndonesien oder Brasilien ein ähnliches Konsumniveau erreichen, wie wir es heute in den Industrienationen als selbstverständlich erachten.
Dies hat freilich etwas Beklemmendes. Es kommt darin zum Ausdruck, dass es weder ökologische oder gar ethische Überlegungen sind, die viele Menschen mit Sorgen in den Süden schauen lassen; es ist schlichtweg der Eigennutz, der uns plagt. Jahrzehnte, ja jahrbundertelang hat es uns im Norden wenig gekümmert, wenn dort die Wälder abgeholzt wurden, wenn "dreckige" lndustrien dorthin ausgelagert wurden, weil sie mit unseren Umweltgesetzen in Konflikt gerieten, wenn wir unseren Giftmiill auf der "Deponie Entwicklungsland" endgelagert haben, wenn dort auf den Feldem Früchte für unseren Mittagstisch angebaut wurden - oder auch nur Futter für unser Vieh - während den Menschen nicht genug Land blieb, um damit ihre Versorgung mit Nahrungsmitteln sicherzustellen.
An assessment of the impact of projected climate change on forest ecosystems in India based on climate projections of the Regional Climate Model of the Hadley Centre (HadRM3) and the global dynamic vegetation model IBIS for A1B scenario is conducted for short-term (2021-2050) and long-term (2071-2100) periods. Based on the dynamic global vegetation modelling, vulnerable forested regions of India have been identified to assist in planning adaptation interventions. The assessment of climate impacts showed that at the national level, about 45% of the forested grids is projected to undergo change. Vulnerability assessment showed that such vulnerable forested grids are spread across India. However, their concentration is higher in the upper Himalayan stretches, parts of Central India, northern Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats. In contrast, the northeastern forests, southern Western Ghats and the forested regions of eastern India are estimated to be the least vulnerable. Low tree density, low biodiversity status as well as higher levels of fragmentation, in addition to climate change, contribute to the vulnerability of these forests. The mountainous forests (sub-alpine and alpine forest, the Himalayan dry temperate forest and the Himalayan moist temperate forest) are susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change. This is because climate change is predicted to be larger for regions that have greater elevations.
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Developing countries are searching for alternative energy options to promote sustainable and equitable development. Bioenergy, especially as a modernized fuel, is known to be an environmentally-sound energy option, but its potential and impacts need to be assessed for each developing country. The current sources, uses, and socio-economic and environmental impacts of biomass energy are analysed for India. The energy needs for development are assessed. Conventional energy planning has not led to equitable and sustainable development. Bioenergy options are shown to have potential to meet the energy needs of rural areas of a populous country like India. Case studies of successful bioenergy projects and economic analysis of bioenergy options are presented. Land is not a constraint to producing woody biomass for energy even in a densely populated country like India. Bioenergy options provide significant socio-economic benefits along with large potential for carbon-emission reduction and promotion of biodiversity in degraded lands. The potential for bioenergy is high for developing-countries of South-east Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and South America. There is global interest in bioenergy as a sustainable energy and green house gas emission reduction option. The Indian case study could be a model for other developing countries.
CATRINUS J. JEPMA This volume contains the various contributions that were made during the International Conference on Joint Implementation, held near Groningen, The Netherlands, 1-3 June 1994. The conference was initiated by The Netherlands' Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment -along with the Ministries of Foreign (Development Cooper ation) and Economic Affairs -and carried out under the responsibility of Foundation IDE (Groningen, The Netherlands). Its underlying idea was to bring together an international group of specialists on Joint Implementation (11) - from governments, NGOs, business and science -to discuss its feasibility of 11. The conference was timed between the 9th and 10th session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) for a Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) - which was by then considered as the most crucial phase preparing for the first Conference of Parties (CoP I; Berlin, 28 March - 7 April 1995) - in order to provide additional information or results that might serve as an input in the international negotiating process. The main purpose of the conference was, however, to sit back and have a reflection about what has now become known as 11, and evaluate from the perspective of academics, and practitioners, jointly with officials what promise the option really holds, and to evaluate under what socio-economic and political circumstances and conditions one could successfully proceed in setting out the framework for its further testing and l application.
Unter den Wissenschaftlern besteht weltweit Übereinstimmung, daß durch menschliche Tätigkeit freigesetzte Spurengase das Klima verändern. Unter diesen Spurengasen nimmt CO2 eine herausragende Rolle ein. Es gilt also, den CO2-Ausstoß zu verringern. Der Autor stellt die durch Energieumwandlungen entstehenden CO2-Emissionen vor und beschreibt mehrere Möglichkeiten einer CO2-Minderung. Hierbei geht er insbesondere auf die CO2-Reduktionsstrategien ein, wie sie für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Rahmen der Enquete-Kommission "Vorsorge zum Schutz der Erdatmosphäre" erarbeitet wurden.
Wie niemals zuvor wurde durch die UNCED-Konferenz von 1992 in Rio de Janeiro auf den untrennbaren Zusammenhang zwischen dem Schutz globaler Umweltgüter und dem Entwicklungsproblem aufmerksam gemacht.1 Die wachsende Bedeutung des Problemfelds „Umwelt“ hat auch in der Analyse der internationalen Beziehungen zu einer bemerkenswerten Ausweitung der Umweltforschung geführt, wie die stark gewachsene Anzahl bedeutsamer Arbeiten über Probleme der internationalen Umweltpolitik zeigt.2 Die Forschung hat sich vermehrt auf die Frage konzentriert, wie die kooperative Bearbeitung internationaler Umweltkonflikte durch die Schaffung von normativen Institutionen in Form von „internationalen Regimen“, die Prinzipien, Normen, Regeln und Entscheidungsprozeduren zwischen Staaten (z.B. in Form einer internationalen Konvention, von Schadstoffprotokollen oder „soft law“-Vereinbarungen) in einem Problemfeld errichten, möglich wird.3 Einen zentralen Stellenwert innerhalb der politikwissenschaftlichen Beschäftigung mit umweltpolitischen Problemen nahm seit dem Ende der achtziger Jahre die Klimaproblematik ein. Die internationale Klimapolitik ist nicht nur in der internationalen, sondern auch in der deutschen Forschung auf großes Interesse gestoßen, wie die breite Literatur über den politischen Prozeß auf nationaler und internationaler Ebene und zu einer Vielzahl wichtiger Einzelprobleme, die mit der Klimaproblematik verknüpft sind, zeigt.4
Given that a set of countries agree to keep their carbon emissions within certain national quota limits, the outcome would be a treaty in the tradition of the Rio Convention, only one step more demanding. This chapter discusses two additional measures to improve the efficiency properties of such a nontradable quota treaty. Both measures would allow committed countries to buy emission reductions from other countries as a way of partially fulfilling their commitments. One is “joint implementation”, which was supported by the Convention as an instrument capable of increasing the efficiency of commitments to limit carbon emissions. It is questioned here whether joint implementation between developed and developing countries would imply a considerable increase in efficiency. The other measure is to make national emission quotas tradable, which, in contrast, could significantly improve efficiency (to the extent that trade does), especially if developing countries with low abatement costs could be induced to participate. Here, we identify the circumstances under which quota tradability would allow developing countries to participate without subjecting them to risks of economic losses.
Within the context of the United Nations FCCC effort the participation of developing country parties in emissions reduction policies is considered to be very important. Although they have no specific targets set for them, these parties’ involvement in the global debate on climate change is desirable as they are about to enter the economic expansion process which led to the present level and rate of GHGs accumulation in the atmosphere when the present Annex I countries experienced the same.
Von jenen Organisationen, mit denen wir uns hier hauptsächlich befassen wollen, erwartet man, daß sie die Interessen ihrer Mitglieder fördern. Von Gewerkschaften erwartet man, daß sie sich um höhere Löhne und bessere Arbeitsbedingungen für ihre Mitglieder bemühen; von Bauernverbänden, daß sie sich um eine für ihre Mitglieder günstige Gesetzgebung bemühen; von Kartellen, daß sie sich um höhere Preise für die angeschlossenen Unternehmungen bemühen; von einer Aktiengesellschaft, daß sie die Belange ihrer Aktionäre för dert;1) und vom Staat, daß er die gemeinsamen Interessen seiner Bürger fördert.
Joint implementation for projects addressing climate change is the subject of an ongoing debate primarily between the North and the South. That is, should the South permit investments from the North? This article examines issues ranging from cost-effectiveness to the North, and sustainable development in the South, fair compensation, carbon-sink projects, links with carbon reduction targets by the North, and effectiveness of global environmental objectives. The North can consider joint implementation among a portfolio of options for mitigating climate change. Joint implementation should be only considered in addition to the Annex I countries' commitments as one of the options for containing developing countries' emissions without compromising their development. This article concludes by supporting a pilot phase of joint implementation, which should be closely monitored. -from Author
The first Conference of the Parties of the Climate Change Convention has to decide on criteria for the so-called joint implementation of climate protection measures. At present there is an intense debate on the advantages and disadvantages of establishing an international joint implementation program. Industrialized countries argue that climate protection measures should be carried out where marginal abatement costs for limiting greenhouse gases are lowest; they also stress the relevant potentials in developing and former COMECON countries. Critics point out the dangers of the concept since its strict application could result in a climate policy standstill in the industrialized countries. This article discusses the pros and cons of the concept. The authors conclude that the contribution joint implementation can make to global climate protection is small. Thus, joint implementation may only be a supplementary element of an overall strategy to combat climate change. -Authors
____________________________________________________________________ Vollständige bibliographische Angaben Sardemann, Gerhard: Beeinflussung des globalen Klimas durch den Menschen: Historische Entwicklung und Stand des Wissens zum anthropogenen Treibhauseffekt. In: Kopfmüller, J.; Coenen, R. (Hrsg.): Risiko Klima. Der Treibhauseffekt als Herausforderung für Wissenschaft und Politik. Frankfurt u. a.: Campus 1997, S. 27-73 (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Technikfolgenabschätzung und Systemanalyse (ITAS), Bd.4) Hinweis zur vorliegenden Kopie Für die vorliegende elektronische Kopie wurde das Original eingescannt und mit OCR-Software (Optical Character Recognition) bearbeitet. Das angezeigte Seitenabbild entspricht unter Berücksichtigung der Qualitätseinbußen beim Scannen dem Buchlayout. Durch die OCR-Software wurde zusätzlich die Durchsuchbarkeit des Textes ermöglicht. Auf Grund einer gewissen Fehleranfälligkeit des Verfahrens kann keine Garantie gegeben werden, dass der so erzeugte Text hundert Prozent mit dem Originaltext identisch ist. Mit Fehlern muss gerechnet werden. Eine intellektuelle Kontrolle des OCR-Ergebnisses hat nicht stattgefun-den. Wird Text aus dem Dokument kopiert, basiert der exportierte Text auf dem OCR-Ergebnis und kann deshalb ebenfalls Fehler enthalten.
In view of increasing power requirements, concerns for both the local and global environment are increasing. One of the cheapest ways of reducing emissions is by efficiency improvements. India has about 120 power plants of 210 MW with auxiliary consumption ranging from 8% to 14%. Auxiliaries in a majority of the units can be upgraded to improve efficiency and reduce emissions of global as well as local pollutants. Case studies of four power plants in India have been carried out to identify possible measures to reduce auxiliary consumption. Potential carbon-dioxide emissions reductions from such modernisation of 210 MW plants are estimated to be 1.5 million tonnes per year. It is suggested that these case studies and analysis provide the basis for projects for North-South co-operation in activities implemented jointly.
As a theoretical concept for cutting down on greenhouse-gas emissions where this can be done most cost-effectively, Joint Implementation is both straightforward and convincing. However, there are a number of issues relating to the putting into practice of the concept which have yet to be resolved.
In der Klimarahmenkonvention der Vereinten Nationen von 1992 ist die „gemeinsame Umsetzung klimapolitischer Maßnahmen („Joint Implementation) vorgesehen. Die auf der ersten Vertragsstaatenkonferenz in Berlin 1995 beschlossene Pilotphase für dieses Instrument ermöglicht die freiwillige Teilnahme von Entwicklungsländern an „Joint Implementation-Projekten . In dieser Arbeit wird untersucht, unter welchen Bedingungen eine solche Teilnahme sinnvoll ist. Dabei werden u. a. die Vorreiterrolle der Industrieländer in der Klimapolitik, die strikte Zusätzlichkeit der bereitgestellten Mittel, der Aus- und Aufbau von Kapazitäten in Entwicklungsländern („Capacity Building) als vorgelagerter Prozeß sowie die Partizipation der Bevölkerung bei der Planung und Umsetzung von Projekten als notwendige Voraussetzung identifiziert. Anschließend werden der Energiesektor und die Forstwirtschaft exemplarisch auf ihre Eignung für „Joint Implementation-Maßnahmen untersucht. -- The Framework Convention on Climate Change allows Parties, jointly with other Parties, to contribute to the objectives of the Convention. The decision of the 1995 Conference of the Parties in Berlin to start a pilot-phase on Joint Implementation includes the possibility for developing countries to take part in activities implemented jointly on a voluntary basis. This paper examines the necessary conditions to make this participation a success. The leading role of industrialised countries in climate policy, the genuine expansion of fmancial and other contributions, Capacity Building in developing countries before the actual Start of projects as well as the participation of the population in planning and project-implementation are identified as necessary preconditions for a sensible Joint Implementation-mechanism. Finally the suitability of the energy industry and forestry for participation in a Joint Implementation - system is considered.
This paper shows that in-kind-transfers are an effective instrument to stabilize agreements when compliance cannot be guaranteed. It demonstrates the weak superiority of in-kind-transfers for a unilateral relationship between two agents. In particular, it proves that, under conditions of perfect knowledge and necessary selfenforcement of contracts, both agents are at least not worse off by in-kind-transfers compared to monetary payments when no selfenforcing contract exists which,is based on monetary payments. This result holds for finitely and for infinitely repeated games.
India has suffered acute electric power shortages over decades and indications are that the problem will become worse. The history of energy planning and performance in India has been commendable in many aspects, such as the expansion of generating capacity, self-sufficiency in nuclear technology, and the manufacture of generating equipment. Making and implementing policy that would bring about organizational and technical change to match India's electricity supply with its requirements requires costly, difficult, and unpopular decisions. But unless the clearly evident problems are resolved soon, the future of India's electricity supply will be more bleak than in the past and the impact upon the country's development more serious. -from Author
Zusammenfassung
Dieser Artikel beschreibt die Enstehung des indischen Umweltschutzrechts von der britischen Kolonialzeit bis zur Gegenwart. Es wird argumentiert, dass die Grundstruktur des indischen Rechtssystem immer noch vom britischem Kolonialrecht geprägt ist, welches traditionelle Verteilungssysteme und Nutzrechte zu natürchlichen Rohstoffen wie zum Beispiel Wald und zu Land verdrängt hatte und die Kontrolle über diese Rohstoffe in die Hände des Staates gelegt hatte. Erst nach der Stockholmer UN Konferenz in 1972 hat Indien begonnen Gesetze zum Umweltschutz zu erlassen. Gesetze zur Luft‐ und Wasserverschmutzung wurden 1986 durch ein weitreichendes allegemeines Umweltschtutzgesetz ergänzt. Letzteres hat dem Gesetzgeber die Möglichkeit gegeben vor allem im Bereich der industriellen Verschmutzung eine Reihe von Gesetzesmassnahmen zu treffen. Umweltproblemen verursacht durch Armut und unzureichenden Rechte zu Land und anderen Rohstoffen wereden in diesen Umweltschutzgesetzen jedoch nur wenig Beachtung geschenkt und es wird argumentiert, dass diese Schwäche des indischen Umweltschutzrecht überkommen werden muss. Die pakistanische‘National Conservation Policy’wird als ein Beispiel für eine alternative‘gesetzesfreie’Umweltschutzstrategie vorgestellt.
Joint Implementation’ (JI) is considered by many participants in the international negotiations on a climate protocol to be an important economic instrument for the implementation of greenhouse gas obligations. Apart from a wide range of problems that still have to be resolved on the project level, the institutional and procedural design of such a mechanism is of vital importance. Because JI has a ‘perverse incentive’ to overstate results achieved by individual projects, careful reporting, monitoring and verification procedures are essential. Furthermore, the institutional structure must reconcile the sometimes conflicting demands of overall effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. This paper explores the possible design of a future international mechanism for JI and makes recommendations with regard to the institutional and procedural requirements.
For national environmental problems, appropriately designed emission taxes lead to efficient outcomes. The paper gives an analysis of the properties of a global tax on CO2 emissions. A uniform CO2 tax for all countries does not necessarily give a Pareto optimal outcome. The reason for this is that some or all countries may be so large that their own CO2 emissions contribute non-negligiably to the greenhouse effect, and thus their own welfare.
CO2 emissions affect the climate through cumulative emissions. In a dynamic game of CO2 emissions, it is shown that the tax giving a Pareto optimal solution is the same for the open loop and the Markov perfect equilibrium, in spite of the fact that these two equilibria differ in the absence of a CO2 tax.
Global climate change has become one of the most important of recent issues. It is estimated that roughly 60 percent of projected global climate change will be caused directly by the energy sector. Developing nations are the fastest growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emission sources. The restricted focus of the GHG problem to fossil fuels and carbon dioxide emissions in particular frightens the developing countries. Most studies on global climate change neglect the impact of proposed measures of carbon tax on the economies of the developing bloc. In this paper we examine the impacts of implementing a carbon emission tax on the economy of India using an input-output model. After discussing the economywide impacts of a carbon emission tax, possible measures for combating global climate change are examined. We also address the usefulness of energy-efficient technology to ameliorate carbon emissions.
This paper models joint implementation (JI) for emission reduction between a developed and a developing country. When the per unit price of JI abatement is negotiated, the relative pay-offs deviate from the ratio of bargaining powers. When firms bargain, country-wise gains can increase with a greater abatement target. But if the governments bargain, the developing country's gains increase at the expense of the developed country as the target increases. However, the Pareto optimal JI can be achieved only when the governments negotiate over both abatement and transfer.
Uncertainty over both the regional impacts and timing of climatic changes, the way they tend to magnify the likelihood of so-called ‘natural’ disasters and their irreversibility, require careful analysis of policy options. From an economic standpoint, the best approach is to apply ‘cost-benefit thinking’. The essential trade-off is between doing nothing now and investing in either important preventive or adaptive measures. The choices involve analysis of incurring costs now against the benefits of reducing vulnerability and future damage costs. For any given level of warming, the aim is to minimize the sum of policy costs and costs of adaptation by individuals. Any resulting policy decision will have to address issues of international cooperation and compensation. These considerations may in turn influence the resulting policy choices between ‘carbon’ taxes, marketable permits and regulatory restrictions.
The theoretical concept of joint implementation and the idea of reducing greenhouse gas emissions where costs are least is still charming and – at least for economists – no revolution. However, one of the most critical aspects regarding joint implementation is the question of ‘additionality’. Some argue that a ‘real’ joint implementation project may not have any commercial value at all, others propose that the value of emissions reduction credits shall bring about a positive return on investment where otherwise it would have been negative. The present paper states that there is no feasible option to divide projects into joint implementation and non-joint implementation candidates regarding their financing. The result is that any project which brings about real and measurable environmental and social benefits should be regarded as a possible joint implementation project, be it a pure donation or a highly profitable private investment.
We analyze energy-intensity changes in the People's Republic of China (China) in the material production sector, which accounts for over 80% of total commercial energy consumption in China. Between 1980 and 1988, the energy intensity was reduced by 37%. Our analysis indicates that improvement in energy-efficiency, rather than structural change, was the dominant reason for this energy-intensity reduction. Using a shift-share analysis, we show that only from 1980 to 1981 was structural change the major cause of the energy-intensity reduction. For most of the other years, changes in industrial structure actually accelerated the growth of energy consumption and exerted an upward pressure on energy intensity. Our finding differs from that of other analysts. We also examine the potential for and barriers to further energy-intensity reductions, based primarily on information collected during our 1991 field trip to China.
Bei den Klimaverhandlungen in Kyoto einigten sich die Delegierten auf die Einrichtung eines sogenannten Clean Development Mechanism. Dabei handelt es sich um einen Vertragsmechanismus, dessen Herzstück die Gemeinsame Vertragsumsetzung ist, welche international als Joint Implementation bezeichnet wird. Die Grundidee ist, daß Industrieländer mit relativ hohen Klimaschutzkosten zusammen mit Entwicklungsländern den Ausstoß von Treibhausgasen reduzieren. Die Emissionsreduktion soll durch den vergleichsweise kostengünstigen Ersatz veralteter, umweltbelastender Technologie durch ausgereiftes modernes Know-how in den Entwicklungsländern erreicht werden. Die Industrieländer, welche diesen Technologie- und Know-how-Transfer bezahlen, sollen als Gegenleistung eine Emissionsgutschrift auf ihre im Klimaprotokoll festgelegten Reduktionsverpflichtungen erhalten. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, am Fallbeispiel Indien die These zu prüfen, daß Joint Implementation sowohl für Industrie- als auch für Entwicklungsländer vorteilhaft ist und zusätzlich zur Lösung entwicklungspolitischer Probleme in Entwicklungsländern beiträgt. --
The concept of international tradable carbon permits has been discussed in scientific circles for over ten years. Since mid 1996, however, it has become a subject of more than just academic interest. The main reason for this change is to be found in the U.S. Draft Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), submitted by the U.S. government on January 17, 1997. The U.S. contribution to preparations for the third Conference of the Parties to the FCCC, held in Kyoto in December 1997, represents the first concrete official proposal for an international emissions trading scheme. The European Union proposal for internal community burden sharing is also in line with the broad definition of emissions trading, although the individual country quotas are currently not transferable. These proposals clearly indicate that international trade in carbon dioxide emissions has turned into a politically relevant subject. In this article, we use the term ‘strong form’ deliberately to distinguish a tradable carbon permit (TCP) scheme from a weak form of project level joint implementation. We focus on discussing the following three aspects: (1) basic requirements for a TCP scheme; (2) a blueprint for designing national TCP schemes; and (3) constituting elements of an international TCP scheme. By discussing these aspects, the chapter indicates what a TCP scheme could look like and how it relates to joint implementation.
The inclusion of joint implementation (JI) in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as a climate policy instrument is deemed a breakthrough for international cooperation on climate actions. It may provide a good opportunity for cooperation between industrial¬ized and developing countries. Through an analysis of the economic effects of carbon emission limits for China, this paper provides the economic rationale for the industrialized countries to invest in JI projects in developing countries like China, where the costs of abating greenhouse gas emissions are lower than trying to achieve an equivalent abatement within their own territories. Moreover, the paper addresses some operational issues of JI, consensus regarding which is a precondition for the wide implementa¬tion of JI. Furthermore, the paper discusses the potential areas for JI projects that may be in China's interest. This discussion underlines that taking due consideration of local objectives and local conditions in designing JI projects will enhance their possibility of success.