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Women and Leadership: Selection, Development, Leadership Style, and Performance
Abstract
Despite the proliferation of leadership research in the past 75 years, investigating the ways in which women and men leaders enact and experience leadership continues to surface unanswered questions. Through the framework of selection, development, leadership style, and performance, we report gender-related findings from a broad survey of existing literature from the past three decades. Findings include differential rates of selection for women and men leaders; leader development considerations that vary by gender; evidence in favor of general similarities in leadership style (with noted exceptions) between women and men leaders; and similar performance outcomes between women and men leaders. The importance of context, be it job type, group composition, organizational culture, or industry/sector, was also revealed. Implications for practitioners and academics alike are offered throughout this report.
... A critical friend offers encouragement and guidance while focusing on building developmental relationships and providing tailored advice (Blake & Fielding, 2023;Grootenboer, 2018). Additionally, multi-rater feedback helps leaders enhance their self-awareness by gathering insights from superiors, colleagues, subordinates, and key stakeholders (Gipson et al., 2017). Organizations can better support female leaders by fostering a culture that values and encourages developmental feedback (Ely et al., 2011). ...
... Leadership identity involves building confidence and self-image, including seeing oneself as a leader and gaining recognition from others (Blake & Fielding, 2023). While mentors help mentees improve themselves through technical and psychological support, executive coaching develops development plans that build on individual strengths and address weaknesses (Gipson et al., 2017). Organizations that use executive coaching for female leader development should encourage executive coaches to design programs targeting women's unique experiences in the workplace (Hopkins et al., 2008). ...
... Networking often provides a platform for building relationships, obtaining job opportunities and promotions, and creating a social space that fosters professional recognition and credibility (Ely et al., 2011). It is important to educate men and women about the various types of networks and offer guidance on how to enter seemingly exclusive networks (Gipson et al., 2017). Additionally, Hopkins et al. (2008) suggested that clarifying the potential benefits of women's networks can empower women to develop as leaders. ...
In this chapter, the author reviews the literature on women's leadership in K-12 education, establishing the theoretical foundations of feminist theory, social justice theory, and the social change model (SCM). The research identifies five prominent themes: intersectionality and women's leadership, leadership styles of women in school roles, dimensions of women's leadership behavior, women's leadership development needs, and the leadership experiences of successful women. Based on these findings, the study integrates these traits with SCM to develop a model. It also highlights similarities in the characteristics and approaches of female leadership across 20th-and 21st-century writings, emphasizing how women's leadership styles have transformed education. In response to the evolving needs of women's leadership, the study proposes recommendations for developing educator guidance programs tailored to leadership roles in schools.
... This would include women who have been excluded from formal education, women who have been neglected socially and economically, women who have been physically disabled or have been abused, women who have been abused psychologically, women who have been socially stigmatized, unemployed women, 8 women who live in rural areas, women who live in the low-income group or women who have low political representation (Alawi and Naggar, 2018). Some organizations are willing to provide leadership opportunities for women (Gipson et al, 2017). These organizations are willing to give professional leadership courses that will give women access to the skills and knowledge required for effective leadership (Poonee, 2017). ...
... Women are recognized for their competence and hard work at home and in the public and private sectors (Gipson et al, 2017). They face discrimination both at the office and at home and are denied their fundamental human rights (Alawi and Naggar, 2018). ...
... Successful women's leadership in Pakistan and other countries is dependent on the fact that the women are well educated and know how to prioritize their work (Alawi and Naggar, 2018). With the increasing number of women leading small businesses in Pakistan, women also realize that they have the skill sets and confidence to tackle the obstacles (Gipson et al, 2017). ...
... These reflections align with the shift towards recognising the value of communal and relational leadership styles, which are often associated with feminine qualities (Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci & Burke, 2017;Kark & Buengeler, 2024). Women leaders embracing vulnerability can enhance their authenticity and foster trust among team members, facilitating more inclusive and supportive work environments (Fritz & Van Knippenberg, 2018;Ladge et al., 2018). ...
... They challenge organisational practices and cultural norms that may inadvertently perpetuate gender stereotypes by framing leadership emergence as a passive process for women (Heilman et al., 2024). Such perceptions could reinforce biases that women are less assertive or inherently less suited to leadership roles, undermining efforts to achieve gender equality in leadership (Gipson et al., 2017;Hentschel et al., 2019). In response, organisations may need to reconsider how leadership potential is identified and nurtured, ensuring that processes are in place to actively support and encourage all employees, regardless of gender, to pursue leadership roles (Kossek & Buzzanell, 2018;Lau et al., 2023). ...
... By identifying vulnerability as a strength in leadership, the research contests traditional views that associate effective leadership exclusively with masculine traits like assertiveness and dominance (Kark & Buengeler, 2024;Koenig et al., 2011). This finding suggests a shift towards valuing emotional intelligence and authenticity in leadership roles (Gipson et al., 2017;Kark & Buengeler, 2024). The work contributes to academic discussions by expanding the traits considered valuable in leaders, thus challenging gendered perceptions and encouraging a more inclusive understanding of leadership effectiveness (Eagly & Heilman, 2016;Hentschel et al., 2019). ...
Leadership emergence is fraught with pervasive gender stereotypes, and women remain underrepresented in senior leadership roles, particularly in healthcare organisations. We apply ecological systems theory to explain how environmental factors enable or inhibit women’s leadership emergence in healthcare settings. We interviewed 17 senior female leaders in the Australian healthcare sector to explore how gender-related perceptions affected their leadership journeys. Five themes emerged that challenge existing narratives: men supported women’s advancement; women impeded other women’s progress; vulnerability was a leadership strength; ambitious women were ostracised; and women were ‘given’ leadership opportunities rather than actively pursuing them. By situating these findings within the ecological systems theory framework, we highlight the interplay of individual and contextual influences across ecosystem levels. Our study offers a novel perspective on gender stereotypes in leadership emergence, advancing ecological systems theory by extending it into a new field. We provide recommendations at individual, organisational, community, and societal levels to empower women leaders.
... Leadership style: such as relationship-oriented and task-oriented styles [30], transformational and transactional styles [1,2,15], and directive and participative leadership [38] have been an important topic in literature of gender and leadership. Contingency approach suggests that not only the traits and behaviors of a leader can explain for leadership effectiveness, but also the situation that the leader is at [30,41,42]. ...
... Overall, researchers have asserted that there is no "one style fits all" solution to leadership issues and that the efficacy of various styles is contextual [22,23]. While there are some differences between men and women when it comes to style, these differences do not lead to a clear advantage of either gender across contexts [2]. ...
... Leadership style: leadership styles, such as human-oriented style and taskoriented style [30], transformational and transactional styles [1,2,15], and directive and participative leadership [38] is an important variable in literature of gender and leadership. In this study, we do not focus on exploring the difference of leadership styles between women and men as it has been extensively researched. ...
Women have been shown to be effective leaders in many team-based situations. However, it is also well-recognized that women are underrepresented in engineering and technology areas, which leads to wasted efforts and a lack of diversity in professional organizations. Although studies about gender and leadership are rich, research focusing on engineering-specific activities, are scarce. To react on this gap, we explored the experience of female leaders of software development projects and possible context factors that influence leadership effectiveness. The study was conducted as a longitudinal multiple case study. Data was collected from survey, interviews, observation and project reports. In this work, we reported some preliminary findings related to leadership style, team perception on leadership and team-task context factors. We found a strong correlation between perceived team leadership and task management. We also observed a potential association between human-oriented leading approach in low customer involvement scenarios and task-oriented leading approach in high customer involvement situations.
... De este modo, si bien las mujeres han logrado ocupar cargos directivos, estos han estado limitados a niveles jerárquicos medios (como supervisión y gerencia), primando una subrepresentación de mujeres en puestos de liderazgo principales. Escenario que se traduce en que hoy las mujeres ocupen menos de una cuarta parte de los puestos superiores de liderazgo en las empresas de todo el mundo (Gipson et al., 2017). En este sentido, es que la inclusión femenina en cargos directivos o gerenciales se instituye como uno de los mayores desafíos que enfrentan las organizaciones modernas, y una ruta válida para avanzar hacia la igualdad sustantiva entre los géneros (Montalvo, 2020). ...
... Los hallazgos develan que las mujeres ocupan más puestos administrativos, es decir, de menor jerarquía dentro de los niveles estratégicos de la organización. Esto corrobora la baja participación femenina en la alta dirección de las empresas; hecho expuesto por otros estudios afines (Sigüenza, Mendoza y Álava, 2019; Contreras, Pedraza y Mejía, 2012; Gaete, 2018;Gipson et al., 2017) y que, tradicionalmente, ha sido vinculado al problema conocido como techo de cristal (o glass ceiling en inglés). Es decir, aquella brecha centrada en los estereotipos y sesgos de género que resultan en prejuicios y discriminación contra las mujeres que aspiran a ser líderes superiores (Gipson et al., 2017;Meza, 2018). ...
... Esto corrobora la baja participación femenina en la alta dirección de las empresas; hecho expuesto por otros estudios afines (Sigüenza, Mendoza y Álava, 2019; Contreras, Pedraza y Mejía, 2012; Gaete, 2018;Gipson et al., 2017) y que, tradicionalmente, ha sido vinculado al problema conocido como techo de cristal (o glass ceiling en inglés). Es decir, aquella brecha centrada en los estereotipos y sesgos de género que resultan en prejuicios y discriminación contra las mujeres que aspiran a ser líderes superiores (Gipson et al., 2017;Meza, 2018). El techo de cristal se manifiesta en diversas formas, tales como la subrepresentación de las mujeres en la jerarquía corporativa, la brecha salarial de género, la segregación ocupacional, las políticas corporativas discriminatorias, la falta de atención a las necesidades específicas de las mujeres, entre otras (Sundar, 2015). ...
La baja participación de la mujer en cargos directivos marca una brecha de género importante en el mercado laboral. Realidad que sublima el mérito de aquellas mujeres que han logrado alcanzar posiciones jerárquicas relevantes. Este estudio analiza las prácticas de liderazgo de mujeres que ocupan cargos directivos en Chile (Región de Coquimbo). La investigación aplicó una encuesta a setenta mujeres que dirigen empresas, basada en el Inventario de Prácticas de Liderazgo de Kouzes y Posner (autoevaluación). Los resultados mostraron que las directivas, en el ejercicio de su cargo,aplican un estilo orientado en las personas, usando las prácticas de alentar y habilitar a los demás para que actúen. Se concluye que aun cuando las competencias de liderazgo coinciden, mayormente, con un modelo de liderazgo transformacional, no son excluyentes con el de tipo transaccional. Se denota, así, una preocupación especial por el fomento del trabajo colaborativo y el reconocimiento laboral.
... (Espedal, 2008;Schyns & Schilling, 2013). Several studies have examined the characteristics of leaders (Hunt, 1991;Northouse, 2013;Rost, 1993;Yukl, 2013) and the obstacles women encounter in leadership roles (Adler, 1986;Davidson, 2012;Davidson & Burke, 2004;Foschi, 1996;Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci, & Burke, 2017;Schueller-Weidekamm & Kautzky-Willer, 2012;Yukongdi & Benson, 2005). Multiple studies have emphasized the difference in gender roles and the salary inequality that continues to exist (McCauslan & Kleiner, 1992;Oakley, 2000). ...
... Leadership is not solely based on gender, as indicated by various studies (Conlin, 2003;Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb, 2011;Heilman, 2001;Oakley, 2000;Paustian-Underdahl, Walker, & Woehr, 2014;Vecchio, 2002). Many studies have shown that women are increasingly proficient in interpersonal skills (Cooke, 2005;Gipson et al., 2017;McCauslan & Kleiner, 1992;Shaya & Abu Khait, 2017;Yukongdi & Benson, 2005). ...
... The findings of the research supported the views of (Conlin, 2003;Ely et al., 2011;Heilman, 2001;Oakley, 2000;Paustian-Underdahl et al., 2014;Vecchio, 2002) who claimed that effective leadership is not exclusively founded on gender. However, the authors state that women are progressively effective in interpersonal skills and past investigations have accentuated the interpersonal skills of women which are inborn qualities (Cooke, 2005;Gipson et al., 2017;McCauslan & Kleiner, 1992;Shaya & Abu Khait, 2017;Yukongdi & Benson, 2005). The graph showed that the relationship between religiosity and leadership is stronger among males as the slope is steeper for males. ...
This study explores the moderating role of gender on the relationship between religiosity and effective leadership among leaders of both genders in Maldives. Maldives is a hundred percent Muslim nation, and Islamic Shariah is the law. While women reserve the privilege to hold public office and to practice public functions statistical data indicates a notable underrepresentation of females in leadership positions due to the rigid perception of gender roles embedded in society. Earlier studies conducted in the Maldivian setting suggested that the conservative interpretation of Islam disadvantaged women. Thus, the first objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between religiosity and effective leadership and secondly to identify the moderating role of gender on the relationship between religiosity and effective leadership. To achieve these objectives, a sample of 157 useful data was collected from 250 questionnaires distributed to leaders across various domains in the Maldives. The study employed a purposive sampling method from both genders, aged between 30 to 70 years. Out of the two hypotheses tested, results indicated the acceptance of the first hypothesis, establishing a significant relationship between religiosity and leadership. However, the second hypothesis was not supported where gender moderates the relationship between religiosity and effective leadership. This suggests the importance of religiosity in the effectiveness of leadership. Regardless of gender, adherence to a higher level of religiosity contributes positively to leadership effectiveness. Thus, for leaders in Maldives, if they want to be effective leaders, they must be religious regardless of their gender.
... Pertanto, le donne si sentono in dovere di conformarsi agli stereotipi legati ai ruoli di leadership e adeguano i loro comportamenti agli standard di distacco, assertività e fermezza, tentando allo stesso tempo di non trasgredire alle norme condivise della femminilità, tra cui la compassione, l'empatia e la connessione emotiva (Ibidem). Questo è, in sintesi, il dilemma del double bind: ci si aspetta che le donne mostrino i tratti agonistici richiesti per la leadership, pur aderendo agli stereotipi del genere femminile che vanno nella direzione opposta (Gipson et al., 2017). A tutto ciò si aggiunge l'interiorizzazione degli stereotipi e dei pregiudizi di genere da cui derivano barriere psicologiche che le donne si autoimpongono nell'ambire a posizioni di leadership (Müller & Tömmel, 2022: p. 21), nonché il ben noto problema del soffitto di cristallo, ovvero, "l'influenza persistente, anche se meno visibile [rispetto alle barriere concrete del passato basate sull'esclusione legale], degli stereotipi di genere e delle aspettative di ruolo" che esclude le donne dalle posizioni al vertice (Ivi p. 22, traduzione di chi scrive). ...
... Verge e De la Fuente, 2014; Erikson e Josefsson, 2023; Carone, 2023). Secondo Gipson et al. (2017), le donne sono generalmente meno propense a farsi valere e a richiedere ciò che vogliono. Tuttavia, Meloni dimostra di essere lontana dagli stereotipi femminili rivendicando con forza le sue capacità e i suoi successi. ...
... Exert from the resource dependence theory indicates that the presence of women on board may offer a valuable form of legitimacy in the eyes of potential and current employees (Hillman et al., 2007), and companies (e.g., technology companies) with high legitimacy value and more innovative culture may have more women in the boardroom (Bilimoria & Piderit, 1994). In contrast, Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci and Burke (2017) argue that women tend to be overrepresented in services or female friendly industry like education, healthcare and hospitality, while manufacturing, construction and financial services are predominantly men. Similarly, Brammer et al. (2009) document that reputational effects of women on board are favourably viewed in sectors that operates close to final consumers. ...
... It is not surprising because the goods and services emanating from this industry have close proximity with the final consumers. This is consistent with Gipson et al. (2017) some certain board and company characteristics. ...
A growing body of literature has documented perspectives (ethical, stakeholder and performance) which women on corporate boards can be beneficial. Despite the undeniable advantage of having women on corporate boards, little is known on the level of women representation on the corporate boards of Nigerian companies. Therefore, this study used a descriptive analysis of 80 listed non-financial companies over the period of 2005-2015 to find out the level of women representation on corporate boards of Nigerian companies. Based on the descriptive statistics, more than half (52%) of the sampled listed non-financial companies on the Nigerian stock exchange have no single seat allocated to women. In addition, an average of seven (7%) of women were found on corporate board, while only few companies six (6%) have a female as the chief executive officer (CEO). Most of the women on corporate boards were found in the healthcare, services and consumer industries. Therefore, this study provides insights on the categories of companies aspiring women should target in their business networking collaborations.
... Authors have identified different traits that are essential in the display of different leadership styles by women. Among these authors were Gipson et al. (2017) and Syed and Tariq (2017), which established warm and communal traits with women. Women are known to be warm in their communication and possess a communal spirit that helps to foster team relationships in the organisation. ...
... Despite the identified traits that might be of assistance to the organisation, the selection process for the leadership is still not in favour of women at times. The study of Gipson et al. (2017) thus confirms more men in leadership than women in the USA and across the globe. The consideration is that women are most suitable in an organisation that has a crisis or is on the verge of failure, as women can use their warm and communal traits to fix the problem. ...
... In contrast, their male counterparts are instead motivated by personal gains. Women also foster more collaborative styles than men and favor consensual and democratic decision-making (Fox & Schuhmann, 1999;Gipson et al., 2017). Female leaders in Congress are more cooperative than their male counterparts when looking for problem solutions (Lawless et al., 2018). ...
... While there are multiple reasons why women are underrepresented in political institutions, we briefly mention two that refer to systematic biases and prevent women from pursuing leadership roles more generally. First, congruity theory points out the mismatch between female gender roles and leadership roles associated mainly with masculine-oriented traits (Eagly & Karau, 2002;Gipson et al., 2017;Heilman, 1983Heilman, , 2001. The stereotypical attributes linked to being a woman are perceived as inconsistent with the character traits needed to serve in leadership positions, which Eagly and Karau (2002) argue leads to lesser access for women to leadership roles and more obstacles to overcome to become successful. ...
... In contrast, their male counterparts are instead motivated by personal gains. Women also foster more collaborative styles than men and favor consensual and democratic decision-making (Fox & Schuhmann, 1999;Gipson et al., 2017). Female leaders in Congress are more cooperative than their male counterparts when looking for problem solutions (Lawless et al., 2018). ...
... While there are multiple reasons why women are underrepresented in political institutions, we briefly mention two that refer to systematic biases and prevent women from pursuing leadership roles more generally. First, congruity theory points out the mismatch between female gender roles and leadership roles associated mainly with masculine-oriented traits (Eagly & Karau, 2002;Gipson et al., 2017;Heilman, 1983Heilman, , 2001. The stereotypical attributes linked to being a woman are perceived as inconsistent with the character traits needed to serve in leadership positions, which Eagly and Karau (2002) argue leads to lesser access for women to leadership roles and more obstacles to overcome to become successful. ...
While the number of women in government has increased, prior research on whether enhancing women's political representation alters policy choices has produced inconclusive findings. This study asks if higher women's participation in electoral institutions at the local level is associated with a different spending profile. Using Peterson’s typology of developmental, redistributive, and allocational government programs, we argue that legislative bodies with more female members will spend more on redistributive programs than on developmental or allocational. Using data from Florida's 67 counties between 2005 and 2015, our analysis supports this theoretical expectation. In line with critical mass theory, women's representation in county commissions must reach a threshold of about 33% to sway budgetary decision-making toward more extensive redistribution. We also find that the traditional commission form of government intensifies the redistributive effect of women commissioners on county spending while having a home rule charter has no significant effect.
... Research indicates that men, in a general basis, use more direct leadership styles whereas women use more transformational leadership styles (Lee and Park, 2021). Thus, women in positions of responsibility tend to stand out for fostering dialogue, using interpersonal skills or establishing more linear relationships (Gipson et al., 2017). This type of leadership is characterized by encouraging more communication with subordinates and increasing organizational commitment (Lai et al., 2020). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to analyze gender differences in leadership styles in Basque Country enterprises, identifying unique characteristics and specific barriers faced by female leaders compared to their male counterparts.
Design/methodology/approach
The research involved a survey of 537 managers and middle managers from 31 large companies in the Basque Country, Spain. Participants provided data through a structured questionnaire, which included the MLQ-6S leadership test to assess leadership styles.
Findings
Results indicate that while women are perceived to excel in several leadership qualities, they face significant barriers to reaching top management positions. Differences in leadership styles between men and women were minimal, though women were more likely to believe in the existence of these differences. The results emphasize the need for targeted interventions to support female leaders and promote gender diversity in leadership roles.
Research limitations/implications
The study is limited to large companies in a specific region of Spain, which may affect the generalizability of the findings. Future research should consider a broader geographical scope and a more diverse range of organizational sizes.
Originality/value
This research contributes to the understanding of gender dynamics in leadership by providing empirical evidence from a Spanish context, highlighting the perceptions and realities of female representation in management positions.
... Asma combina en su forma de gestión y liderazgo rasgos de los estilos de gestión masculino/competitivo -que enfatizan la orientación al resultado, la jerarquía, la distancia al poder y la asertividad-y femenino/relacional -énfasis en la orientación a las personas, el enfoque colaborativo, las cualidades interpersonales y la empatía-(Alimo-Metcalfe, 2010; Gipson et al., 2017;Matthew et al., 2013;Rhee & Sigler, 2015). En función de la situación, el contexto y las personas con las que esté trabajando/negociando en cada momento, Asma prioriza los rasgos que caracterizan uno u otro estilo de liderazgo. ...
El presente trabajo narra el caso de Dña. Asma Ouazzani en calidad de Directora Comercial del Grupo Zitron, empresa líder mundial en sistemas de ventilación para minas e infraestructuras subterráneas, naval y skydiving. Se trata de una industria altamente masculinizada en la que Zitron realizó una apuesta disruptiva obviando las pautas de género seguidas en el sector para la contratación de profesionales. Asma combina en su forma de gestión los rasgos del estilo masculino/competitivo y femenino/relacional al objeto de liderar un equipo integrado casi exclusivamente por hombres y negociar con clientes entre los que las mujeres son una excepción.
... Besides, there has been a noticeable surge in research exploration regarding the correlation between female participation at top levels and its impact on business performance (Joecks, Pull, & Vetter, 2013;Liu, Wei, & Xie, 2014;Perryman, Fernando, & Tripathy, 2016;Rose, 2007). A meta-analysis's findings imply that women may approach leadership roles with distinct perspectives and methodologies compared to men (Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci, & Burke, 2017;Kirsch, 2018) leading to unique advantages (Terjesen, Sealy, & Singh, 2009). For example, compared to male leaders, female leaders could be more risk-averse (Graham, Stendardi Jr, Myers, & Graham, 2002) and detail-oriented (Stendardi, Graham, & O'Reilly, 2006). ...
This study examines the relationship between female CEOs and the performance of firms in the family business. The study uses 137 Vietnamese-listed family businesses on the Ho Chi Minh Stock Exchange from 2010 to 2022. The study indicates that the external female CEO is less likely to impact the financial performance of a business family because of their control over family members. On the other hand, the financial performance of the family business is significantly influenced by the relationship between the female CEO heir and the female CEO founder. The result of the study is consistent with the upper echelon theory and double standards of competence theory. Furthermore, the study employs the 2SLS model to strengthen the findings in situations involving endogenous factors. The result of 2SLS reconfirms the role of the internal female CEO in the family business, which indicates that there is a positive relation between the internal CEO and financial performance in the family business. Otherwise, there is no relationship between the external CEO and financial performance in the family business. The study illuminates the significance of gender diversity in the top-tier positions within family businesses. The result of the study contributes to the practical implications for the government, firms, and investors.
... The team behind this initiative has devised a comprehensive approach to ensure the project's success (Gipson et al., 2017). Their methodology involves analyzing operational needs, financial planning, and effective marketing strategies while fostering awareness about the importance of women's education. ...
This study explores the establishment of a specialized educational institution, The House of Humaira, aimed at empowering young Muslim women through a blend of homeschooling and boarding school methods. Located in Purwakarta, this initiative addresses the significant issue of gender disparities in education by providing a model that integrates Islamic principles with academic and cognitive development. Through targeted social outreach, financial planning, and operational management, the project enhances awareness of the importance of education for women, emphasizing their roles as future mothers and contributors to societal growth. By creating tailored educational programs and sustainable management systems, the initiative seeks to produce competent, productive, and cooperative young women, serving as a blueprint for similar institutions nationwide. Key outcomes include an operational framework, a financial planning template, and community engagement through digital platforms. This project underscores the critical role of education in fostering self-reliance and leadership among women, ensuring long-term societal impact.
... Gender stereotypes are core barriers impeding women's advancement into leadership roles in the workplace (Berkery et al., 2013). These stereotypes are closely intertwined with social role theory, which stipulates the societal expectations and norms that dictate the roles and behaviours deemed appropriate for men and women (Gipson et al., 2017). Gender stereotyping perpetuates ideologies that prescribe distinct roles and behaviours for men and women, thus influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others (Tabassum et al., 2019). ...
Over the past two decades, women’s participation in the workforce has increased, but their representation in
senior roles remains suboptimal. In Tanzania, women comprise 70 % of the health workforce, but occupy only 17.4 % of senior and middle-management positions. This disparity highlights the presence of barriers to women’s leadership advancement. To better understand gender in healthcare leadership, this study conducted a national cross-sectional survey with healthcare leaders between June and September 2023 to assess contemporary gender stereotypes and their characterisation among Tanzanian healthcare leaders. Men comprised more than half (59 %) of the sample (N = 200). While 62.5 % of participants indicated no preference for the gender of their leader, 22 % preferred a man. Mean overall agency ratings were higher for men compared to women, whereas mean communality ratings were higher for women. Analysis of communality scores revealed a significant difference (U = 3110, p = 0.032), with men rating their own gender higher compared to the ratings given by women. Assessments of agency indicated that women rated women higher than men did, with differences approaching statistical significance (U= 3530 p = 0.059). These patterns indicate the presence of gender-based stereotyping. Each gender also viewed themselves more positively, as demonstrated by higher ratings of their own gender compared to ratings of the opposite gender. These findings may have adverse implications for women’s representation in Tanzania’s healthcare leadership landscape. Findings highlight the significant potential gender sensitivity and equality initiatives have in the Tanzanian context, as they could help mitigate stereotypes and their deleterious effects on women’s leadership.
... As a result, they can gain their subordinates' trust and external business partners' support, consequently benefiting firm performance (Perrault, 2015). Professionalism can also help female executives adapt to environmental volatility and crises (Gipson et al., 2017). When external environmental uncertainty increases, they can evaluate dynamic changes and rationally allocate organizational resources (Isidro and Sobral, 2015). ...
Purpose
Via dialectical perspective and configurational approach, this paper aims to explore the relationship between female representation and long-term firm performance when combined with environmental conditions.
Design/methodology/approach
For necessary condition analysis and time-series qualitative comparative analysis, a sample of 614 listed Chinese manufacturing firms between 2017 and 2020 was obtained.
Findings
The inclusion of female executives can aid firms in their long-term performance and resilience. Seven configurations, categorized as chimpanzee type, African elephant type and queen bee type, can prompt long-term firm performance. Chimpanzee-type configuration is the most prevalent path for firms to achieve long-term performance.
Practical implications
Firms could reconsider the role of female executives in achieving long-term success, assist in breaking the invisible “glass ceiling” and “glass cliff,” and refrain from viewing them as mere “tokens.” Policymakers can improve female representation by institutionally guaranteeing women’s opportunities for empowerment, education and promotion.
Originality/value
This study presents evidence for the legitimacy of female representation by demonstrating the intricate causality between female representation and firm performance beyond the controversy between business ethics and coercive policy. This paper also builds upon and extends the literature on female representation and provides alternative ways to improve female representation by combining female executives’ percentages, professionalism and positions.
... Leader development is understood as expanding a person's capacity (McCauley & Van Velsor, 2004). Much of the leader development research focuses on recommendations for organizations to develop leaders and tools that can be used to accomplish that outcome (Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb, 2011;Gipson et al., 2017;Hopkins et al., 2008). In contrast, this study examines how some women leaders experience the phenomenon of leadership and strategies they use to become successful in their leadership roles. ...
This qualitative study aims to explore and understand the leadership experiences of women in mid-level roles in nonprofit organizations. By employing role congruity theory and intersectionality as analytical frameworks, the study aims to identify the unique personal, professional, and organizational challenges these women face. The research also seeks to contribute to the literature by examining how gender intersects with other social identities to shape the leadership trajectories of women in educational settings. The study identifies self-confidence and gender, and racial stereotypes as major challenges experienced by women leaders in mid-level roles. The research highlights how these stereotypes can undermine women's leadership effectiveness and limit their opportunities for career advancement. Overall, this study adds to the existing body of knowledge by addressing gaps related to the intersection of gender with other identities.
... From support roles in the early 20th century to combat positions in the 21st, women have steadily expanded their presence and influence in all branches of the armed forces [2]. This evolution has not only changed the demographic composition of the military but has also had profound implications for leadership styles, effectiveness, and overall military culture [3]. ...
Aims: This study aims to provide a concise historical perspective and summarize recent developments in leadership styles and effectiveness of female officers in the US military. The review focuses on the evolving roles of women in military leadership, the predominant leadership styles employed, and their effectiveness in the contemporary military context. Study Design: A narrative study of peer-reviewed articles and official military reports published primarily within the last decade (2013-2023). Methodology: A comprehensive literature search was conducted using military and leadership databases, including JSTOR, Military & Government Collection, and Leadership Studies. The review prioritized empirical studies, policy analyses, and authoritative reviews published in reputable journals and official military publications. Results: The study reveals a significant increase in leadership opportunities for female officers over the past decade. Transformational and adaptive leadership styles are predominant among female officers. They have demonstrated effectiveness in team cohesion, crisis management, conflict resolution, and mentorship. In some areas, such as strategic thinking and innovative problem-solving, female officers show comparable or superior performance to their male counterparts. However, challenges related to gender stereotypes and work-life balance persist. Conclusion: While substantial progress has been made in integrating women into military leadership roles, continued efforts are needed to address remaining barriers. The unique contributions of female officers to military leadership, particularly in areas of team cohesion and adaptive problem-solving, warrant further research and recognition in military doctrine and training programs.
... According to the literature, teams perceive that women are generally more emotional than men, which sometimes works against them when it comes to motivating them (Singh et al., 2023). However, women are also considered more emotionally intelligent than men, an essential characteristic of leadership since it allows them to better understand and empathize with employees' personal problems (Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci, & Burke, 2017), and this can contribute to successful leadership behavior (Singh et al., 2023). ...
... According to the literature, teams perceive that women are generally more emotional than men, which sometimes works against them when it comes to motivating them (Singh et al., 2023). However, women are also considered more emotionally intelligent than men, an essential characteristic of leadership since it allows them to better understand and empathize with employees' personal problems (Gipson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci, & Burke, 2017), and this can contribute to successful leadership behavior (Singh et al., 2023). ...
... The study of Gipson et al. (2017) pointed out that raising awareness that women with a double-bind bias may be able to disregard contradictory messages. Instead, they should focus their energies on their task. ...
Despite the increasing number of women in male-dominant industries, biases against them still prevail. As such, the present qualitative descriptive research identified the biases and their effects on the work productivity of female workers in male-dominant industries in a City in Nueva Ecija. Regarding participants' experiences in the workplace, findings showed two kinds of biases they faced. Regarding strategies to cope with biases, findings underscored three recurring themes: disregarding the biases, giving more attention to work, and building self-confidence. Furthermore, developing self-trust and skills, ignoring biases, choosing colleagues they work with, learning to be prepared, and being courageous are the six themes emerging from participants' suggestions to help other female workers adapt to male-dominant industries. The study concludes with a framework for a more gender-inclusive workplace in the digital world.
... Further studies have cited support as a key enabler for women's leadership advancement (e.g. Broadbridge & Fielden, 2015;Gipson et al., 2017;Offermann et al., 2020). Three studies undertaken during the first decade of the millennium have specifically identified the value of family support from parents, spouses and children to career success of women (e.g. ...
Although women's participation in the workforce has steadily grown in recent decades and their representation in senior leadership positions has risen, much of the research continues to focus on explaining the barriers that prevents their upward advancement. In contrast, understanding what has enabled women to reach the top, has received much less attention. Due to this gap, the aim of this study was to explore and understand the lived experiences of women who have become senior leaders. An Heideggerian interpretative phenomenological approach was adopted. Purposive sampling was used to select eleven women from across the British Isles who were employed in positions at director level or above in the Finance, Education, Health, Law, Sports and Culture sectors. Braun and Clarke's six phase approach to reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyse data from semi-structured interviews conducted during 2018-2019. The study found that three personal attributes were instrumental to the women's career advancement into senior leadership, which formed the basis to propose a novel framework. Resilience provided them with the ability to combat challenges, overcome hurdles and bounce back from adversity. Ambition gave the women a sense of purpose, the desire for success, a determination to seek out new opportunities and the courage to push themselves beyond their comfort zone. Wisdom armed them with an intuitive, authentic and superior understanding of themselves and a moral, social and emotional maturity. This study contributes to knowledge and practice by presenting the Resilience, Ambition and Wisdom (RAW) Framework for women's leadership success and identifying the value of early professional coaching for career advancement. It also emphasises the importance of resilience and ambition combined, for career mobility and highlights the value of wisdom for women's leadership practice. Recommendations from this study are that the RAW framework is used at an individual and an organisational level to guide the development of resilience, ambition and wisdom. Women should engage in early career coaching to help them gain focus, alleviate failure anxieties and develop effective leadership strategies. Organisations should proactively promote coaching as part of their roles in helping these individuals access positions of responsibility early in their careers. Further research examining the emerging RAW framework including the development of a self-assessment scale and the relationship between personality type temperament and women's career advancement, is also recommended. 3
... More specifically, research is needed to uncover how members from historically marginalized groups, such as women and members of racial and ethnic minority groups, emerge as formal and informal inclusive leaders. Several barriers to diverse members achieving leadership positions, such as discriminatory leadership stereotypes and selection and network biases in leadership development programs, have been identified (Gipson et al., 2017). Thus, there is a need to examine how minimizing these barriers could affect who emerges as both formal and informal leaders. ...
Despite recent theoretical developments examining the emergence of several types of leadership, there is a paucity of research on the emergence of inclusive leaders. We sought to address this gap by proposing a theory-based conceptual model. We identify a paradox in leader emergence: Although there is evidence that inclusive leaders can improve organizational effectiveness, those who influence decisions about leader selection, both formal and informal, often overlook this evidence and instead select leaders who do not practice inclusion. Integrating expectation states theory and implicit leadership theory to explain leadership emergence, with social identity theory and social comparison theory to explain inclusion, we propose a conceptual model culminating with four propositions. The model suggests practices that can support inclusive leadership and how inclusive leadership can improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being. We conclude with implications for policies to promote inclusive leadership emergence and propose avenues for future research.
... This problematizes the assumptions that women do not progress because they are less qualified (Coffey and Delamont 2000) and does not offer satisfactory explanations for the underrepresentation of women in educational leadership. Women tend to be better qualified than men (Koenig et al. 2011, Gipson et al. 2017), but the experiences that they may have regarding leadership and gender can often lead them to feel unprepared and unqualified to lead (Hill et al. 2016). In contrast men often overestimate their qualifications and competence about their leadership abilities and thus are far less hesitant than women to proceed for leadership posts (Wigfield et al. 1996, Pajares andSchunk 2001). ...
Worldwide women constitute the majority of the teaching force, but men are more likely to achieve headship. Internationally a number of scholars working within sociology and the sociology of education have focused on the continued influence of gender on the shaping of identity and choices in relation to leadership, work and home. But in Greece the under-representation of women in educational leadership has received limited attention. Why are there so few women in educational leadership? How are leadership and gender constructed by men and women head teachers and teachers? Are the perceptions of men and women different and gendered? What is the future for women in leadership in Greece?
Papanastasiou uses qualitative data from interviews with men and women head teachers and teachers in Greece and analyzes them using a feminist social constructionist framework to provide some answers to these key questions. In doing so, the book sheds light on social, cultural and political factors that influence women’s potential advancement in educational leadership.
... Without visible role models, women may struggle to envision themselves in leadership roles and may face skepticism from others about their ability to lead effectively. The lack of visible role models and implicit biases within organizational structures pose significant barriers for women aspiring to leadership roles [37]. These barriers are deeply entrenched in societal perceptions and organizational dynamics, perpetuating a cycle that obstructs women's progress in leadership positions. ...
Overview: This paper delves into the pervasive challenges hindering women's progression into leadership roles. The study was conducted in Lusaka district, the capital city of Zambia from which the participants were selected for the study from 6 different organizations, 3 private and 3 government institutions. Body of Knowledge: Through a comprehensive review of existing literature and empirical evidence, it identifies key barriers impeding women's ascent to leadership positions across various sectors. The analysis encompasses societal, organizational, and individual factors contributing to the gender gap in leadership. Societal norms, biases, and cultural expectations often perpetuate gender stereotypes, creating systemic hurdles for women aspiring to leadership roles. Organizational structures and practices, including lack of mentorship opportunities, gender bias in hiring and promotion, and workplace discrimination, further exacerbate these barriers. Methods: The total target population was 601. The sample size involved a total of 61 respondents, which was 10% of the target population. A mixed method approach was used in this study in Results: The study findings indicated that deep-seated societal attitudes often favor men in leadership roles. Implicit biases, both conscious and unconscious, can lead to discriminatory practices in hiring, promotion, and performance evaluations. Similarly, the study found that women often encounter unequal opportunities for advancement, including limited access to high-profile projects, stretch assignments, and sponsorship from senior leaders. Without equal access to career-enhancing opportunities, women may struggle to develop the skills and experiences necessary for leadership roles. Recommendation: Raising awareness and concerted efforts from various stakeholders, including policymakers, organizations, and individuals through implementing diversity and inclusion initiatives, promoting equitable hiring practices, and fostering supportive workplace cultures are crucial steps toward dismantling systemic barriers to women's leadership.
... The existing body of scholarship on discrimination based on gender in leadership has demonstrated that the divergence lies not primarily in the actions performed by women and leaders from racial/ethnic minority backgrounds in their leadership roles but instead in the distinct challenges they encounter while assuming leadership positions. Due to the inclination to perceive characteristics of women and racial/ethnic minority groups as unfavourable or lacking, as they are seen as anomalies or distinct, leadership becomes a distinct encounter (Gipson et al., 2017). The study Women and Leadership (Chandler, 2011) analysed the leadership qualities of over 100 feminist women who held positions of authority. ...
... Equally, there is little evidence that men outperform women or vice versa, despite the fact that men have historically been favored for these roles (Davies et al., 2017). One approach of some organizations is to ensure that there is an equal number of males and females in senior roles or indeed that there are only women candidates on selection lists, though this procedure is highly controversial (Gipson et al., 2017). However, these results directly support investment in female leadership candidates that might otherwise evaporate because of stereotypes interacting with unsystematic qualitative interventions. ...
Which is a better determinant of achieving senior positions in management: ability or personality? In this study, over 50,000 adults, in very different organizations, completed a multidimensional intelligence test (General Intelligence Assessment), and a subsample (n = 2,368) also completed a personality test (High Potential Traits Inventory). They specified their age (modal 31 years), sex (34% female), and management level (ML; junior 34%, middle 39%, senior executive 27%). People at the most senior ML scored highest on all IQ subtests, particularly word meaning and number speed, but not perceptual speed. Regressions indicated that age, as expected, was the best predictor of ML but that gender, as well as word meaning and number score, was also significantly related to ML. Following correlations, which showed four traits (particularly ambiguity tolerance and conscientiousness) were related to ML, we performed regressions (hierarchical and ordinal logistic) to investigate to what extent there was incremental validity of personality over intelligence, and intelligence over personality, in explaining ML, controlling first for sex and age. Results suggested that personality added 4% incremental variance over intelligence, but the latter added less than 1% over the former. Traits ambiguity acceptance, risk approach, and conscientiousness were all significant predictors of ML. Limitations of various aspects of this study and implications for interventions are considered.
... Os resultados deste estudo corroboram os fenómenos de scissor e glass ceiling effects (Cotter et al. 2001;Lorber, 1994) e reforçam a necessidade de mudanças contextuais e não exclusivamente centradas nas mulheres (Vink et al., 2022). Para além disso, estratégias como a adoção de linguagem inclusiva (Leal et al., 2023), a utilização de mulheres já em lugares de liderança como modelos (Campuzano, 2019) e a promoção de ambientes seguros para mulheres (Gipson et al., 2017) são passos decisivos para promover a ascensão de mulheres a lugares de liderança onde podem espelhar as suas competências pessoais e profissionais. Sobre isto, é necessário sensibilizar agentes de recrutamento, instituições e as próprias mulheres, que características pessoais, de personalidade e o respetivo reforço socialmente atribuído às mesmas, não podem ser fatores chave para a seleção de quem ocupa lugares de liderança. ...
The main goal of our work is to propose a simulation of the human-workstation interactions in a collaborative and reconfigurable work cell based on a behavioral model which includes cognitive organizational factors. With that in mind, the purpose of this study is to gather enough data to propose the most relevant criteria for the integration of human-machine interactions in such an environment. In other words, these criteria are the basis on which the factors will be selected and will be given different weights according to the degree of their impact. This will allow the modification of parameters in the simulation to study their effect on both the well-being and the performance of the system.
(Proceedings CICOT2023), pp. 182-185
... Aspek pertama adalah akses yaitu berkaitan dengan fasilitas pendidikan yang sulit dicapai. Aspek kedua adalah partisipasi yaitu berkaitan mengenai pandangan masyarakat yang bias gender terhadap pemberian hak pendidikan terhadap anak, hal tersebut dapat diamati bahwa jumlah perempuan dalam berpartisipasi dalam pendidikan selalu di bawah jumlah laki-laki dari tahun ke tahun (Ahlstrand, 2021;Gipson et al., 2017). ...
This study aims to understand the implementation of gender-responsive school programs in Madrasah Ibtidaiyah. The research method used was descriptive qualitative with research subjects including teachers and students. Data collection techniques consisted of observation, interviews and documentation, with data validity strengthened through triangulation of techniques. Data analysis adopted an interactive model. The results showed that the implementation of the gender-responsive school program in Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Swasta Al-Ashriyah Banjarmasin was carried out through three stages: habituation, intervention, and special activities. The implementation of the program in learning includes five aspects: classroom concepts that are in accordance with gender needs, gender-oriented lesson plans, learning resources that are accessible to men and women, learning media that are impartial to gender, and learning methods that provide equal opportunities for men and women. Gender-responsive school infrastructure includes lactation rooms for nursing mothers, equal distribution of bathrooms between men and women, and school health units that pay attention to the health needs of men and women. Supporting activities for gender-responsive school programs include routine activities such as women's studies and incidental activities such as gender-responsive school poster competitions, Dimas Diajeng, and student band competitions. Supporting factors from within the school include gender-responsive school management and gender-oriented learning, while factors from outside the school are support from the community and student guardians. This research provides an in-depth understanding of the implementation of gender-responsive school programs and the factors that support them, with the potential to improve gender equality in the educational environment. AbstrakPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk memahami implementasi program sekolah responsif gender di Madrasah Ibtidaiyah. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah deskriptif kualitatif dengan subjek penelitian meliputi guru dan siswa. Teknik pengumpulan data terdiri dari observasi, wawancara, dan dokumentasi, dengan keabsahan data diperkuat melalui triangulasi teknik. Analisis data mengadopsi model interaktif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa implementasi program sekolah responsif gender di Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Swasta Al-Ashriyah Banjarmasin dilakukan melalui tiga tahap: pembiasaan, intervensi, dan kegiatan khusus. Implementasi program tersebut dalam pembelajaran mencakup lima aspek: konsep ruang kelas yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan gender, RPP berwawasan gender, sumber belajar yang dapat diakses oleh laki-laki dan perempuan, media pembelajaran yang tidak memihak gender, dan metode pembelajaran yang memberikan kesempatan yang sama bagi laki-laki dan perempuan. Sarana prasarana sekolah yang responsif gender mencakup ruang laktasi untuk ibu menyusui, pembagian kamar mandi yang seimbang antara laki-laki dan perempuan, dan unit kesehatan sekolah yang memperhatikan kebutuhan kesehatan laki-laki dan perempuan. Kegiatan penunjang program sekolah responsif gender meliputi kegiatan rutin seperti kajian keputrian dan kegiatan insidental seperti lomba poster sekolah responsif gender, Dimas Diajeng, dan lomba band peserta didik. Faktor pendukung dari dalam sekolah meliputi manajemen sekolah yang responsif gender dan pembelajaran berwawasan gender, sementara faktor dari luar sekolah adalah dukungan dari masyarakat dan wali murid. Penelitian ini memberikan pemahaman yang mendalam tentang implementasi program sekolah responsif gender dan faktor-faktor yang mendukungnya, dengan potensi untuk meningkatkan kesetaraan gender di lingkungan pendidikan.
Background
A teaching style is the approach a teacher uses in choosing instructional methods. Grasha's model categorises them as ‘expert’, ‘formal authority’, ‘personal model’, ‘facilitator’ and ‘delegator’. The teaching styles of doctors in Singapore have yet to be studied. In the author's department, teaching is often didactic. This study aimed to explore senior doctors' preferred teaching styles and whether these styles explained the consistent use of didactic approaches.
Methods
A web‐based survey using Grasha's Teaching Styles Inventory (TSI) was conducted among senior doctors in the Department of General Medicine at Sengkang General Hospital, Singapore from September 2020 to February 2021. Participants were recruited through convenience sampling. Due to non‐normal distribution, TSI scores were analysed using non‐parametric tests, while additional demographic data offered insights into factors influencing these preferences.
Findings
Out of 68 senior doctors, 40 responded, showing the strongest preference for ‘facilitator’ teaching style. Female doctors were less likely to adopt ‘expert’, ‘formal authority’ and ‘personal model’ styles than males. Those with formal education training endorsed all teaching styles more than those without, although not all differences were statistically significant. Only 35% of the senior doctors preferred a combination of teaching styles associated with didactic lectures.
Conclusion
The study showed a preference for student‐centred teaching styles among senior doctors and highlighted a disparity between actual teaching practices and preferred teaching styles. These findings provide valuable information for instructional designers to enhance their faculty development programmes and call for further investigation into the persistence of didactic lectures in medical education.
Despite the growing body of research on gender representation, there has been relatively little attention paid to why women are underrepresented in management roles in African governments. This article focuses on Ethiopia to demonstrate that glass ceiling and glass walls are critical factors in government. The study examines impediments to gender representation through two distinct methods. First, quantitative analysis is used to empirically verify whether existing theories of the glass ceiling apply to the Ethiopian context, revealing that a lack of networking and work-life conflicts are significant barriers to women’s representation at both high and low management levels. Second, qualitative analysis uncovers new variables concerning barriers to gender representation, including inconsistent affirmative action implementation, lack of political commitment and accountability, and a lack of desire for managerial roles among women. This research contributes to our empirical knowledge of the barriers to women’s representation in developing countries.
Achieving sex-based equity in organizational leadership roles has proven to be a ‘wicked’ problem with existing diversity initiatives providing minimal improvement. In this paper, we address this issue by considering a key inhibiter to women’s leadership advancement—biased perceptions of female leaders’ competence—and links to a climate for inclusion. In Study 1 (N = 236), we develop and validate a Diversity-Specific Empowering Leadership (DSEL) measure, and demonstrate its value in predicting perceptions of female leaders’ competence when compared to alternative leadership models (empowering leadership, transformational leadership, diversity-specific transformational leadership, transactional leadership, leader diversity-valuing behavior, and inclusive leadership). In Study 2 (N = 314), we introduce sex-based diversity beliefs as a moderator in the relationship between DSEL and perceptions of female leaders’ competence. In Study 3 (N = 313), we provide support for a mediated moderation model, with sex-based diversity beliefs moderating the effects of DSEL on perceptions of female leaders’ competence. In turn, this is associated with a climate for inclusion. DSEL is collaborative and developmentally focused, and our findings suggest it may attenuate sex-based biases in perceptions of leadership, especially for those who have been most resistant to change (i.e., individuals with negative sex-based diversity beliefs). Our research offers theory that can support ethical action by advancing DSEL as a promising ‘target-specific’ leadership model for creating less biased and more inclusive work environments for all.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the combined effect of gender, trust, leadership style and team integration on entrepreneurial team performance. Through an integrated analysis of gender composition and team processes, we enhance the understanding of the drivers of new venture teams’ performance.
Design/methodology/approach
We use data collected from multi-player startup simulations involving 52 teams of masters-level students across two countries. We used the fsQCA methodology to perform a configurational analysis of different team composition and processes. This innovative application of the methodology allows us to identify new combinations of gender diversity and team processes that improve team performance.
Findings
Teams with higher proportions of women who shared leadership were more profitable in several configurations, demonstrating the importance of the relationship between gender and leadership models on performance. Shared leadership resulted in high levels of trust and sense of control, which increased team effectiveness and performance. We found that combining trust with shared leadership consistently resulted in successful positive outcomes, although not all successful teams included these attributes.
Originality/value
Our findings contribute to renewing the frame of research on new venture team performance that has long revolved around the leadership-cohesion-alignment (LCA) triangle. Although the LCA paradigm certainly improved our understanding of new venture success, it provided only a partial understanding of the organizational and relational context. It offered a restricted view of the sources of cohesion and alignment. We believe that our approach to data analysis based on the fsQCA method allowed us to extend our understanding of the determinants of entrepreneurial team performance.
Using data from the 2019 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey (FEVS) and FedScope administered by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM), this study explores the relationship between gender, employee empowerment, and organizational performance in the public sector, with a focus on how this relationship is affected by women’s representation in leadership. The results show that women experience higher levels of psychological empowerment than men, which has a positive impact on organizational performance. However, in organizations with lower representation of women in leadership roles, while women continue to experience higher psychological empowerment, they report lower levels of managerial empowerment than men, which is associated with reduced organizational performance. This research underscores the importance of promoting representative bureaucracies in public organizations to increase diversity, support democratic governance, and contribute to more equitable and inclusive societies.
Diese Studie untersucht die Auswirkungen agiler Praktiken auf die berufliche Entwicklung von Frauen in Führungspositionen. Basierend auf einer systematischen Literaturanalyse werden die Herausforderungen und Chancen analysiert, die agile Methoden für Frauen bieten. Die Forschung zeigt, dass agile Praktiken, wie Scrum und Kanban, positive Effekte auf die Karriereentwicklung von Frauen haben können, indem sie eine kollaborative und flexible Arbeitsumgebung fördern. Frauen in agilen Führungsrollen nutzen häufiger transformative und partizipative Führungsstile, die zur Steigerung der Teamkohäsion und Produktivität beitragen. Dennoch stehen Frauen weiterhin vor ge-schlechtsspezifischen Barrieren und Vorurteilen, die ihre berufliche Entwicklung behindern können. Die Studie betont die Notwendigkeit gezielter Maßnahmen, um diese Hindernisse zu überwinden und die Gleichstellung der Geschlechter in agilen Umgebungen zu fördern. Dazu gehören Mentoring-Programme, flexible Arbeitsmodelle und eine unterstützende Organisationskultur. Die Ergebnisse dieser Analyse bieten wertvolle Einblicke für Unternehmen und Entscheidungsträger, die die berufliche Entwicklung von Frauen in agilen Führungspositionen stärken möchten.
The chapter explores women's increasing involvement in decision-making across various domains. It highlights persistent obstacles like institutional weaknesses and cultural norms hindering women's advancement. Gender diversity in decision-making is shown to enhance organizational performance and innovation. The importance of tearing down institutional barriers and implementing policies to support women in leadership roles is emphasized. Success stories and initiatives promoting inclusivity are discussed, alongside the transformative power of diverse perspectives in decision-making. Organizational policies, education, and mentoring are identified as key factors in advancing women's roles. It stresses the need for ongoing activism, policy changes, and cultural shifts to secure fairer distribution of leadership roles. It concludes by emphasizing the necessity of women's participation in decision-making for inclusive and efficient governance, advocating for the recognition and support of women's involvement to improve societal outcomes.
Angela Merkel has been Germany’s leader, the locomotive of the European Union, for 16 years. Cultivating a particular style, with a low profile, she was the first female chancellor in the Germanic country. Navigating tensions within her own party, the political rivals that pushed her to reach agreements on the limits and the difficult understanding with other colleagues from states such as Macron, Trump or Putin, she has been avoiding the different crises that have come to the fore. However, the crisis unleashed by the arrival of COVID-19 was different from the previous ones. She is always questioned, in the same way as the rest of the women in key positions, because the leadership traits that are required of leaders are related to those identified with masculinity. However, in managing the pandemic, Merkel was highly valued for exercising another type of profile, as an understanding, kind and fraternal mutti (‘mother’, in German). This article analyses the transition from a ‘masculinized’ leadership of the Teutonic chancellor, in the first stage prior to the pandemic, to the one ‘of convictions’. While at the beginning, she was seen as a transgressor for going beyond the expected gender stereotypes, in the second, she gave way to another feminine in managing the crisis provoked by the explosion of the pandemic. Instead of a warmongering and rational speech, Merkel resorted to a rather emotional and feminine one.
Despite recent theoretical developments examining the emergence of several types of leadership, there is a paucity of research on the emergence of inclusive leaders. We sought to address this gap by proposing a theory-based conceptual model. We identify a paradox in leader emergence: Although there is evidence that inclusive leaders can improve organizational effectiveness, those who influence decisions about leader selection, both formal and informal, often overlook this evidence and instead select leaders who do not practice inclusion. Integrating expectation states theory and implicit leadership theory to explain leadership emergence, with social identity theory and social comparison theory to explain inclusion, we propose a conceptual model culminating with four propositions. The model suggests practices that can support inclusive leadership and how inclusive leadership can improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being. We conclude with implications for policies to promote inclusive leadership emergence and propose avenues for future research.
This study examines the internal and structural factors that influence gender diversity on the boards of publicly listed companies in Nigeria. To investigate this issue, a sample of 80 publicly listed companies on the Nigerian stock exchange from 2005 to 2015 was examined through ordinary least squares (OLS), Two-limit Tobit and Probit estimation techniques. According to the findings, board size, independence, ownership concentration, company size, and industry are significantly and positively associated with women’s representation on corporate boards. However, CEO gender and foreign directorship are negative. These findings suggest that these factors may shape the gender makeup of Nigerian companies’ boards of directors. Hence, in a country with weak institutional frameworks like Nigeria, companies themselves can promote good corporate governance through gender. This study sheds insight on internal governance and structural factors influencing women’s representation and adds to the body of literature already accessible on ethical and equality concerns for women’s representation on corporate boards.
Minoritized women in K–12 education face numerous challenges that have a significant impact on their professional and personal lives. The leadership style, goals, and experiences of these women often encounter obstacles that necessitate resilience, mentorship, relational support, and leadership coaching to foster longevity, long-term success, goal achievement, and overall well-being. Minority women in leadership roles often must navigate unsupportive organizational structures. The intersectionality of gender and color/ethnicity within leadership is an important area of study for both practitioners and scholars. This publication aims to provide a comprehensive and insightful exploration of the critical topic of minority women in leadership and the effects on their well-being within the educational leadership landscape. It examines the multifaceted aspects of their experiences, including professional, physical, mental, and emotional challenges, as well as their resilience and the social dimensions of leadership.
This article provides comprehensive literature analyses of the relationship between selected contemporary/modern leadership styles and Corporate Governance (CG). Do leaders apply appropriate CG as they exercise their leadership styles? Therefore, the paper underscores that a good leadership style embraces good CG. Selected leadership styles such as; transformational, transactional, servant, and authentic leadership, have an impact on CG on aspects such as; stakeholder rights, composition of the board of directors, shareholder’s behavior, management practices, organizational policies, and regulations. The Postulated theories of CG such as; agency theory, stewardship theory, stakeholder theory, and resource dependency theory are explored. The literature findings signify the efficacy and predominance of effective leadership styles in shaping good CG practices and the need for appropriate mechanisms that support and enhance effective leadership.
The study aims to examine the relationship between leadership style preference and managerial creativity among corporate employees in the GDM Industrial Belt. The research uses mixed sampling methods, including simple random sampling and area or cluster sampling, to collect data. The sample consists of 115 corporate employees aged 20-60 years from the Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut industrial belt. The scales used were Managerial Creativity Scale (MCS) by Sangeeta Jain, Rajnish Jain, and Upinder Dhar and Leadership Preference Scale (LPS) by L. I. Bhushan, 1995. The results showed a prevalence of preference for democratic leadership style among employees, with a higher correlation between managerial creativity and leadership preference. The Pearson's correlation between managerial creativity and leadership preference was 0.726. An independent-samples t-test showed a moderately significant difference in managerial creativity levels between male and female employees. The study highlights the importance of considering both leadership preferences and managerial creativity in the corporate sector
Three experiments tested and extended recent theory regarding motivational influences on impression formation (S. T. Fiske & S. L. Neuberg, 1990; J. L. Hilton & J. M. Darley, 1991) in the context of an impression management dilemma that women face: Self-promotion may be instrumental for managing a competent impression, yet women who self-promote may suffer social reprisals for violating gender prescriptions to be modest. Experiment 1 investigated the influence of perceivers’ goals on processes that inhibit stereotypical thinking, and reactions to counterstereotypical behavior. Experiments 2–3 extended these findings by including male targets. For female targets, self-promotion led to higher competence ratings but incurred social attraction and hireability costs unless perceivers were outcome-dependent males. For male targets, self-effacement decreased competence and hireability ratings, though its effects on social attraction were inconsistent.
Although psychologists know a great deal about leadership, persons who make decisions about real leaders seem largely to ignore their accumulated wisdom. In an effort to make past research more accessible, interpretable, and relevant to decision makers, this article defines leadership and then answers nine questions that routinely come up when practical decisions are made about leadership (e.g., whom to appoint, how to evaluate them, when to terminate them).
A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the psychometric properties (interrater reliabilities within source and correlations between sources) of subordinate, supervisor, peer, and self-ratings of job performance. Different job types and dimension types were compared. Using meta-analytic methodology, we found that subordinates showed the lowest mean reliability (.30) and supervisors showed the highest (.50), with peers in between (.37). Mean correlations between sources were low for subordinate ratings (.22 with supervisor, .22 with peer, and .14 with self-ratings) and for self-ratings (.22 with supervisor and .19 with peer ratings). The mean supervisor-peer correlation was higher at .34. Both reliabilities and correlations between sources tended to be higher for nonmanagerial and lower complexity jobs. Comparisons of between-source correlations with within-source reliabilities indicated that, with some qualifications, the different sources had somewhat different perspectives on performance. Dimension reliabilities differed somewhat for interpersonal and cognitive dimensions.
This study seeks to understand to what extent and in what contexts women leaders may be advantageous for teams. More specifically, this study examines how team leader gender relates to team cohesion, cooperative learning, and participative communication. Furthermore, the study argues that advantages derived from female leadership may be contingent on teams' coordination requirements. I propose that as teams' coordination requirements increase (i.e., with functional diversity, size, and geographic dispersion), teams with women leaders report more cohesion and more cooperative and participative interaction norms than those with men leaders. I aggregated survey responses from the members of 82 teams in 29 organizations at the team level. Findings from hierarchical linear modeling analyses suggest that female leadership is more positively associated with cohesion on larger and more functionally diverse teams and more positively associated with cooperative learning and participative communication on larger and geographically dispersed teams. These results call for more research on boundary conditions on the relationship between leader gender and team outcomes, on the role of relational leadership on complex and diverse teams and, ultimately, on the potential mediating role of cohesion and team interaction norms on the relationship between leader gender and team performance. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The purpose of this perspective article is to present the argument that authentic leadership is a gendered representation of leadership. We first provide a brief history of leadership theories and definitions of authentic leadership. We then critique authentic leadership and offer arguments to support the premise that authentic leadership is not gender-neutral and is especially challenging for women.
In this paper we explore the "glass cliff" form of discrimination. We review archival and experimental evidence of the glass cliff and identify multiple processes as having the potential to contribute to the phenomenon. We also outline a range of potential reactions to the phenomenon, and we elaborate strategies for eliminating glass cliffs, but, as with other forms of (gender) discrimination, we argue that these depend on the capacity for disadvantaged groups to overcome resistance on the part of those who are motivated to maintain the status quo.
We conceptualize leadership development as identity work and show how subtle forms of gender bias in the culture and in organizations interfere with the identity work of women leaders. Based on this insight, we revisit traditional approaches to standard leadership topics, such as negotiations and leading change, as well as currently popular developmental tools, such as 360-degree feedback and networking; reinterpret them through the lens of women's experiences in organizations; and revise them to meet the particular challenges women face when transitioning into senior leadership. By framing leadership development as identity work, we reveal the gender dynamics involved in becoming a leader, offer a theoretical rationale for teaching leadership in women-only groups, and suggest design and delivery principles to increase the likelihood that women's leadership programs will help women advance into more senior leadership roles.
In a sample of 961 employees working in 71 restaurants of a moderately sized restaurant chain, we investigated a key tenet of servant leadership theory that servant leaders guide followers to emulate the leader's behavior by prioritizing the needs of others above their own. We developed and tested a model contending that servant leaders propagate servant leadership behaviors among followers by creating a serving culture, which directly influences unit (i.e., restaurant/store) performance and enhances individual attitudes and behaviors directly and through the mediating influence of individuals' identification with the unit. As hypothesized, serving culture was positively related both to restaurant performance and employee job performance, creativity, and customer service behaviors, and negatively related to turnover intentions, both directly and through employee identification with the restaurant. Samesource common method bias was reduced by employing five sources of data: employees, restaurant managers, customers, internal audits by headquarters staff, and external audits by a consulting firm.
Despite evidence that men are typically perceived as more appropriate and effective than women in leadership positions, a recent debate has emerged in the popular press and academic literature over the potential existence of a female leadership advantage. This meta-analysis addresses this debate by quantitatively summarizing gender differences in perceptions of leadership effectiveness across 99 independent samples from 95 studies. Results show that when all leadership contexts are considered, men and women do not differ in perceived leadership effectiveness. Yet, when other-ratings only are examined, women are rated as significantly more effective than men. In contrast, when self-ratings only are examined, men rate themselves as significantly more effective than women rate themselves. Additionally, this synthesis examines the influence of contextual moderators developed from role congruity theory (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Our findings help to extend role congruity theory by demonstrating how it can be supplemented based on other theories in the literature, as well as how the theory can be applied to both female and male leaders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
The main purpose of this study is to investigate gender differences in leadership styles and in organizational outcome variables, together with the influence of organizational/contextual variables on leadership styles in female and male partici- pants in Spain. The sample comprised 226 participants (35 leaders and 191 subor- dinates) belonging to 35 work teams. The general findings show that only 2 of the 10 tested leadership styles are different for female and male leaders. Specifically, sub- ordinates rate female leaders as more autocratic and negotiating than men, and this evaluation varies according to the subordinates’ sex. We also found that some differences in the rating of female and male leaders depend on whether the organi- zation is stereotypically feminine or masculine.
a b s t r a c t Based on a panel of US firms over the period of 1992 to 2004, we evaluated whether firms managed by female CEOs exhibit the same performance as firms managed by male CEOs. We also examined if the gender of the CEO affects the firm risk level, and if the com-pensation packages that boards give to female CEOs have less risky components than those given to male CEOs. Our results revealed new insights: on average, the gender of the CEO matters in terms of firm performance. When the CEO is a female, the firm risk level is smaller than when the CEO is a male. Another important finding is that boards are not attending to the risk aversion differences between male and female CEOs when they design the compensation packages, especially equity based com-pensation, which can be understood as an incentive to female CEOs to take risks.
This study examines whether and how female board directors may affect corporate social performance (CSP) by drawing on social role theory and feminist ethics literature. The empirical analysis, based on a sample of 126 firms drawn from the S&P500 group of companies over a five-year period, suggests that board gender diversity (BGD) significantly affects corporate social performance. However, this impact depends on the social performance metric under investigation. In particular, more gender diverse boards exert stronger influence on CSP metrics focusing on ‘negative’ business practices, such as the ‘concerns’ dimension of the Kinder Lydenberg Domini, Inc. (KLD) ratings. This is because such CSP ratings have the potential to induce higher levels of ‘empathic caring’, which strongly appeals to female directors. Hence, this study reveals further hidden connections in the BGD-CSP link which have important implications for managers, nongovernmental organisations and socially responsible investors.
In recent years, the number of female Chief Executive Officers (CEO’s) at large firm’s has increased to the point that it is possible to statistically compare the performance and management characteristics of firms managed by CEO’s of different genders. This paper is an exploratory study that examines the relationship between CEO gender and the performance and management of publicly traded firms. We use a large dataset of annual Forbes CEO data, combined with Compustat data, covering the time period of 1997 to 2006. Our results show that CEO gender is related to a number of factors including inside ownership and return on assets.
In this article, research is reviewed on the emergence of male and female leaders in initially leaderless groups. In these laboratory and field studies, men emerged as leaders to a greater extent than did women. Male leadership was particularly likely in short-term groups and in groups carrying out tasks that did not require complex social interaction. In contrast, women emerged as social leaders slightly more than did men. These and other findings were interpreted in terms of gender role theory, which maintains that societal gender roles influence group behavior. According to this theory, sex differences in emergent leadership are due primarily to role-induced tendencies for men to specialize more than women in behaviors strictly oriented to their group's task and for women to specialize more than men in socially facilitative behaviors.
This book is a beginning, a first step, in taking leader development in organizations beyond conventional wisdom toward a scientifically sound research-based set of principles and practices. The authors looked beyond their own academic disciplines to bring to bear accumulated wisdom from researchers who have developed well-established and accepted theoretical perspectives on adult development processes in general, then wove in the ideas that have emerged in more targeted research on adult education, development of cognitive skills, identity development, self-regulation, moral and ethical development, and related topics. The authors present an integrative theory that provides a coherent framework for describing an understanding how leader development takes place.
This study contributes to the work on board composition and firm corporate social responsibility by extending it to the environmental domain. It evaluates the relationship between boards of directors’ composition and environmental corporate social responsibility (ECSR) by integrating literatures on board composition, firm corporate social responsibility, and individual differences in attitudes toward and information about environmental issues. Using disclosed company data and the natural environment ratings data from Kinder Lydenberg Domini (KLD) Inc. for 78 Fortune 1000 companies, the study finds that a higher proportion of outside board directors is associated with more favorable ECSR and higher KLD strengths scores. Firms with boards composed of three or more female directors received higher KLD strengths scores. And, boards whose directors average closer to 56 years in age and those with a higher proportion of Western European directors are more likely to implement environmental governance structures or processes. Our results also reinforce growing concerns around unidimensional KLD measures.
Even when CEOs make gender diversity a priority by setting aspirational goals for the proportion of women in leadership roles, insisting on diverse slates of candidates for senior positions, and developing mentoring and training programs they are often frustrated by a lack of results. That's because they haven't addressed the fundamental identity shift involved in coming to see oneself, and to be seen by others, as a leader. Research shows, the authors write, that the subtle "second generation" gender bias still present in organizations and in society disrupts the learning cycle at the heart of becoming a leader. Women must establish credibility in a culture that is deeply conflicted about whether, when, and how they should exercise authority. Practices that equate leadership with behaviors considered more common in men suggest that women are simply not cut out to be leaders. Furthermore, the human tendency to gravitate to people who are like oneself leads powerful men to sponsor and advocate for other men when leadership opportunities arise. The authors suggest three actions to support and advance gender diversity: Educate women and men about second-generation gender bias; create safe "identity workspaces" to support transitions to bigger roles; and anchor women's development efforts in their sense of leadership purpose rather than in how they are perceived.
Two issues were explored: (a) which impression management (IM) tactics applicants use during actual interviews and (b) whether there is a relationship between applicants' IM tactics and their interview outcomes. The study also examined convergence across different methods and raters when measuring IM. Postinterview survey measures were obtained from applicants and interviewers regarding applicant IM behavior during a specific interview; in addition, a subset (n = 24) of interviews was audiotaped and analyzed for the presence of IM. Analyses revealed low to moderate convergence across methods and raters, suggesting that IM tactics may be multidimensional constructs. Across methods and raters, there was consistent evidence of greater applicant self-promotion than ingratiation. Similarly, IM tactics significantly predicted interviewers' evaluations and whether applicants later obtained site visits. Implications for future research are discussed.
This review article posits that the scarcity of women at the upper levels of organizations is a consequence of gender bias in evaluations. It is proposed that gender stereotypes and the expectations they produce about both what women are like (descriptive) and how they should behave (prescriptive) can result in devaluation of their performance, denial of credit to them for their successes, or their penalization for being competent. The processes giving rise to these outcomes are explored, and the procedures that are likely to encourage them are identified. Because of gender bias and the way in which it influences evaluations in work settings, it is argued that being competent does not ensure that a woman will advance to the same organizational level as an equivalently performing man.
Organizational strategies to achieve gender diversity have focussed on bottom-up approaches such as mentoring or leadership training. However, women’s representation at senior organizational levels remains well below men’s. This study investigates the trickle-down effect where an increase in female representation at a senior organizational level is expected to result in an increase in female representation at a lower level of management. Competing theories from the psychology and management literatures, that support or oppose the prediction of a trickle-down effect, are presented. Integrating these theories, we hypothesize a curvilinear relationship between female representation at two levels. Data for 1,387 organizations listed on the Australian Securities Exchange were collected for the period 2003-2012. Female representation at a senior organizational level (board) had a positive impact on subsequent female representation at a lower level of management (executive). A curvilinear relationship was found, with a weaker effect at low levels of female board representation, but only in organizations with no female executives. The trickle-down effect was strongest after one year, but still significant after five years. This evidence for the trickle-down effect suggests that organizations should consider multiple appointments of women to senior roles as a top-down strategy for increasing organizational gender diversity.
SYNOPSIS
This paper investigates the impact of one form of board diversity on the incidence of financial restatement. More specifically, we hypothesize that there is a negative relation between female board presence (defined as whether or not a board has at least one female director) and the likelihood of a financial restatement. Our hypothesis is consistent with a female board presence contributing to the board's ability to maintain an attitude of mental independence, diminishing the extent of groupthink and enhancing the ability of the board to monitor financial reporting. Utilizing the U.S. General Accounting Office (U.S. GAO 2002) report on restatements, we construct a matched-pair sample of 278 annual (187 quarterly) restatement and 278 annual (187 quarterly) control firms. After controlling for other restatement-related factors, we find a significant association between the presence of at least one woman on the board and a lower likelihood of restatement. Our results continue to hold in annual restatements from the post-Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) time period.
This research uses the network-analytic concepts of homophily, tie strength, and range to explore gender differences in characteristics of middle managers' information and career support networks. When the effects of position and potential for future advancement were held constant, women's netwotks were less homophilous than men's. Women high in advancement potential, however, relied to a greater extent than both high-potential men and less high-potential women on close ties and relationships outside their subunits. On the basis of these findings, we suggest that different types of networks may provide alternative routes to similar career resources for men and for women.
Authenticity has been a focus of much leadership research in recent years. Despite this interest, there has been a dearth of studies that explore the role of gender in the social construction of authenticity. To date, authentic leadership theories have tended to be either gender neutral or, where gender has been considered, it is argued that women as ‘outsiders’ are less likely to be accepted by their followers as authentic leaders. In this study we examine the media representations of the CEOs — one male, one female — of two major Australian retail banks during the global financial crisis. Our approach enables us to show that authenticity is something leaders ‘do’ rather than something they ‘have’ or ‘are’, and that being constructed as authentic depends on the leader performing authenticity in line with gender norms deemed appropriate for the socially constructed context in which they are expected to lead.
A study was conducted on three hundred and fifty-eight Managers across the Johnson & Johnson Consumer & Personal Care Group (JJC&PC Group) globally to assess if there are specific leadership competencies that distinguish high performers from average performers. Participants were randomly selected, then coded for performance rating, potential code, gender, functional group and regional area. More than fourteen hundred employees took part in a one hundred and eighty three question multi-rater survey that measured a variety of competencies associated with leadership performance including those commonly referred to as Emotional Intelligence. Results showed that the highest performing managers have significantly more “emotional competence” than other managers. There was strong inter-rater agreement among Supervisors, Peers, and Subordinates that the competencies of Self-Confidence, Achievement Orientation, Initiative, Leadership, Influence and Change Catalyst differentiate superior performers. The high potential managers received higher scores in the emotional competencies by Peers and Supervisors, but not by Subordinates. Some gender difference was found, with Supervisors rating Females higher in Adaptability and Service Orientation, while Peers rated Females higher on Emotional Self-Awareness, Conscientiousness, Developing Others, Service Orientation, and Communication. Direct reports scored Males higher in Change Catalyst.
This study examined the association between corporate transparency and ethical orientation of Fortune 500 companies and the number of females represented on the board of directors from the Fortune (2010) annual report data. Our basis for this judgment was whether the firm was listed on either (both) Ethisphere Magazine’s “2010 World’s Most Ethical Companies“ (Ethisphere Magazine 2011) or (and) Corporate Responsibility Magazine’s “100 Best Corporate Citizens 2010“ (Corporate Responsibility Magazine 2011) list(s). Our results indicated that, as the number of women directors increased, the probability of a corporation appearing on these lists increased. We also found that a ‘‘critical mass’’ of women directors was indicated by the data for Ethisphere Magazine’s but not Corporate Responsibility Magazine’s list.
Women bring a different perspective to decision making. Yet where that perspective is, arguably, needed most, on boards, women are noticeably under-represented. In this article, Ivey's Dean, who sits on several boards, makes a strong and compelling case for why there should be more women on more boards and what companies can do to identify and help more women to become board members.
The positive correlation between the presence of female directors on boards and corporate performance suggests that women appear to make better directors than men. But why? Using the Defined Issues Test (DIT) instrument (Rest, 1979, 1986), 624 board directors (75% male; 25% female) were surveyed to determine their reliance on three reasoning methods (i.e., Personal Interest, Normative and Complex Moral Reasoning or CMR) to make decisions. The results showed that female directors achieved significantly higher scores than their male counterparts on the CMR dimension which essentially involves making consistently fair decisions when competing interests are at stake. Since directors are compelled to make decisions in the best interest of their corporation while taking the viewpoints of multiple stakeholders into account, having a significant portion of female directors with highly developed CMR skills on board would appear to be an important resource for making these types of decisions and making them more effectively.
The aim of this study is to conceptually define and develop a scale to measure relational behavior in the workplace associated with theorized differences in how women and men approach work. Drawing from the gender studies and organizational literatures, the construct is defined and a relational approach to work scale is developed. Data were collected from a sample of 223 graduate students with work experience. Findings show preliminary evidence of reliability and validity.
How does racial and gender diversity in the management ranks affect the bottom line? Our findings indicate that participative strategy making (PSM) positively moderates the relationship between both racial and gender diversity in management and firm performance measured as return on assets. Specifically, PSM strengthens the positive relationship that exists between racial diversity in management and firm performance. Although no main effect is observed for gender diversity in management, our results reveal that gender diversity in management is positively related to performance when PSM is high. However, we find that gender diversity in management is negatively related to performance when PSM is low, while gender homogeneous management experience superior performance. We offer implications for diversity research to embrace and consider the role of PSM and ‘inclusiveness’.
Although the number of women in middle management has grown quite rapidly in the last two decades, the number of female CEOs in large corporations remains extremely low. This article examines many explanations for why women have not risen to the top, including lack of line experience, inadequate career opportunities, gender differences in linguistic styles and socialization, gender-based stereotypes, the old boy network at the top, and tokenism. Alternative explanations are also presented and analyzed, such as differences between female leadership styles and the type of leadership style expected at the top of organizations, feminist explanations for the underrepresentation of women in top management positions, and the possibility that the most talented women in business often avoid corporate life in favor of entrepreneurial careers.
Work–family programs signal an employer's perspective on gender diversity to employees, and can influence whether the effects of diversity on performance are positive or negative. This article tests the interactive effects of nonmanagement gender diversity and work–family programs on productivity, and management gender diversity and work–family programs on financial performance. The predictions were tested in 198 Australian publicly listed organizations using primary (survey) and secondary (publicly available) data based on a two-year time lag between diversity and performance. The findings indicate that nonmanagement gender diversity leads to higher productivity in organizations with many work–family programs, and management gender diversity leads to lower financial performance in organizations with few work–family programs. The results suggest different business cases at nonmanagement and management levels for the adoption of work–family programs in gender-diverse organizations. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Two traits – warmth and competence – govern social judgments of individuals and groups, and these judgments shape people's emotions and behaviors. The present chapter describes the causes and consequences of warmth and competence judgments; how, when and why they determine significant professional and organizational outcomes, such as hiring, employee evaluation, and allocation of tasks and resources. Warmth and competence represent the central dimensions of group stereotypes, the majority of which are ambivalent – characterizing groups as warm but incompetent (e.g., older people, working mothers) or competent but cold (e.g., “model minorities,” female leaders), in turn eliciting ambivalent feelings (i.e., pity and envy, respectively) and actions toward members of those groups. However, through nonverbal behaviors that subtly communicate warmth and competence information, people can manage the impressions they make on colleagues, potential employers, and possible investors. Finally, we discuss important directions for future research, such as investigating the causes and consequences of how organizations and industries are evaluated on warmth and competence.
The inconsistent findings of past board diversity research demand a test of competing linear and curvilinear diversity–performance predictions. This research focuses on board age and gender diversity, and presents a positive linear prediction based on resource dependence theory, a negative linear prediction based on social identity theory, and an inverted U-shaped curvilinear prediction based on the integration of resource dependence theory with social identity theory. The predictions were tested using archival data on 288 large organizations listed on the Australian Securities Exchange, with a 1-year time lag between diversity (age and gender) and performance (employee productivity and return on assets). The results indicate a positive linear relationship between gender diversity and employee productivity, a negative linear relationship between age diversity and return on assets, and an inverted U-shaped curvilinear relationship between age diversity and return on assets. The findings provide additional evidence on the business case for board gender diversity and refine the business case for board age diversity.
This paper focuses on the relationship between Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and Chairperson characteristics and firm performance. Specifically, the study examines the association between the characteristics of the CEO and the Chairperson of the board and firm performance. Using a sample of S&P 500 firms, the evidence found suggests that demographic and experience-related characteristics may be associated with the market valuation and financial performance of the firm. In particular, the reported results indicate a positive relationship between the presence of female CEOs or Chairs and firm performance, thus suggesting that gender-based differences may affect the CEO’s/Chairperson’s success. Moreover, the findings concerning the age of the CEO or Chair are mixed, while their experience and quality appear positively related to firm performance. Interestingly, a CEO or Chairperson holding multiple board seats is negatively associated with firm performance, whereas CEO duality has a positive relationship with Tobin’s Q and the return on assets (ROA) of the firm.
Female CEOs underperform their male counterparts in terms of shareholders’ returns by roughly 0.35% per month. This difference is significant, comparable to the in-sample value premium, somewhat smaller than the equity and momentum premia, and larger than the size premium.
The Vroom-Yetton contingency model of leadership behavior is described and critiqued. While there is some evidence for the validity of the model, the use of concurrent validation with self-report data seriously questions this validity. The model is of limited utility because it deals with only one aspect of leader behavior and is not as parsimonious as alternative models.
We present evidence that shifting hiring criteria reflects backlash toward agentic (“masterful”) women (Rudman, 1998). Participants (N = 428) evaluated male or female agentic or communal managerial applicants on dimensions of competence, social skills, and hireability. Consistent with past research, agentic women were perceived as highly competent but deficient in social skills, compared with agentic men. New to the present research, social skills predicted hiring decisions more than competence for agentic women; for all other applicants, competence received more weight than social skills. Thus, evaluators shifted the job criteria away from agentic women's strong suit (competence) and toward their perceived deficit (social skills) to justify hiring discrimination. The implications of these findings for women's professional success are discussed.