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Fish and Fisheries 2017; 1–11 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/faf
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© 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Received:8December2015
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Accepted:1December2016
DOI: 10.1111/faf.12202
GHOTI
Finding Nemo’s
1|2
Ghoaimstoserveasaforumforsmulangandpernentideas.Ghopublishessuccinctcommentaryandopinionthat
addressesimportantareasinshandsheriesscience.Ghocontribuonswillbeinnovaveandhaveaperspecvethat
mayleadtofreshandproducveinsightofconcepts,issuesandresearchagendas.AllGhocontribuonswillbeselected
bytheeditorsandpeerreviewed.
GeorgeBernardShaw (1856–1950),polymath,playwright, Nobelprizewinner, andthemost prolicleerwriter inhis-
tory,wasanadvocateofEnglishspellingreform. Hewasreportedlyfondofpoinngoutits absurdiesbyprovingthat
‘sh’couldbespelt‘gho’.Thatis:‘gh’asin‘rough’,‘o’asin‘women’and‘’asinpalaal.
1CentreforSustainableTropicalFisheries
andAquaculture,CollegeofMarineand
EnvironmentalSciences,JamesCook
University,Townsville,Australia
2CentreforTropicalBiodiversityand
ClimateChange,CollegeofArts,Society&
Educaon,JamesCookUniversity,Townsville,
Australia
ThaneAMilitz,CentreforSustainableTropical
FisheriesandAquaculture,CollegeofMarine
andEnvironmentalSciences,JamesCook
University,Townsville,Australia.
Email:thane.militz@my.jcu.edu.au
JamesCookUniversity.
Globalaudiencesare increasingly beingexposedto digital mediawithcoussto-
rylinesthatdrawonanimalcharactersinvoluntarilyenteringwildlifetrades.Anunder-
studiedprobleminwildlifetradeisthepotenalformoonpicturestoinuencetheir
audience’sdesiretobecomemoreacquainted,oenviaacquision,withanimalspor-
trayedinthelms.The2003Disneymoonpicture Finding Nemo connected audi-
enceswith awildlife tradealreadycommonplace:themarineaquariumtrade. Inthis
trade,sheriessupplylivecoralreeforganismstomillionsofpublicandprivateaquaria
worldwide. Here, we examine the percepon and reality of Finding Nemo’s impact
(coinedthe “NemoEect”)on thesheriesof thespeciescomplex represenngthe
lm’sprimaryprotagonist“Nemo”(Amphiprion ocellaris/percula).Importandexportg-
ures show lile evidence for fan-based purchases of wild-caught sh immediately
(within1.5yearsofrelease)followingthelm.Wearguethattheperceivedimpacton
thesespecies,drivenbypopularmediawithanemovebutsciencallyuninformed
approachtoconservingcoralreefecosystems,canbemoredamagingtothecauseof
conservaonthanhelpful.Thisperspecveisintendedtoencouragemarineaquarium
tradestakeholderstoconsidertheecologicalandsocialrepercussionsof bothmedia
drivenconsumpon andopposiontothetrade. UsinglessonslearnedfromFinding
Nemo,wediscussthelikelyimpactsthesequel,Finding Dory,willhaveonwildpopula-
onsofitsprotagonist“Dory”(Paracanthurus hepatus).
aquariumshery,clownsh,digitalmedia,FindingDory,FindingNemo,marineaquariumtrade
2
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MILITZ AND FOALE
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Althoughcoralreefscoverless than1%of themarineenvironment,
theyareconsideredto beamongstthemostbiologicallyrichecosys-
temsonEarth(McAllister,1995).Thepresentcenturyisaictedwith
global declines in coral reef ecosystems, spurred by anthropogenic
stressorsofpoorwatershedmanagement,habitatdestrucon,global
climatechange,overshingandotherextracveacvies(Bellwood,
Hughes,Folke,&Nyström,2004;Hugheset al.,2003).Theimpactof
themarineaquariumtradeoncoralreefecosystemsinthepresentera
isacontenousissue.Asustainablymanagedmarine aquariumtrade
has potenal to incenvize conservaon of marine ecosystems by
increasingtheperceivedvalueofsourcehabitatstolocalinhabitants
andoeralternavestomoreenvironmentallydestrucvelivelihood
opportunies (Foale, Dyer, & Kinch, 2016; Tlusty, 2002; Wabnitz,
Taylor, Green, & Razak, 2003). Further,the global disseminaon of
marineorganismsintomorethantwomillionhomesandpublicaquar-
iumsworldwidecontributestoincreasedawareness,appreciaonand
understanding of the existence and plight ofcoral reef ecosystems
(Nijman, 2009; Teitelbaum, Yeeng, Kinch, & Ponia, 2010). In some
instancessherysupplyoforganismsforthetradecanfuelfurtherde-
clinesinreefhealththroughalossofbiodiversity(Ross,1984;Wabnitz
et al., 2003; Rhyne, Rotjan,Bruckner, & Tlusty,2009; Kniweis and
Wol2010;Thornhill, 2012),overshingassociatedwith removalof
shes(Kolm&Berglund,2003;Shuman,Hodgson,&Ambrose,2005;
Tissot&Hallacher,2003;Williams,Walsh,Classie,Tissot,&Stamoulis,
2009), introducons of non-indigenous species and/or diseases
(Semmens, Buhle, Salomon, & Paengill-Semmens, 2004; Holmberg
et al.,2015;Militz,Kinch, Foale, &Southgate2016), and the use of
environmentally destrucve shing pracces (Kinch, 2004b; MAC
2006;Mak,Yanase,&Renneberg,2005;Rubecet al.,2001;Thornhill,
2012).Theeectsofthe colleconandtradeinaquarium shesare
lessstudiedthanotherthreatstocoralreefsincludingclimatechange,
ocean acidicaon, overshing and nutrient polluon, oendue to
thecomplexityofthetrade(Dee,Horii,&Thornhill,2014).
Recently,theroleofdigitalmediahasbeensuggestedasapotenal
forcefordrivingconservaoneortsinliveanimaltradesandsheries.
Digitalmedia can raise thepublicprole ofcharismacspecies which
thentendtoreceiveincreasedresearcheort(Clark&May,2002),fund-
ing(Tisdell&Nantha,2007) and public popularity (Duarte, Dennison,
Orth,&Carruthers,2008).However,charismaisapoorpredictorofcon-
servaoneortsforagivenspeciesandtheimpactsthatmajormoon
picturereleases haveon theirfeaturedspeciesarepoorlyunderstood.
Byenhancingtheaesthecvalueofbiodiversehabitatsandtheirasso-
ciated fauna through moon pictures,this photographically mediated
aesthecfeshzsaonoforganismsmayevenbecounterproducveto
achievingoverallpreservaonofbiodiversity(Foaleet al.,2016).
Global audiences are increasingly being exposed to cous
storylines that draw on animal charactersinvoluntarily entering live
animaltrades(Table1).Whilemostofthefeaturedanimalshavehus-
bandryrequirements,availabilityandcoststhatlimitfrequentencoun-
terinwildlifetrades(e.g.orcasinFree Willy),theDisneyanimaonlm
Finding Nemo,releasedinMay2003,connectedpublicaudienceswith
pets already commonplace throughout theworld: aquarium shes.
Here,we discuss the realized and perceived impacts the release of
Finding Nemo had on the species representedby the lm’s primary
protagonist.Fromthesendings,we addressthepossibleimpactthe
recentreleaseofthesequel,Finding Dory,inJune 2016mayhaveon
marineaquariumsheries.
|FINDING
NEMO
Interestinmaintaininglivemarineorganismsfortheiraesthecappeal
tracesbacktothe1930swhencolleconandexportforthisindustry
TABLE1 Filmsdepicngwildlifetradeandtheirnancialsuccess.Theengagementofglobalaudiencescanbeseeninthedisparitybetween
USandworldwidegrossreturns.Sequelsprovedtobemoresuccessfulgloballythanoriginallmsinallcases
Animated
FindingNemo DisneyEnterprises 2003 380,843,261 936,743,261
Madagascar DreamWorks 2005 193,595,521 532,680,671
Rio TwenethCenturyFox 2011 143,619,809 487,519,809
Rango ParamountPictures 2011 123,477,607 245,724,603
Non-animated
FreeWilly WarnerBros. 1993 77,698,625 153,698,625
Paulie DreamWorks 1998 27,008,669 NA
TwoBrothers PathéRennProducon 2004 18,947,630 NA
Sequels
Madagascar:Escape2Africa DreamWorks 2008 180,010,950 603,900,354
Rio 2 TwenethCenturyFox 2014 131,538,435 500,188,435
FindingDory DisneyEnterprises 2016 485,684,472 1,024,018,426
aDataobtainedfromwww.imdb.com,accessedon1November2016.
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MILITZ AND FOALE
began(Wijesekara&Yakupiyage,2001).Starngataverysmallscale
inSriLanka,tradeexpandedinthe1950s withcolleconsextending
to an increasing number of places (e.g. Hawaii and the Philippines;
Wood,2001).Rapidgrowthanddevelopmentofthetradebeganbe-
tween 1990 and 1999 with exports of reef organisms showing an-
nualgrowthof12–30percent(Bruckner,2001;Wabnitzet al.,2003).
RoughlyatthemeofFinding Nemo’srelease,anesmated1.5to 2
million people worldwide maintained marine aquaria (Green, 2003),
beingmostprevalentintheUnitedStates(US)(Wabnitzet al.,2003).
Theglobalvalueoftradeinmarineorganismsfortheaquariumtrade
wasbetweenUS$200and330millionperyearwithnearlyall ofthe
marineorganisms arisingfrom sheries(Chapman& Fitz-Coy,1997;
Larkin&Degner,2001).Itisesmated thatpre-Finding Nemo only 1
to10percentofmarineaquarium shescouldbecapvebred,with
lessthan1percentofthetotaltradeinhardcoralsbeingderivedfrom
culturedorigins(Wabnitzet al.,2003).
Depicngthejourneyfromreeftoaquarium,Finding Nemorep-
resentedmorethan1,500 speciesfrom16 familiesof well-known
marine organisms (McClenachan, Cooper, Carpenter, & Dulvy,
2012).Theprimaryprotagonistofthelm,“Nemo,”resembledtwo
species of clownshes with similarappearances, Amphiprion ocel-
laris(Pomacentridae)and Amphiprion percula(Pomacentridae).The
unique biology of clownshes,being shallow water, site-aached
species in obligatory relaonships with anemones, has endeared
theseshestomoviefansworldwidebutalsosubjectstheseshes
to a high risk of overshing (MAC 2006; Shuman et al., 2005).
Potenal local over-exploitaon of clownshes was raised as a
concern as early as 1992 (Edwards& Shepherd, 1992), well pre-
dangthelm.Theonlystudyaddressingthepopulaon-levelim-
pactsofcollecngmarineaquariumorganismsbeforeFinding Nemo
showsthat bothclownshesand anemonesexhibited signicantly
lowerdensiesatexploitedsitescomparedtounshedsitesinthe
Philippines(Shumanet al.,2005).
Itis alsoduringthe pre-Finding Nemoera thattheaquarium in-
dustrybecameatargetofpublic cricismgiventhehighvisibilityof
marineaquariumproductsasthetradeexpanded.Sustainabilitycon-
cerns wereraised with regard to destrucve collecon techniques
used,notablyin South-East Asia (Olivier,2003; Wood,1985).This
encompassedthe useofsodiumcyanideasa stunningagenttoaid
inthecolleconofsheswhichcandamageandkillbothtargetand
non-target organisms (Jones & Steven, 1997; Rubec et al., 2001).
Addionally,physicalreefdestruconto accesssheshidingwithin
livingcoralwasknowntooccurthroughouttheIndo-Pacic(Kinch,
2004b;Thornhill,2012).Furtherconcernsaddressedlocalizedover-
harvesng of target organisms (Andrews, 1990; Chan & Sadovy,
1998; Thornhill, 2012; Wijesekara& Yakupiyage,2001) and high
levelsofmortalityassociatedwithshippingandhusbandrypracces
along some supply chains (Balboa, 2003; Olivier,2003; Schmidt &
Kunzmann, 2005). However, evaluang the extent to which these
concernswerevalidatedacrosstheenretyofmarineaquariumsh-
eriesislimitedgiventhepaucityofdatacollectedontheindustryand
thelackofbiologicalknowledge(incl.populaonstatus)formanyof
theorganismstraded.
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FINDING NEMO
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An understudied problem in wildlife trade is the potenal for moon
picturestoinuencetheiraudience’sdesiretobecomemoreacquainted
(via acquision) with animals portrayed in the lms. The Jurassic Park
series and the animated televised series Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles
weresuggestedtobelinkedwithanupsurgeofpublicinterestinkeeping
replesaspets(Ramsay,Ng,O’Riordan,&Chou,2007;Watson,1997).
Similarly, the suggeson that Harry Poer movies have accelerated
India’spet owltrade (BBC2010) furtherimplicates eitherperceived or
genuineinuenceofmediaproduconsonconsumerdrivenpettrades.
Finding Nemodiersgreatlyfromtheaboveexamplesin thatthe
lmdirectlylinkeditsanimal characterswith itsrespecvepettrade
(i.e. the marine aquarium trade). Despite this linkage, Finding Nemo
appears to have had lile immediate impact on US imports of the
speciescomplexrepresentedbythelm’sprimaryprotagonist,A. ocel-
laris/percula.Accredited as the largest importer of marine aquarium
shes, the proporon of the global trade made up by US imports
hasbeenesmated tobebetween 41% and80%(Larkin & Degner,
2001;Wabnitzet al.,2003).UsingUSimportdataderivedfromRhyne,
Tlusty,Holmberg,andSzczebak(2015),thelimitaonsandtabulaon
of which are discussed by Rhyne, Tlusty, Szczebak, and Holmberg
(2015),annual importsofA. ocellaris/perculainto theUSwerefound
torisebyonly2.0%between2000and2004despitea34.5%increase
in total sh imports over the same me frame according to their
FIGURE1 USimportsofA. ocellaris and A. perculaincomparison
withallfishimports.DashedverticallineidentifiestheUSreleaseof
Finding Nemoon30May2003.DataextractedfromRhyne,Tlusty,
Holmberg,et al.(2015)
5,000,000
5,500,000
6,000,000
6,500,000
7,000,000
7,500,000
8,000,000
8,500,000
9,000,000
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Number of individuals
Year
A. ocellaris
A. percula
Both spp.
All fish
Finding
Nemo
4
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MILITZ AND FOALE
models(Figure1).Relavetootherpopularshes,A. ocellariswasnot
importedanymoreorlessfrequently,remainingtheseventhmostim-
portedshforboth2000and2004whilethelessimportedA. percula
shiedinrankingfromtwelhtothetenthoverthismeframe.The
onlymeframeaerFinding Nemo’sreleasethatshowsanincreasein
USimportsisin2005whereimportsofA. ocellaris/perculawere10.3%
above2004imports,despiteonlya1.8%increaseintotalshimports
(Figure1).Followingthisincrease, USimportsof theA. ocellaris/per-
culaspeciescomplexconsistentlydeclinedtothepoint,thatby2009,
importswerelessthanpre-Finding Nemo(i.e.in2000).
GiventheglobalaudienceofFinding Nemo,itisplausiblethatde-
mandbytheglobalmarket foraquarium shes, ratherthan just the
US market, led to increases in wild-harvest of A. ocellaris/percula.
Globaltrends,inuencedbynon-US markets,maynotbeaccurately
reectedin theUS import datapresented above.Toexamine global
trends,the onlyreliabledatacurrentlyavailablearecountry-specic
collecon and export records. Examinaon of collecon data for
global exports from Marau Sound, Solomon Islands eleven months
beforeandaerthereleaseofFinding Nemoshowsthatcolleconsof
A. perculaonlyincreasedby0.9%oftheshery’stotalcatch(Figure2).
AtthepointofFinding Nemo’srelease,the SolomonIslandswerethe
largestexporterofA. perculawithinthisspecies’naturalrange(Rhyne
Tlusty,Holmberg et al., 2015). In the Philippines, collecon records
fromJanuarytoApril2002showthecatchofA. ocellaris/perculawas
only 2.2% of the totalcatch (>40,000 shes) (Shuman et al., 2005)
whilein2006lessthan1%oftotalcatch(1,167shes)onmonitored
shingtripswereA. ocellaris/percula(MAC, 2006).Itmust be noted
that while the authors ofthe previous menoned studies reported
on collecon of A. perculawithin the Philippines, only A. ocellaris is
knowntooccur there(Froese&Pauly, 2015),henceour useofthe
speciescomplexA. ocellaris/perculainthisinstance.
Othersourcesofcollecon/exportdataavailablepriorto2003for
comparison are restrictedto the Global Marine Aquarium Database
(GMAD; Wabnitz et al., 2003). Inaccuracies in this data have been
idened, being aributed to the nature ofvoluntary data submis-
sions(Murray,Watson,Giangrande,Licciano,&Bentley,2012;Rhyne,
Tlusty,Schoeld, et al.,2012).Exporter data indicateA. ocellaris was
reportedas themostexported specieswith A. percularankedfourth
foryears1997to2002(Wabnitzet al.,2003).Thiswouldfurthersug-
gestthepopularityofA. ocellaris/A. perculawaswellestablishedprior
toFinding Nemoandnotsolelyadirectresultofthelm.
As an alternave to sheries, any increase in the demand for
A. ocellaris/percula following Finding Nemo may have been buered
bya supply ofshthroughdomesc aquaculture. While the import
datafromRhyne,Tlusty,Holmberget al. (2015)are inclusiveofboth
wild-caught andaquaculturedsh, itdoesnot account fordomesc
aquacultureproducon. Priortothe release ofthe lm, aquaculture
operaons in the US and United Kingdom were already producing
several species ofclownshes (Wabnitz et al., 2003). The US-based
aquaculturefacilityOceans,Reefs,&Aquariums(ORA)indicatedsales
of aquacultured A. ocellaris rose 25% following release of the lm
while the demand for other clownsh species remained consistent
(Prosek, 2010). In requesngORA to substanate such claims with
salesdata,thecompanyhasremaineduncommunicave.Itisunclear
howrepresentavethisanecdotalreportfromasinglefacilitywasfor
alldomescaquacultureventuresattheme.Whatisclearisthisre-
portledtoseveralstudiessuggesngwildcolleconwas“fuelled”by
thehighproleexposureoftheaquariumtradebyFinding Nemo(see
McClenachanet al.,2012;Rhyne,Tlusty,Schoeldet al.,2012).
A boleneck in assessing the demand Finding Nemo placed on
domescaquaculture isthelack ofproduconinformaonavailable
from industry. Understandably, such data are valued as proprietary
informaonandsalesrecordsmaynot beretainedwhere businesses
transfer ownership. Both of these facets were encountered when
makingrequeststoindustrytoprovidesuchrecords.Dataweremade
availablebyoneUS-basedaquaculturefacility,ReefPropagaonsInc.,
that found sales of A. ocellaris/percula declined by 46.8% between
2002(17,489sh)and2004(9,302sh).Whilesalessawanincrease
in 2005 (15,799 sh), saleswere sll 9.7% below the 2002 volume
(Figure3).This indicates accountsofan increase insupplyfrom do-
mescaquaculturewerenotuniversalacrosstheindustry.Wherein-
stancesofincreasedsupplyarereported(aswithORA),suchincreases
maybe a result of companies outcompeng their competors fora
greatermarketshareratherthanreecngagreatermarketdemand.
FIGURE2 CollectionrecordsfromMarauSound,Solomon
Islandsmarineaquariumfishery.Totalnumberofindividualscollected
11monthsbeforeandaftertheUSreleaseofFinding Nemoon30
May2003.DatafromKinch(2004a)
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10,000
12,000
14,000
Number of Individuals
Jul02 -May 03
Jun03 -Apr 04
A. perculaP. hepatus
Total Fish
FIGURE3 SalesofculturedA. ocellaris/perculaincomparisonwith
allculturedfishessoldbyReefPropagationInc.,aUS-basedmarine
aquariumaquaculturecompany.DashedverticallineidentifiestheUS
releaseofFinding Nemoon30May2003
Finding
Nemo
0
5000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
20002001 2002 2003 20042005
Number of individuals
Year
A. ocellaris/percula
All fish
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MILITZ AND FOALE
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ClaimsthatFinding Nemocreatedanupsurgeinconsumponofwild-
caughtA. ocellaris/percula(Table2)areincontradiconwiththepre-
senteddata.Whileincreasesinimportsandcolleconwerereported
for A. ocellaris/percula seven months aer the lm (i.e. 2004) these
increases were small (≤2%) and had minimal impact on the relave
ranking of these species. While lack of growth in a shery despite
increasingdemandcanbearesultof overshing (Pauly, Watson, &
Alder,2005),thisisnotthecasehere. A. perculaimportsintotheUS
declinedconsistentlysince2004(Figure1)yetconservaveesmates
suggestonly0.0076%oftheglobalpopulaonofthisspeciesarehar-
vestedannually(Maison&Graham,2015).A2015assessmentfound
A. perculainnodangerofover-exploitaonthroughoutitsrangewith
thespeciesnotwarrannginclusionundertheUSEndangeredSpecies
Act (Maison & Graham, 2015). While similar assessment of A. ocel-
laris is unavailable, this species covers a much greater geographical
range than A. percula with some locaons (e.g. Australia) exporng
minimalnumbers(Rhyne,Tlusty, Holmberg, et al., 2015), suggesng
over-exploitaon is localized where reported to occur (Madduppa,
Juterzenka,Syakir,&Kockzius,2014;Shumanet al.,2005). Farmore
substanang evidence persists that global economic trends and
aquarium life-support technology are the main drivers of trends in
marineaquariumsheries(Rhyne&Tlusty,2012).
Asmanycoastalregionsinthetropicsareexperiencingashiaway
fromextracvemarine economies towards ecotourism,compeon
foroceanspaceandresourcesisoccurringbetweensheriesandthe
tourismsector.Social conict isnotunique to the marine aquarium
trade,with conictarising between foodsheries andtourismglob-
ally (Benne et al., 2001; Fabinyi, 2010; Majanen, 2007). Australia
(Wabnitzet al., 2003), Fiji(Wabnitzet al., 2003),Vanuatu (Yeeng&
Pakoa, 2005), Maldives (Wood, 2001) and Hawaii (Capini, Tissot,
Carroll,Walsh, &Peck,2004) all havedocumentedcases of conict
betweenaquarium shersand thetourismsector.The riseofpoorly
informed environmental acvism has been a leading explanaonin
the misplaced percepon within the tourism sector that aquarium
shing is the primary threat to Hawaiian coral reefs, taking prece-
dence over poor management, land-based development/polluon,
invasivespecies,andotherformsofrecreaonalandcommercialsh-
ing(Stevenson&Tissot,2013).Thesocialramicaonsofaperceived
impact on wild populaons due to Finding Nemo have engendered
increased social conict between ecotourismindustries and marine
aquariumsheries(Yeeng&Pakoa,2005).FollowinganarcleinThe
Guardian (Fickling, 2003) stang “abooming trade in aquarium sh,
sparkedbyFinding Nemo[…]isendangering thewildlifeofVanuatu,”
thelocal tour anddive operators’associaonpressuredgovernment
authoriestoban thetrade.Abanwasenacted,butwas liedafew
weekslaterforlegalreasons, andtheVanuatuFisheries Department
wasgiventheurgenttaskofmediangsocialconictbetweenstake-
holders (Yeeng & Pakoa, 2005). Vanuatu marine aquarium export
recordsrevealedA. ocellaris/perculawerenotcollectedbythe shery
(GrantNortonpers.comm.),whichisalsoconrmedbyUSimportdata
(Rhyne,Tlusty,Holmberg, et al.,2015), despiteVanuatubeing within
A. perculadistribuonrange(Allen,1973;Faun&Allen,1997).While
empirical studies quantavelydemonstrang increased social con-
ict following the releaseof the lm are lacking, the use of Finding
Nemo to further emovebut sciencally uninformed conservaon
agendasinantradedirectedpopularmediaarclescannotbedenied
(Table2).Suchpopularmediaarcles(seeTable2)makeunsubstan-
atedclaimsthatignoretheprocessofsciencresearch.
Antradepopularmediadepicngtherarityofclownshescould,
initself,explaintheincreaseinUSimportsofA. ocellaris/perculathat
occurred in 2005 (~1.5yearsaer Finding Nemo’s release). Manyof
therstpopular media arcles implicang Finding Nemoin inducing
rarity of clownshes began circulang the Internet in late 2003 to
2004 (Table2). Hall, Milner-Gulland, and Courchamp (2008) explain
thepotenalforperceivedraritytofuelincreasingconsumerdemand,
akin to a “limited edion” product.This can be seen in the marine
aquarium trade where publicized closureof shing grounds for the
yellowtang (Zebrasoma avescens,Acanthuridae)inHawaiito create
marineprotectedareasledtoa33%increaseinpricedespiteresulng
increasesincatch(Tissot,Walsh,& Hixon,2009).The impactofper-
ceivedrarityondemandhasalsobeenestablishedintheUSlivecoral
trade with price depending more on perceived market abundance
ratherthanactualsupply(Rhyne,Tlusty,&Kaufman,2012).Inatrade
parallygovernedbyacollector’smentality,raritycanfueldemandei-
therthroughthebeliefthatthisisthelastchancetoobtainaspecimen
beforecolleconisbanned/restrictedorifitisbelievedownershipsig-
niessocialstatus,auenceandpresge(Hallet al.,2008).
Whiletheendgoalofsuchpopularmediaisoentopreservecoral
reefecosystems,thefactisthisconservaonideologyislargelydriven
byauent, sciencally educated individuals who tend to privilege
abstractintrinsicandaesthecvaluesofcoralreefsovertheulitarian
economicvalueassociatedwithextracngcertainspecies(evenwhen
thisisperfectlysustainable),whichiscricalforthelivelihoodsofthe
relavelypoorcustodiansofthosereefs(Adamset al.,2004;Foale&
Macintyre,2005;Foaleet al.,2016;VanHelden,1998).The intrinsic
The Guardian ReefsatriskaerDisneylm November2003
VICE StunningNemo November2003
Natural History Magazine SavingNemo March2004
Independent “FindingNemo”petsharmocean
ecology
July2004
ABCForeignCorrespondent Vanuatu—SavingNemo November2004
TABLE2 Examplesofpopularmedia
arclesimplicangnegaveenvironmental
impactsandclownshrarityfollowingthe
releaseofFinding Nemo
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MILITZ AND FOALE
valueplaceduponaspeciesforsimplyexisng,perpetuatedbymedia
in wealthy countries, is oen at odds with ecological importance
(Foale&Macintyre,2005;Foaleet al.,2016).Thereisnoevidencethat
clownshesoranemonesplayapivotalorkeystoneroleinmaintaining
coral reefecosystem funcon or resilience.Anemones are naturally
foundatlowdensiesinmarineprotectedareas(<1per100m2)and,
whereover-exploited,theirfunconalroleismaderedundantbyother
cnidarians (Shuman et al., 2005). However, substanal evidence ex-
ists for the ecological importanceof sh species targeted for food,
parcularly giventhe size at which they are targeted in contrastto
aquariumshes (Bellwoodet al., 2004),which istheonlyalternave
livelihoodformanymarineaquariumshers(Ferse,Kniweis,Krause,
Maddusila, & Glaser, 2013; Madduppa et al., 2014; Schwerdtner
Máñez,Dandava,&Ekau, 2014).The capacityforaquariumsh col-
lecngtoreplacemoreenvironmentallydestrucveincomegenerat-
ing acvies is parcularly true for colleconof A. ocellaris/percula
whichistheprimaryincomegenerangspeciesinmanyvillage-based
aquariumsheries(Kinch,2004b;MAC2006;Madduppaet al.,2014;
Schwerdtner Máñez et al., 2014).The ease of collecng A. ocellar-
is/perculafromthesossuesofahostanemoneeliminatestheneed
forsodium cyanideor physicaldamage toreefstructureto facilitate
captureforthesespecies(MAC2006).Thus,theimpact ofcollecng
A. ocellaris/perculaislimitedtotheshandhostanemonewherethe
colleconoccurs.
The economic value placed on clownshes by coastal people
in developing countries is largely a product of and dependent on
the aquarium trade. In areas ofPapua New Guinea with no history
ofaquarium sheries, thereareno names inthelocal languages for
clownshesemphasizingthelackoftradionalsaliencethesespecies
haveforlocal people(Cohenet al.,2014;Foale,1998; Ross,Pawley,
&Osmond, 2011).While ecotourismin theformofdivingandsnor-
kellingisoenproposedasanalternavetoaquariumsheries asa
meansofbringing valuetocoralreef resources,the scale ofinvest-
mentandmanagement demands keepsuch operaons outofreach
from local entrepreneurs (reviewed in Foale & Macintyre, 2005).
Only a minute fracon ofrevenue generated by such ventureswill
ow into local communies through employment, reef access fees
and purchase of produce.Smaller village-based ecotourism catered
towards an “authenc” local experience is oen run by locals but
onlyexperiencesverysmallreturnsoninvestment(Hviding&Bayliss-
Smith,2000).Incontrast,themarineaquariumtradeprovidesincome
to thousands of shers throughout the Pacic (Ferse et al., 2013;
MAC2006;Madduppaet al.,2014;SchwerdtnerMáñezet al.,2014;
Wabnitzet al.,2003).
|
The benets accrued through pet ownership encompass a beer
understanding of animal physiology and behaviour (Inagaki, 1990;
Prokop, Prokop, & Tunniclie, 2008), more posive atudes to-
wardswildanimals (Prokop&Tunniclie,2010)andgreaterconcern
about the welfare of wild animals (Paul & Serpell, 1993). Keeping
marineaquariumorganisms oers anopportunity for globalcizens
disconnectedfromcoralreefecosystemstoevoketheirowndesireto
preservesuchhabitatsfortheenjoymentoffuturegeneraons.
Theknowledgegleanedfromtheseend-consumers(i.e.hobbyists)
ofmarineaquariumorganismsandtheircontribuonstoscienceare
oen underrepresented. The disseminaon of collected knowledge
betweenprofessionalacademicsandhobbyistsinthemarineaquarium
tradehas allowedforsignicantadvances incapvehusbandry,cul-
tureandunderstandingofanimal biology(Rhyne,2010).Thecapve
cultureofseveralspeciesofmarineaquariumshesnowproducedby
aquaculturewasoriginallypioneeredbyhomehobbyists(Rhyne,2010;
butseeSweet,2013,2014).Thisworklaysthefundamentalsforsci-
encunderstandingoftheearlylifehistoryofreefspeciesandcanbe
takentoinformbothcommercialaquaculturedevelopmentandsher-
iesmanagement.Aquaculturehaspotenaltoreducepressureonwild
stocksand,asalludedtopreviously,mayhavebueredanyincreasein
demand for A. ocellaris/perculafollowingthereleaseofFinding Nemo.
However,foraquacultureofmarineaquariumshestobeeecvein
aidingconservaonof the sourcehabitats, much work isneededto
transionaquaculturedevelopmentfromdevelopedcountriestothe
economicallymarginalizedcommuniesthatarecustodiansofsource
habitatstoavoidashiineconomicbase(Tlusty,2002).
As parcipants in the marine aquarium trade, public aquariums
present a unique opportunity to facilitate research, supply the ma-
rine aquarium trade (Cassiano et al., 2015) and educate the general
populaceontheanthropogenicstressorsfacingcoralreefecosystems
through their displays oflive organisms (Tlusty et al., 2013). Public
aquariumscanhaveconservaon(Hutchins&Conway,1995),educa-
onalandscienc(Falk&Dierking,2010)impactsonvisitors.Given
thehigherconcentraonofaquariumhobbyistsinaendanceatpub-
licaquariums,comparedtootherpublicspaces,andthelargeoverlap
betweenmarinespeciesonexhibitatpublicaquariumsandthosespe-
ciesinthetrade(Tlustyet al.,2013),publicaquariumshaveanoppor-
tunityto directlyengagevisitorson sustainabilityas itrelatesto the
tradeinliveaquariumorganisms.Such“consumerdriven”approaches
areviewedwithpotenaltotransformtheaquariumtradeintoapos-
iveconservaonforce(Marliave,Mulligan,&Andrews,1995;Tlusty
et al., 2013), and these benets need careful consideraonby an-
tradedirectedpopularmediacampaigns.
|FINDING DORY
Withthe recentreleaseof asequelto Finding Nemooccurringglob-
allyin June2016,it isimportant toconsiderthe potenalrepercus-
sions arising from its release and strategically document its impact
onthetrade. The sequel,Finding Dory,features “Dory” alook-a-like
Paracanthurus hepatus(Acanthuridae)astheprimaryprotagonist.The
sequelstootheranimatedlmsfeaturingthewildlifetradeasamof
havedoneexceponallywell,farexceedingtheglobalsuccessofthe
originallm,andFinding Doryhassimilarlyaractedworldwideview-
ership(Table1).Priortothe lm’srelease,therewerealreadyclaims
inthepopularmediaindicangstocksofP. hepatuswereinevitability
atrisk(Adams,2013).
|
7
MILITZ AND FOALE
Such claims are in contrast with market demand for P. hepatus
following Finding Nemo wherethis species performed a supporng
characterrole toA. ocellaris/percula inthelm. Intheyearfollowing
thelm’srelease(2004),P. hepatusimports into theUSwere25.4%
lowerthantheywerein2000despiteoveralltradeinmarineaquarium
shesincreasingby34.5%(Figure4).In2005,importsdeclinedeven
further to 63.2% ofyear 2000 trade levels as did the sh’srelave
rank which fellfrom tenth, in 2000, to the eenth most imported
shspeciesin2005(Rhyne,Tlusty,Holmberg,et al.,2015).Themost
recentdataavailable(2011)shows~100,000individualsareimported
annuallyintothe US(Figure4).IncontrasttoA. ocellaris/percula,itis
notpossiblethatforeignorunreporteddomescaquaculturebuered
thedemandfromwild-harvestas thetechnologiesforP. hepatus cul-
turehaveyettobedevelopedatacommercialscale.
Shouldthesequelresultinanunexpectedincreaseindemandfor
P. hepatus,theremaybesomeriskposedtothespecies.P. hepatushas
anenrelydierentsuiteoflife-historycharacteriscsfromA. ocellar-
is/perculathatmakesitlessresilienttoshing(Roelofs,2008)andless
amenabletoaquaculture(Moorhead&Zeng,2010).Negaveimpacts
of marine aquarium collecon on P. hepatus populaons have been
suggestedfortheSeribuIslands,IndonesiaandinthePhilippinesprior
toFinding Nemo(Thornhill, 2012).A longlifespanand the lownatu-
ralmortalityfacingacanthurids(Choat&Axe,1996)areatoddswith
removal rates ofjuvenile P. hepatus for the marine aquarium trade.
TheschoolingbehaviourandsiteaachmentofjuvenileP. hepatusto
Acroporaspp.coralsfacilitatethecaptureoflargenumbersofindivid-
ualswheretheyoccur.IntheSolomonIslands,catchperuniteorthas
beenreportedinexcessofoneP. hepatusperminute,colleconbeing
coupled with environmentally destrucve shing pracces (Kinch,
2004b).These praccesencompassscaring P. hepatusdeep into the
branches of an Acropora spp. colonyand extracng the enre coral
colony fromthe reef. On the boat, these coral colonies are broken
apart to extract the hiding P. hepatus juveniles. Such acons subse-
quentlylimittheavailabilityofsuitablehabitatforP. hepatusrecruits
infuturegeneraons. Whileitislaudable that the marine aquarium
tradetargetsjuvenileP. hepatus(Kinch,2004b)leavingthespawning
biomass of adult populaons intact, this can be renderedirrelevant
ifessenaljuvenilehabitatislostorrecruitmentovershingoccurs.
While eorts have been made to reform the sustainability of
the trade to abolish such destrucve shing pracces (e.g. Marine
AquariumCouncil),thedegreetowhichsuchshingmethodsaresll
usedisunknown,andcapacityforenforcementisnotoriouslyweakin
mostsourcecountries(Deeet al.,2014).Inlow-incomecountries,the
highercatch valueassociated withP. hepatus comparedtoA. percula
(SchwerdtnerMáñez et al., 2014) would certainly incenvize shers
tocapturethisspeciestomeetanincreasingdemandandcouldfuela
resurgenceofdestrucveshingpracces.Wildstocksarealsosimul-
taneouslyunder pressurefromsubsistence food sheriesovermost
of P. hepatusgeographicaldistribuon.UnlikeA. ocellaris/percula, the
largeradult size ofP. hepatus makes adultspecimensofthis species
alsosuscepbletocatchforprotein(SchwerdtnerMáñezet al.,2014).
The capacity to assess the sustainabilityof exploing P. hepatus
forboth the food and aquarium sheries is hindered by the lack of
researchonthisspecies.Thepronouncedlackofknowledgeis easily
exemplied bythe comparavely small number of primaryresearch
publicaonsonP. hepatus(Figure5).WiththereleaseofFinding Nemo,
muchwasalreadyknownaboutA. ocellaris/percula,althoughthesame
was not true for P. hepatus with the release of Finding Dory. Most
priorresearchonP. hepatus hasfocusedonaspectsofthesh’sblue
pigmentaon rather than its ecology, life history,populaon status,
exploitaonratesorcapvepropagaon.
FIGURE4 USimportsofP. hepatusincomparisonwithall
fishimports.DashedverticallineidentifiestheUSreleaseof
Finding Nemoon30May2003.DataextractedfromRhyne,Tlusty,
Holmberg,et al.(2015)
5,000,000
5,500,000
6,000,000
6,500,000
7,000,000
7,500,000
8,000,000
8,500,000
9,000,000
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
180,000
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 20122014
Number of individuals
Year
P. hepatu
s
Allfish
Finding
Nemo
FIGURE5 RelativeresearchknowledgebeforeFinding Nemo
(≤2003)andFinding Dory(June2016).Thenumberofresearch
papersreturnedfromtopicsearchesontheWebofScience™fromall
databasesinJune2016usingtheindicatedsearchterms.Onlyresults
withsearchtermsinthepaper’stitleorabstractofrelevancetothe
topicareincluded.SearchesforA. ocellaris and A. perculatermswere
conductedseparatelyandcombined
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Number of publications
Search terms
Current(June 2016)
≤ 2003
hepatus
aquaculture
Paracanthu
rus
hepatus
ocellari
s/percula
aquacult
ure
Amphiprion
ocellari
s/percula
Marine
Aqua
rium Trade
8
|
MILITZ AND FOALE
While domesc aquaculture may havebuered the demand for
wild-caughtA. ocellaris/percula,a similarscenario is highlyunlikelyto
occurwithP. hepatusin theimmediate future.Thereis nolarge-scale
commercial aquacultureproducon of P. hepatusto date despite re-
centresearcheortsclaimingsuccessinculturingthisspecies(Ho,Lee,
Cheng,Jiang, &Chen, 2013;Talbot, 2016).The cultureofcloselyre-
latedspecieshasbeenfraughtwithdicules (Cassianoet al.,2015),
and commercial producon is likely to incur high producon costs
giventhe long larval periodduraon.As analternaveto tradional
aquaculture,post-larvalcaptureandcultureofP. hepatusmaysupple-
mentsupplyfromsherieswhereshrecruingtoreefenvironments
aretrapped(vialighttrapsandcrestnets)andgrowntocommercialsize
ex situ(reviewedinBell,Clua,Hair,Galzin,&Doherty,2009).However,
thecontribuon ofshsupplied throughthismethod tothetrade is
unlikelytoeveramounttosignicantquanesgiventhelownumber
of acanthurids collected bythis method and the high proporon of
thosecollectedprovingtobespeciesoflileinteresttotheaquarium
trade(Bellet al.,2009;Malpot,Teitelbaum,Raumea,&Story,2008).
AfurtherethicalquandaryofpopularizingP. hepatusrelatestoits
suitabilityto lifein capvity.While coralreefshesmostcommonly
collectedforthemarineaquariumtrade(i.e.Pomacentridae)aretypi-
callysite-aachedwithhomerangesofafewmetresorless(Chapman
&Kramer,2000;Jones,2007), thehome rangesofacanthuridshave
been reported to range from 58m to 5km (Claisse et al., 2011;
Claydon,McCormick, & Jones,2012;Green et al., 2015; Mazeroll&
Montgomery,1998). Suchhomeranges arewellin excess oftypical
home aquaria, with 50% of marine aquarium hobbyists maintaining
aquariawithacapacityoflessthan400L(Alencastro,2004).Theas-
ymptocgrowthcurvecharacteriscofacanthuridsisalso problem-
acinthatjuvenilesh,whicharemostcommoninthetrade(Wabnitz
et al.,2003),willquicklyreachtheiradultsizewithintwotofouryears
ofage(Choat&Axe,1996).WiththeadultsizeofP. hepatusreaching
31cm length (Froese& Pauly, 2015), this can be parcularly prob-
lemac whereconsumers purchase juvenile sh without knowledge
ofthese characteriscs. Fishoutgrowingthe connesoftheir home
aquariumisadrivingfactorinthereleaseofcapvemarineaquarium
shesintowaterwayswhichhasthepotenaltoleadtotheestablish-
mentofinvasivespecies(Holmberget al.,2015).
|
TheperceivedimpactofFinding Nemosllaainspublicmediaaen-
on(ABC2016;Dengate,2016)morethanadecadeaeritsrelease.
Thehistoricallack ofdatapertaining tothemarineaquariumtradeis
largelyatfault fortheinabilitytoquantavelyevaluatesuchclaims
unl now. Thanks to new sources of publically available data (i.e.
Rhyne,Tlusty,Holmberg,et al.,2015),amorequantaveanalysisof
the popular media claims has been achieved here. While data gaps
remain(mainlysherycatchexportedtonon-USmarkets),obstrucng
absolutecertainty,the availableevidenceindicates thattheassumed
increasein sheries’catchof A. ocellaris/perculaimmediately follow-
ingthelmdoesnotreectreality.
Finding Dory marks the dawn of new era for the global marine
aquariumtrade.Scienc and aquarium trade communiesarepre-
sentedwithan opportunitytocollaborateandquantavelyaddress
the impact of digital media on an economically signicant wildlife
trade.Evaluangchanges insheries’catch, assessing theextentto
whichdestrucveshing praccesareoccurringand establishinges-
matesofpopulaonstatusforP. hepatusshouldbegiventheutmost
prioritytodeterminewhetherFinding Dorydoesinfactlegimateany
oftheecologicalconcernswehavediscussedinthisperspecve.
The marine aquarium trade oers an opportunityfor global cit-
izens disconnected from coral reef ecosystems to evoke their own
desiretopreserve such habitats fortheenjoyment of futuregener-
aons.Wechallengethoseworkingtowards thepreservaon ofna-
turetoenvision strategiesthatdonotplace theeconomicburdenof
conservaononalreadyeconomicallydisadvantagedshers(aswould
a closure of aquarium sheries). More epistemologically aware and
lesshubriscapproachestobiodiversityconservaoncanbeachieved
by further educang both consumers and opponents of the trade
aboutthesocialandeconomicrealiesofsustainabledevelopmentin
economicallymarginalizedcommunies.
TheauthorswouldliketothankthefoundersofAquariumtradedata.org
forallowingopenaccesstotheirrepositoryofUSimportdata.Asincere
“thankyou”isextendedtoJ.Lichtenbert ofReefPropagaonsInc.,for
provisionofsalesdata presentedinthis study.WealsothankS.Moore
ofSegrestFarms,E.WagnerofProAquaxandG.NortonofSustainable
Reef SuppliersVanuatu for providing accounts on how Finding Nemo
impacted company sales of A. ocellaris/percula. J.Kinch, M. Lane, R.
Talbotandveanonymousreviewersarethankedforhelpfulcomments
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