The role of captatio benevolentiae in the interaction between the speaker and his audience in Antiquity and today

Abstract

The rhetorical category of captatio benevolentiae, essential to convince and persuade listeners, is one of the rhetorʹs most effective tools. Cicero saw it as one of the pillars upon which the entire edifice of the art of oratory should be based and, as such, it was extensively practised by Roman orators and medieval authors. In the exordium its purpose was to make hearers attentive, receptive and well‐disposed. In connection with auditorem benevolum parare, two search formulae based on Quintilian's Institutio oratoriaare of particular importance: ab nostra persona and ab iudicum/auditorum persona. When included in the exordium of the speech, these techniques can help gain the good will of the listeners (the judge) as well as of the readers of literary texts; at the same time, they may incite the emotions and moral values of the public. Although the ancient rhetoricians paid considerable attention to this rhetorical category, it is often neglected and overlooked by contemporary speakers, or it is used in such an inadequate way that might deter the audience right at the beginning of the speech. In the rhetorical style the speaker should not step out of the crowd, rather he should fit into the audience and engage them in his speech. Even if the presented topic is not at all new, it is still of great use to be dealt with in theory as well as in practice, especially when preparing a public discourse, the aim of which is to persuade the listeners. The focus of this paper is thus to point out several theoretical sources of ancient rhetoric based on Cicero and Quintilian in relation to the figure of captatio benevolentiae and, consequently, to examine its use in the selected literary texts of Late Antique authors, particularly those of Saint Augustine of Hippo and Tyconius. Finally, the application of the alleged principles is demonstrated in a few examples of the exordium of chosen modern public speeches. Keywords: ancient rhetoric, captatio benevolentiae, art of persuasion, efficient speech, inciting emotions, gaining good will of the audience ʺA potent factor in success, then, is for the characters, principles, conduct and course of life, both of those who are to plead cases and of their clients, to be approved, and conversely those of their opponents condemned; and for the feelings of the tribunal to be won over, as far as possible, to goodwill towards the advocate

Full text

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Theroleofcaptatiobenevolentiaeinthe
interactionbetweenthespeakerandhisaudience
inAntiquityandtoday
MarcelaAndoková
DepartmentofClassicalandSemiticPhilology
FacultyofArts
ComeniusUniversity,Bratislava,Slovakia
marcela.andokova@uniba.sk
ABSTRACT
Therhetoricalcategoryofcaptatiobenevolentiae,essentialtoconvinceandpersuade
listeners,isoneoftherhetorʹsmosteffectivetools.Cicerosawitasoneofthepillarsupon
whichtheentireedificeoftheartoforatoryshouldbebasedand,assuch,itwasextensively
practisedbyRomanoratorsandmedievalauthors.Intheexordiumitspurposewastomake
hearersattentive,receptiveandwell‐disposed.Inconnectionwithauditorembenevolumparare,
twosearchformulaebasedonQuintilian’sInstitutiooratoriaareofparticularimportance:ab
nostrapersonaandabiudicum/auditorumpersona.Whenincludedintheexordiumofthespeech,
thesetechniquescanhelpgainthegoodwillofthelisteners(thejudge)aswellasofthereaders
ofliterarytexts;atthesametime,theymayincitetheemotionsandmoralvaluesofthepublic.
Althoughtheancientrhetoricianspaidconsiderableattentiontothisrhetoricalcategory,itis
oftenneglectedandoverlookedbycontemporaryspeakers,oritisusedinsuchaninadequate
waythatmightdetertheaudiencerightatthebeginningofthespeech.Intherhetoricalstyle
thespeakershouldnotstepoutofthecrowd,ratherheshouldfitintotheaudienceandengage
theminhisspeech.Evenifthepresentedtopicisnotatallnew,itisstillofgreatusetobedealt
withintheoryaswellasinpractice,especiallywhenpreparingapublicdiscourse,theaimof
whichistopersuadethelisteners.Thefocusofthispaperisthustopointoutseveraltheoretical
sourcesofancientrhetoricbasedonCiceroandQuintilianinrelationtothefigureofcaptatio
benevolentiaeand,consequently,toexamineitsuseintheselectedliterarytextsofLateAntique
authors,particularlythoseofSaintAugustineofHippoandTyconius.Finally,theapplicationof
theallegedprinciplesisdemonstratedinafewexamplesoftheexordiumofchosenmodern
publicspeeches.
Keywords:ancientrhetoric,captatiobenevolentiae,artofpersuasion,efficientspeech,
incitingemotions,gaininggoodwilloftheaudience
ʺApotentfactorinsuccess,then,isforthecharacters,principles,
conductandcourseoflife,bothofthosewhoaretopleadcases
andoftheirclients,tobeapproved,andconverselythoseoftheir
opponentscondemned;andforthefeelingsofthetribunaltobe
wonover,asfaraspossible,togoodwilltowardstheadvocate

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andtheadvocate’sclientaswell.Now,feelingsarewonoverby
aman’smerit,achievementsorreputablelife,qualifications
easiertoembellish,ifonlytheyarereal,thantofabricatewhere
non‐existent.Butattributesusefulinanadvocateareamildtone,
acountenanceexpressiveofmodesty,gentlelanguage,andthe
facultyofseemingtobedealingreluctantlyandunder
compulsionwithsomethingyouarereallyanxioustoprove.ʺ[1]
ThisopeningquotationfromCicero’sDeoratoreshowswhichrolethecaptatiobenevolentiae
playedintheexordiumofanorator’sspeechandhowimportanttheinteractionbetweenthe
speakerandhisaudiencewasinAntiquity.Thisrhetoricaltechnique,essentialtoconvinceand
persuadelisteners,isoneofarhetoricianʹsmosteffectivetoolsandCicerosawitasoneofthe
pillarsuponwhichtheentireedificeoftheartoforatorywasbased.[2]Itwasextensively
practicedbyRomanoratorsandmedievalauthors.Althoughancientrhetoricianspaid
considerableattentiontothecaptatiobenevolentiae,bothintheirtheoreticalwritingsaswellasin
thespeeches,thiscategoryisoftenneglectedandoverlookedbyourcontemporaryspeakers;or,
ifused,itisusedbyinsuchaninadequatefashionthatonlydeterstheaudiencefromthe
beginningofthespeech.Evenifthistopicisnotatallnew,thesituationinthepost‐Communist
countries,wherefreedomofspeechwasalmostcompletelysuppressedforseveraldecades,
showsusthat,eventoday,itisstillgreatlybeneficialtodealwithitintheoryaswellasin
practice.
Therefore,theaimofthispaperistopointoutseveraltheoreticalsourcesofancientrhetoric
inrelationtothecaptatiobenevolentiaeand,consequently,toexamineitsuseinselectedliterary
textsofLateAntiqueauthors,especiallythoseofSaintAugustineofHippoandTyconius.
Finally,Iwouldliketodiscusssomereasonsforwhichtheapplicationoftheseprinciplesmight
beprofitablealsoinmoderndaypublicspeaking.
Thenotionofcaptatiobenevolentiaeinancientrhetoric
Captatiobenevolentiae,equivalenttopetitioveniae,isarhetoricalcategoryaimedatcapturing
thegoodwilloftheaudienceatthebeginningofaspeech(exordium,prooemium)orappeal.
However,thetechnicaltermisnotfoundintherhetoricalhandbooksofLatinAntiquity.[3]It
wasfirstusedbyBoethius(died524CE)inhiscommentaryonCicero’sTopica.[4]Itspurpose
wastomakethehearerattentive(attentumparare),receptive(docilem)andwell‐disposed
(benevolum).[5]Anexordiumthatfocusesonbenevolumauditoremisoftendesignedtofunctionas
acaptatiobenevolentiaeitself,securingthegoodwilloftherecipientsandaimingatincitingtheir
emotionsandmoralqualities.Inspeeches,itisfrequentlyfollowedbyabriefnarratioand
propositio.WemightencounterthisrhetoricaltechniquealreadyinHomericepicsand
QuintilianremindsusthatintheintroductorylinesoftheIliadHomersecuresthegoodwillof
theaudiencebyinvokingthegoddessesbelievedtopresideoverpoets:[6]
ʺAsregardstheemotions,therecanbenoonesoill‐educatedas
todenythatthepoetwasthemasterofall,tenderandvehement
alike.Again,inthefewlineswithwhichheintroducesbothof
hisepics,hashenot,Iwillnotsayobserved,butactually
establishedthelawwhichshouldgovernthecompositionofthe

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exordium?For,byhisinvocationofthegoddessesbelievedto
presideoverpoetryhewinsthegoodwillofhisaudience,byhis
statementofthegreatnessofhisthemesheexcitestheirattention
andrendersthemreceptivebythebriefnessofhissummary.ʺ[7]
Benevolumparareisclassifiedunderthegenusancepssincethepersonalgoodwillofthe
judgecanplayanimportantroleinacasewhichpresentsseriousdifficulties.Inadditiontothat,
itisalsonecessaryforthegenusadmirabileandcanbeofuseinthegenushonestumwhichreflects
theopinionsandfeelingsofthepublic.[8]Intheexordium,theoratorshoulddedicatea
particularattentiontothepathosandtostylisticornaments(elocutio)[9]butitisnotalways
indispensable,andparticularlyingenushonestumitsuseisfacultative:[10]
ʺSucharetherulesfortheexordium,whereitisemployed.Itmay
howeversometimesbedispensedwith.Foroccasionallyitis
superfluous,ifthejudgehasbeensufficientlypreparedforour
speechwithoutitorifthecaseissuchastorendersuch
preparationunnecessary.Aristotleindeedsaysthatwithgood
judgestheexordiumisentirelyunnecessary.[11]Sometimes,
however,itisimpossibletoemployit,evenifwedesiretodoso;
when,forinstance,thejudgeismoreoccupied,orwhentimeis
shortorsuperiorauthorityforcesustoembarkuponthesubject
rightaway.ʺ[12]
Basedonthepreceptsofancientrhetoric,Lausberg(1998,129–130,§274–275)summarizes
foursearchformulae[13]forbenevolumparare[14]outofwhichespeciallythefirstandthethird
servethepurposeofthispaper.
Thefirstsearchformulaisnamedabnostrapersonaandrefersbothtotheclientaswellasto
thespeaker.Itconsistsinpraisingandpresentingourselvesandourpartyasdeservingofall
humansympathy.[15]Heretheaimofexordiumistoincitetheemotionsoftheaudience.
a.Thespeakerpraiseshimselfbyshowinghisobligatoryprofessionalvirtueasavirbonus
initstruelight.[16]
b.Thespeakermustavoidthesuspicionofarrogancesince,otherwise,hewilllosethe
audience’ssympathies.[17]
c.Thespeakermustpraisehispartyasuprightanddepictitasunjustlypersecutedby
strongeropponents.[18]
Moreover,inliterature,themodestphrasesaimingatwinningthesympathyofreaders
belonghere:
ʺThesamepointshavetobeobservedwithrespecttothosefor
whomweplead:forourtonewillvarywiththecharacterofour
client,accordingasheisdistinguished,orofhumbleposition,
popularorthereverse,whilewemustalsotakeintoaccountthe
differencesintheirprinciplesandtheirpastlife.Asregardsthe
oratorhimself,thequalitieswhichwillmostcommendhimare
courtesy,kindliness,moderationandbenevolence.But,onthe

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otherhand,theoppositeofthesequalitieswillsometimesbe
becomingtoagoodman.ʺ[19]
Andfurtherinthetext:
ʺThecharacterofthespeakerandofthepersononwhosebehalf
hespeaksare,however,nottheonlypointswhichitisimportant
totakeintoaccount:thecharacterofthosebeforewhomwehave
tospeakcallsforseriousconsideration.Theirpowerandrank
willmakenosmalldifference;weshallemploydifferent
methodsaccordingaswearespeakingbeforetheemperor,a
magistrate,asenator,aprivatecitizen,ormerelyafreeman,
whileadifferenttoneisdemandedbytrialsinthepubliccourts,
andincasessubmittedtoarbitration.ʺ[20]
Thesecondsearchformulacalledabadversariorumpersonaisintendedtoattachblameto
theopposingpartyandeliminatethesympathytheaudiencefeelstowardsthem:
„Fromthecharacterofouradversaries,ifweareabletobring
themeitherintohatred,orintounpopularity,orintocontempt,
theywillbebroughtintohatred,ifanyactionoftheirscanbe
adducedwhichhasbeenlascivious,orarrogant,orcruel,or
malignant.Theywillbemadeunpopular,ifwecandilateupon
theirviolentbehaviour,theirpower,theirriches,theirnumerous
kinsmen,theirwealth,andtheirarrogantandintolerableuseof
allthesesourcesofinfluence;sothattheymayappearratherto
trusttothesecircumstancesthantothemeritsoftheircause.
Theywillbebroughtintocontempt,ifsloth,ornegligence,or
idleness,orindolentpursuits,orluxurioustranquilitycanbe
allegedagainstthem.ʺ[21]
Thefocusofthethirdsearchformulacalledabiudicum(auditorum)personaistopraisethe
audience,especiallyfortheirrenowneddiscrimination,and,moregenerally,inthedelectatioof
theaudience.Inmoredetail,praiseoftheaudienceshouldbeconnectedwiththediscussed
issue[22]andmustbeintelligentandmoderate.Thendelectatiooftheaudienceisachievedbya
finestylewhichis,however,restrainedintheexordium.[23]
Thefourthsearchformula,acausa,consistsinpraisingthepositionofone’sownpartyand
inreproachingtheopponent’sposition.
Inconnectionwiththecaptatiobenevolentiaeitis,however,importanttonotethattheideas
fromtheexordiumcanalsobedevelopedinthecourseofthewholespeech,mostlywhen
keepingcontactwiththeaudience(attentumparareandbenevolumparare):
ʺOntheotherhanditisattimespossibletogivetheforceofan
exordiumtootherportionsofthespeech.Forinstance,wemayask
thejudgesinthecourseofourstatementofthefactsorofour
argumentstogiveustheirbestattentionandgoodwill,a

5
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proceedingwhichProdicusrecommendedasameansof
wakeningthemwhentheybegintonod.ʺ[24]
BenevolumparareinLateAntiqueliterarytexts
ʺFishingforgoodwillʺoftheaudiencewasanimportantrhetoricaltechniquewhichcould
befoundnotonlyintheexordiumofancientpublicspeechesbutalsointheopeningchaptersof
ancientliterarytexts.Bymeansofbenevolumpararetheauthortriedtoprocurealenient
approach[25]towardshiswritingonthepartofhisreaders.Byshowinghismodestknowledge
ofthetopicandhisinadequacytoundertakesuchahugeenterprise,theauthorbelievednot
onlytogainthegoodwillofhisreadersbutalsotoraisetheirinterestinthetopicofhiswork.
Forexample,thisisclearlymanifestedatthebeginningoftheprologueofaLatinMasterpiece
AburbeconditawrittenbyafamousRomanliteraryhistorian,Livy(TitusLivius).Inthefirst
paragraphofhisprologuehestates:
ʺWhetherIamlikelytoaccomplishanythingworthyofthe
labour,ifIrecordtheachievementsoftheRomanpeoplefrom
thefoundationofthecity,Idonotreallyknow,norifIknew
wouldIdaretoavouchit;perceivingasIdothatthethemeisnot
onlyoldbuthackneyed,throughtheconstantsuccessionofnew
historians,whobelieveeitherthatintheirfactstheycanproduce
moreauthenticinformation,orthatintheirstyletheywillprove
betterthantherudeattemptsoftheancients.Yet,howeverthis
shallbe,itwillbeasatisfactiontohavedonemyselfasmuchas
liesinmetocommemoratethedeedsoftheforemostpeopleof
theworld;andifinsovastacompanyofwritersmyown
reputationshouldbeobscure,myconsolationwouldbethefame
andgreatnessofthosewhoserenownwillthrowmineintothe
shade.ʺ[26]
ItisobviousthattheseLatinwriterswerewelltrainedintherhetoricalschoolsandintheir
writings,manyatime,attemptedtoimitatetheliterarystyleoftheirrhetoricalmodels,
especiallythatofCicero.Ontheotherhand,Quintilian,whoserhetoricalcompendiumInstitutio
oratoriahadanundisputedvaluefortheancientpracticeoforatory,neverrejoicedoversomany
literarydevoteesasCicerodid.Moreover,shortlyafterhisdeath,hepracticallyfellintooblivion
foralmosttwocenturies.However,Quintilianregainedrecognitionduringthefourthcentury
mainlyamonggrammarianslikeDiomedus,andhewasquotedbysuchChristianauthorsas
HilaryofPoitiers,Lactantius,RufinusandSidoniusApollinaris.InNorthAfrica,Quintilian
foundanimportantfollowerinthepersonofaDonatistlaytheologianTyconius[27],authorof
theearliestknownsystematicattemptofscripturalhermeneuticsinsideWesternChristian
tradition.HiscontemporaryAugustineofHippoconsideredhimtobeamanofʺsharpintellect
andabundanteloquence.ʺ[28]Nevertheless,hedislikedthatschismaticfellowChristianfrom
Africaeventhoughheadmiredhiswork,especiallyhisLiberregularum[29],whichwasquoted
extensivelyinhisfamousmanualontheChristianhermeneuticsDedoctrinachristiana.Inhis
articlededicatedtoQuintilian,TyconiusandAugustine,Kannengiesser(1994,244)remarks:ʺA
Donatistbyfamilystatusandsocialconformity,hefoughtanendlessbattleinorderto

6
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reintegratetheschismaticAfricantraditionintomainstreamChristianity,withtheonlyresult
thathewasseverelycensuredbyhisownbishop,ParmenianofCarthage,in378,andridiculed
aboutfiftyyearslater,byAugustine,inhisDedoctrinachristiana.ʺSo,intheclosingpartofBook
IIIofthistreatiseweread:
„TherewasamancalledTyconius,whowroteagainstthe
Donatistsinamannerthatitisquiteimpossibletorefute,and
whoseunwillingnesstopartcompanywiththemcompletely
revealstheutterabsurdityofhisattachments.Hecomposed
whathecalledabookofRules,becauseinitheworkedout
sevenrulesbywhichthehiddenmeaningsofthedivine
scripturesmightbeunlocked,aswithkeys.ʺ[30]
AndabitfurtherAugustinecontinues:
ʺAtleast,heopenedthisverybookwiththesewords:‘I
considereditnecessary,beforealltheotherideasIhave,towrite
alittlebookofrules,andtoforgeasitwerekeysandlampsfor
thehiddensecretsofthelaw.Fortherearecertainmysticalrules
whichcangainadmittancetotheinnerchambersofthewhole
law,andrendervisiblethetreasuresoftruththatareinvisibleto
somepeople.Ifmyaccountoftheserulesisaccepted
ungrudgingly,inthespiritinwhichIofferit,allcloseddoors
willbeopenedanddarkplaceslitup,sothatanyonestrolling
throughthevastforestofprophecywillbeprotectedbythese
rulesfromerror,beingguidedbythem,sotosay,alongpathsof
light’.Here,ifhehadsaid,‘fortherearecertainmysticalrules
whichcangainadmittancetonotafewoftheinnerchambersof
thelaw’,oreven,‘whichcangainadmittancetotheimportant
innerchambersofthelaw’,andnotwhatheactuallydidsay,ʿthe
innerchambersofthewholelaw,ʾandifhehadnotsaid,ʿall
closeddoorswillbeopened,ʾbutʿmanycloseddoorswillbe
opened,ʾwhathesaidwouldhavebeentrue,andhewouldnot
haveraisedfalsehopesinthosewhowishtoreadandknowhis
extremelypainstakingandusefulwork,bygivingitabigger
boostthantheactualmattercallsfor.ThereasonIthoughtthis
hadtobesaidisthat,ontheonehand,thisbookoughttoberead
byseriousstudents,becauseitisofthegreatesthelpin
understandingthescriptures;and,ontheother,oneshouldnot
hopetogetfromitwhatitcannotprovide.ʺ[31]
IfwetakeintoconsiderationtherhetoricalcontextofTyconius’Liberregularumand
Augustine’scommentonitinDedoctrinachristiana,Kannengiesser’sobservationappearstobea
bitshallow.Infact,fromthequotationcitedabove,itdoesnotresultthatAugustineis
ridiculingTyconius;ratherheseemstobeupsetaboutthewayTyconiuspresentedhisown
workintheprologueofhisLiberregularum,wherehestates:

7
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ʺButifthesenseoftheserulesisacceptedwithoutillwill,aswe
impartit,whateverisclosedwillbeopenedandwhateveris
darkwillbeillumined;andanyonewhowalksthevastforestof
prophecyguidedbytheserules,asbypathwaysoflight,willbe
keptfromstrayingintoerror.ʺ[32]
Thisbringsusbacktothethemeofthisarticle,i.e.,tothediscussionoftherolecaptatio
benevolentiaeplayedinpublicspeechesaswellasinliterarytexts.HereitappearsthatTyconius,
despitethefactthathehadbeentrainedinancientrhetoric,neverthelessmadeanerrorvis‐à‐vis
hisreaderswhenpretendingintheProloguethathisbookonbiblicalhermeneuticshadbeen
writteninanexhaustivemannerandthattheknowledgeofhisruleswouldhavebeensufficient
forunderstandingalltheobscuritiesoftheScriptures.Fromtheperspectiveofbenevolumparare
thisstepseemstobecounterproductive,sinceitmighthaveraisednegativefeelingsontheside
ofthereaderswhowouldprobablyhaveexpectedamoremoderatetone.Accordingto
Quintilian’ssearchformulae,theauthorwasbelievedtoblameandexcusehimselffornothaving
sufficientcompetencetowriteabetterpieceofwork.Thismighthavealsobeenthecaseof
AugustinewhocouldfeelirritatedbytheconceitedmannerbywhichTyconiuspresented
himselfandhiswork.Tosupportthisargument,letusrecallbrieflytheopeningchapterofthe
firstbookofAugustine’sDedoctrinachristianawheretheauthorapologizesfornotfeeling
competenttowriteaworkwhichseemstohimʺtoogreatandarduousʺ.Thereweread:
ʺTherearetwothingswhichalltreatmentofthescripturesis
aimingat:awaytodiscoverwhatneedstobeunderstood,anda
waytoputacrosstootherswhathasbeenunderstood.[33]Let
usfirstdiscussthewayofdiscovery,andafterthatthewayof
puttingourdiscoveriesacross.Agreatandarduouswork,andit
isdifficulttokeepup,Iamafraiditmaybethoughtrashtohave
undertakenit.Andsoitcertainlywouldhavebeen,hadIbeen
relyingsolelyonmyownpowers;butasitis,myhopesof
carryingthisworkthroughrestintheonefromwhom,inmy
reflections,Ihavealreadyreceivedmanyideasonthismatter;
andsothereneedbenofearthathewillrefrainfromgivingme
therest,whenIbeginspendingonotherswhatIhavealready
beengiven.ʺ[34]
Consequently,itbecomesclearthatAugustinewasnotparticularlyconstrainedto
recognizethevalueofthebookofTyconiuswhowasamemberoftheschismaticchurch,he
wasrathertroubledbythepretentiousmannerwithwhichtheDonatisttheologianpresented
hisLiberregularumattheverybeginningofhiswork.
Theapplicationofcaptatiobenevolentiaeinmodernpublicspeaking
Wemightsay,usingthelanguageoftoday,thatthefigureofcaptatiobenevolentiaeisclosely
linkedwiththeLatindecorum[35],consideredtobeoneofthefourvirtuesofstyleasrecorded
byancientrhetoricians.Infact,inQuintilian’sviewitwasthemostimportantone.[36]It
presentsanartforhowtofitintotheaudience;and,inthiscontext,onemustdecidecarefully
whichstylewillsuitmostourtopicandourlisteners.Inmodernunderstandingofthepersonal

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stylewehaveratheratendencytostepoutofthecrowd;ontheotherhand,theconcernofthe
rhetoricalstyleshouldbemorethatweproperlyfitintoourpublicandbecomeonewiththem.
Thankstothisapproachwemaygaintheconfidenceofourpublicandmakethempartofthe
storydevelopedinourspeech.
ThisfactremindsusofanotherpointwhichIamtodiscussinthispaper:theclashbetween
therequirementsimposedonthespeakerbytheclaimsoftheancientrhetoric,ontheonehand;
and,ontheother,thewaycontemporaryspeakerspresentthemselves.Infact,inourhighly
individualizedsociety,whereitisstillbelievedthatthesuccessofthespeakersisoftenbased
moreontheirself‐confidenceandabilitytopresentinthebestlighttheirachievements,while
oftenneglectingtheimportanceoftheinteractionbetweenthespeakerandhisaudience,the
discussionoftheusefulnessofthecaptatiobenevolentiaecomesintofocusagain.Modern
speakers’assertivewayofpresentingtheiraccomplishmentssometimesalmostamountsto
arrogance.Inourcountry(andprobablyinothercountriesaswell),itfrequentlyoccursthat,
duetosuchover‐assertivebehaviour,speakerscanlosethegoodwilloftheiraudiencerightat
thebeginningoftheirperformance.
Inordertoseehowthecaptatiobenevolentiaeisbeingtakenintoaccountintheexordiumof
contemporaryspeeches,letusexamineashortexordiumoftwopoliticalspeechesdeliveredin
thepresenceofawiderpublic.Fromtheseexamples,wewillattempttodiscernwhetherthe
speakermanagedtofitwithintheboundsofcaptatiobenevolentiae,asrequiredbytheartof
rhetorictoday.
Example1:
ʺMrPresident,ladiesandgentlemen.[...]Inmyendowment’s
activities,[...]Ihavebeenusedtobeingabitinformaland
provoking.Ihopeyouwillforgivemeforbeinginformaltoday,
too.Actually,Ihavetwopiecesofnewsforyou:oneisbadand
theotheroneisgood.Icanseeheremanycareerdiplomatsand
professionals...Well,thegoodnewsisthatIverymuch
appreciateyourprofessionalapproachtowardsthethemes,
agendasandtowardsthesolutions.Iwillkeepmyfingers
crossedforyouinyourcontinuation.Ontheotherhand,thebad
newsisthat–andIwillspeakfromthestandpointofthe
NationalParliament–wewillprobablyhavemoreandmore
conflicts...ʺ(Paška2013)
Example2:
ʺLadiesandgentlemen,yourexcellences,thankyouverymuch
[...].Dearfriends,Iwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetoyouall
forbeingheretogetherbecausesuchacrowdedroomspeaks
moreaboutthefuturethanaboutthepast.Andthusthiseventis
moreaboutwhatiscomingandwillbe,ratherthanaboutwhat
usedtobe,andthatisveryimportant...ʺ(Figeľ2015)
InrelationtoQuintilian’sfirstandthirdsearchformulae,fromtheexampleslistedabove,
wemightraiseafewpointsusefulforourdiscussionofthecaptatiobenevolentiae.Letuslook

9
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morecloselyatthewaybothspeakersmakeanattempttogainthegoodwilloftheiraudience
which,accordingtoCicero,mightbeachievedbyʺamildtone,acountenanceexpressiveof
modestyandgentlelanguage...ʺ[37]
Inthefirstexamplewehear:ʺIverymuchappreciateyourprofessionalapproach...ʺandʺI
willkeepmyfingerscrossedforyou...ʺObviously,thisspeakerispolitetowardshisaudience
but,atthesametime,seemstobeseparatinghimselffromthembyusingthesecondperson
pluralʺyouʺ.Moreover,heis(webelieve,unconsciously)imposingakindofjudgment(even
thoughpositive)onthembyclaimingthatheiscrossinghisfingersforthem.Itisasifheison
onebankoftheriverandhispublicontheother.Hebynomeansbecomesonewithhispublic,
whichmighthavehelpedhimcreateapositiveambiencethatcouldhelphimovercomethe
negativefeelingsofhisaudienceconnectedwiththefollowingstatement:ʺwewillprobably
havemoreandmoreconflicts...ʺItisobviousthatthisisareactiontowhathasbeendiscussed
beforebyotherspeaker(s);however,tousesuchphrasesintheexordiumusuallydoesnotincite
positiveandreceptivefeelingsintheaudience.
Ontheotherhand,theotherspeakerusesinhisexordiumaverymildtoneandisfullof
optimismwhenintroducinghistopic.Inadditiontothat,whilesaying:ʺIwouldliketoexpress
mygratitudetoyouallforbeingheretogether...ʺ,thespeakerdoesnotstepoutofthecrowd
butpretendstobeonewithhisaudience.Inotherwords,hisexpressionmeans:ʺIamvery
gratefulthatweareallheretogether.ʺHeshowshimselfhavingthesameobjectivesandvisions
ofthefutureastheyhave.Atthesametime,inhisintroduction,heavoidsallnegative
judgmentsofthe(Communist)pastwhichcouldarousenegativeemotionsinhisaudience.
Soitbecomesevidentthatcertaintechniquesofobtainingthegoodwilloftheaudience,
derivedfromtheancientrhetoricaltheory,areundoubtedlyofgreatusestilltoday.Itiseven
moretruewhenwerealizethat,inourcountry,therehasbeenasignificantlackofrhetorical
educationandtraininginourmothertongue,notonlyduringtheCommunisterabutalsofora
muchlongertimebefore.Therefore,itisachallengeforustofindwaystoreevaluatethe
accomplishmentsofancientrhetoricand,consequently,toreintegratethemintothemodern
rhetoricaltheoryandpractice.
Notes
[1]Cicero,DeoratoreII,43,182‐183,p.326–329:„Valetigiturmultumadvincendumprobarimoreset
institutaetfactaetvitameteorum,quiagentcausas,eteorumproquibus,etitemimprobari
adversariorum,animosqueeorumapudquosagetur,conciliariquammaximeadbenevolentiamcum
ergaoratoremtumergaillum,proquodicetorator.Concilianturautemanimidignitatehominis,
rebusgestis,existimationevitae;quaefaciliusornaripossunt,simodosunt,quamfingi,sinullasunt.
Sedhaecadiuvatinoratorelenitasvocis,vultuspudorissignificatio,verborumcomitas;siquid
persequareacrius,utinvitusetcoactusfacerevideare.ʺ
[2]Cf.Cicero,DeoratoreII,43,115,p.280–281.
[3]ThetermassuchisalsoabsentfromLausberg’sbook(1998,§263–288),whichIrefertothroughout
thispaper.
[4]Boethius,InCiceronisTopicaI.
[5]RhetoricaadHerenniumI,4,p.4–5.
[6]Formoreinformationonthistopicseee.g.TheWestminsterDictionaryofNewTestamentandEarly
ChristianLiteratureandRhetoric,p.89.

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[7]Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaX,1,48,p.28–29:„Adfectusquidemvelillosmitesvelhosconcitatos
nemoerittamindoctus,quinoninsuapotestatehuncauctoremhabuissefateatur.Agevero,non
utriusqueoperissuiingressuinpaucissimisversibuslegemprohoemiorumnondicoservavit,sed
constituit?Nametbenevolumauditoreminvocationedearum,quaspraesiderevatibuscreditumest,
etintentumpropositarerummagnitudineetdocilemsummaceleritercomprensafacit.ʺ
[8]Theexordiummightbeverybrieforevenomittedingenusdeliberativumandalsoingenus
demonstrativumwhereitmaybeusedsimilarlyasingenusiudiciale.Cf.Quintilianus,Institutiooratoria
III,8,10,p.484–485;Aristoteles,ArsrhetoricaIII,14,1415b.
[9]RhetoricaadHerenniumI,11,p.11:„Exordiendacausaservandumest,utlenissitsermoetusitata
verborumconsuetudo,utnonadparatavideaturoratioesse.ʺ
[10]Cf.RhetoricaadHerenniumI,6,p.6.
[11]Cf.AristotelesArsrhetoricaIII,14,1415b.
[12]Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaIV,1,72,p.45–46:„Haecdeprooemio,quotienseriteiususus.Non
semperautemest;nametsupervacuumaliquandoest,sisitpraeparatussatisetiamsinehociudexaut
sirespraeparationenonegeat.Aristotelesquidemintotumidnecessariumapudbonosiudicesnegat.
Aliquandotamenutinecsivelimuseolicet,cumiudexoccupatus,cumangustasunttempora,cum
maiorpotestasabipsarecogitincipere.ʺ
[13]Benevolentiaisgenerallyachievedeitherbypraisingorblamingtheobjectsofthesearchformulaeand
isthuslargelyepideicticincharacter.
[14]Cf.Aristoteles,ArsrhetoricaIII,14,1415a;RhetoricaadHerenniumI,8;Cicero,DeinventioneI,16,22.
[15]Cicero,DeinventioneI,16,22,p.20:„Abnostra,sidenostrisfactisetofficiissinearrogantiadicemus;si
criminainlataetaliquasminushonestassuspicionesiniectasdiluemus;si,quaeincommodaacciderint
autquaeinstentdifficultates,proferemus;sipreceetobsecrationehumiliacsuppliciutemur.ʺ;cf.
Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaIV,1,7‐15,p.8–13.
[16]Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaIV,1,7,p.8–9:„Sicenimcontinget,utnonstudiumadvocativideatur
adferre,sedpaenetestisfidem.Quareinprimisexistimeturvenisseadagendumductusofficiovel
cognationisvelamicitiae,maximeque,sifieripoterit,reipublicaeautalicuiuscertenonmediocris
exempli.Quodsinedubiomultomagisipsislitigatoribusfaciendumest,utadagendummagnaatque
honestarationeautetiamnecessitateaccessissevideantur.ʺ
[17]Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaIV,1,9,p.10–11:„Indeillaveterumcircaoccultandameloquentiam
simulatio,multumabhacnostrorumtemporumiactationediversa.ʺ;IV,1,33,p.22–23:„Fiduciaipsa
soletopinioneadrogantiaelaborare.ʺ
[18]Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaIV,1,13,p.12–13:„Ipsiusautemlitigatorispersonatractandavarieest:
namtumdignitaseiusadlegatur,tumcommendaturinfirmitas.ʺ
[19]Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaXI,1,42,p.178–179:„Eademiniis,proquibusagemus,observanda
sunt:aliterenimproaliosaepedicendumest,utquisquehonestus,humilis,invidiosus,favorabilis
erit,adiectapropositorumquoqueetanteactaevitaedifferentia.Iucundissimaveroinoratore
humanitas,facilitas,moderatio,benevolentia.Sedillaquoquediversabonumvirumdecent:malos
odisse,publicavicecommoveri,ultumiresceleraetiniurias,etomnia,utinitiodixi,honesta.ʺ
[20]Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaXI,1,43,p.178–179:„Nectantumquisetproquo,sedetiamapud
quemdicasinterest:facitenimetfortunadiscrimenetpotestas,neceademapudprincipem,
magistratum,senatorem,privatum,tantumliberumratioest,neceodemsonopublicaiudiciaet
arbitrorumdisceptationesaguntur.ʺ
[21]Cicero,DeinventioneI,16,22,p.20:„Abadversariorumautem,sieosautinodiumautininvidiamaut
incontemptionemadducemus.Inodiumducentur,siquodeorumspurce,superbe,crudeliter,
malitiosefactumproferetur;ininvidiam,siviseorum,potentia,divitiae,cognatio[pecuniae]

11

proferenturatqueeorumususarrogansetintolerabilis,uthisrebusmagisvideanturquamcausae
suaeconfidere;incontemptionemadducentur,sieoruminertia,neglegentia,ignavia,desidiosum
studiumetluxuriosumotiumproferetur.ʺ
[22]Cf.RhetoricaadHerenniumI,8,p.7:„iudiciiexpectatio.ʺ
[23]Cf.Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaIV,1,57‐60,p.36–39.
[24]Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaIV,1,73,p.46–47:„Contraqueestinterimprooemiivisetiamnon
exordio;namiudicesetinnarrationenonnumquametinargumentisutattendantetutfaveant
rogamus,quoProdicusvelutdormitanteseosexcitariputabat,qualeest.ʺ
[25]„Lenitasorationisʺ,cf.Cicero,DeoratoreII,43,182,p.326.
[26]Livius,Aburbecondita,proem.,vol.I,p.2–3:„Facturusneoperaepretiumsim,siaprimordiourbis
respopuliRomaniperscripserim,necsatisscionec,sisciam,dicereausim,quippequicumveterem
tumvulgatamesseremvideam,dumnovisemperscriptoresautinrebuscertiusaliquidallaturosse
autscribendiarterudemvetustatemsuperaturoscredunt.Utcumqueerit,iuvabittamenrerum
gestarummemoriaeprincipisterrarumpopuliproviriliparteetipsumconsuluisse;etsiintanta
scriptorumturbameafamainobscurosit,nobilitateacmagnitudineeorumme,quinominiofficient
meo,consoler.ʺ
[27]Tyconiusflourishedbetween370and390andhisintellectualendeavorsconcentratedontherichesof
thelocalChristianityinCarthage.
[28]Augustinus,ContraepistulamParmenianiI,1,p.19:„hominemquidemetacriingeniopraeditumet
uberieloquio.ʺ
[29]Tyconius,TheBookofRules;alsoBright(1988).NotealsothecriticalFrencheditionLeLivredesRègles,
SC488.
[30]Augustinus,DedoctrinachristianaIII,30,42,CCL32,p.102:„Ticoniusquidam,quicontradonatistas
inuictissimescripsit,cumfueritdonatista,etillicinveniturabsurdissimicordis,ubieosnonomniex
parterelinquerevoluit,fecitlibrum,quemRegularumvocauit,quiaineoquasdamseptemregulas
exsecutusest,quibusquasiclavibusdivinarumscripturarumaperirenturocculta.ʺEnglishtranslation,
p.187.
[31]Augustinus,DedoctrinachristianaIII,30,43,CCL32,p.103:„Itaquippeexorsusesteundemlibrumut
diceret:ʿNecessariumduxianteomnia,quaemihividentur,libellumregularumscribereetsecretorum
legisveluticlauesetluminariafabricare.Suntenimquaedamregulaemysticae,quaeuniuersaelegis
recessusobtinentetveritatisthesaurosaliquibusinuisibilesvisibilesfaciunt.Quarumsiratio
regularumsineinvidia,utcommunicamus,acceptafuerit,clausaquaequepatefientetobscura
dilucidabuntur,utquisprophetiaeimmensamsilvamperambulanshisregulisquodammodolucis
tramitibusdeductusaberroredefendatur.ʾHicsidixisset:suntenimquaedamregulaemysticae,quae
nonnulloslegisrecessusobtinent,autcerte:quaelegismagnosrecessusobtinent,nonautemquodait:
universaelegisrecessus,nequedixisset:clausaquaequepatefient,sed:clausamultapatefient,verum
dixisset,nectamelaboratoatqueutilioperisuoplusquamresipsapostulatdando,inspemfalsam
lectoremeiuscognitoremquemisisset.Quodideodicendumputavi,utliberipseetlegaturab
studiosis,quiaplurimumadiuvatadscripturasintellegendas,etnondeillospereturtantum,quantum
nonhabet.ʺEnglishtranslation,p.188.
[32]Tyconius,TheBookofRules,proem.,p.2–3:„Quarumsiratioregularumsineinvidiaut
communicamusacceptafuerit,clausaquaequepatefientetobscuradilucidabuntur,utquisprophetiae
immensamsilvamperambulanshisregulisquodammodolucistramitibusdeductusaberrore
defendatur.ʺ
[33]Cf.Cicero,DeoratoreII,27,120,p.284–285.

12

[34]Augustinus,DedoctrinachristianaI,1,1,CCL32,p.6:„Duaesuntres,quibusnitituromnistractatio
scripturarum,modusinveniendi,quaeintellegendasunt,etmodusproferendi,quaeintellectasunt.
Deinveniendoprius,deproferendoposteadisseremus.Magnumonusetarduum,etsiad
sustinendumdifficile,uereor,neadsuscipiendumtemerarium.Itasanesidenobisipsis
praesumeremus;nuncuerocuminillositspesperagendihuiusoperis,aquonobisincogitatione
multadehacreiamtraditatenemus,nonestmetuendum,nedaredesinatcetera,cumea,quaedata
sunt,coeperimusimpendere.ʺEnglishtranslation,p.106.
[35]Thevirtueofdecorumiscloselylinkedwithotherthreevirtuesofstyle,i.e.latinitas,perspicuitasand
ornatus.Thesequalitiesofstylerefertothepurityofthespeechandtoitsornamentation.Formore
informationsee,forinstance,Andoková(2015,51–61).
[36]Cf.Quintilianus,InstitutiooratoriaXI,1,1,p.154–155.
[37]Seenote1above.
Bibliography
Andoková,M.(2015),‘Dôležitosťlatinskéhodecorumpreúspešnýrečníckyprejavvantikeidnes‘(‘The
importanceofliterarydecorumforanefficientspeechinAntiquityaswellastoday‘),SambucusXI,
FilozofickáfakultaTU,Trnava,p.51–61.
Aristoteles,Arsrhetorica,W.D.Ross(ed.),OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford1959.
Augustinus,ContraepistulamParmeniani,CSEL51,M.Petschenig(ed.),Vienna1908,p.19–141.
Augustinus,Dedoctrinachristiana,CCL32,J.Martin(ed.),Brepols,Turnhout1962.Englishtranslation:
TeachingChristianity,WSAI/11,J.E.Rotelle(ed.),NewCityPress,HydePark‐NewYork1996.
Augustinus,EnarrationesinPsalmos,CCL38‐39‐40,E.Dekkers–J.Fraipont(eds.),Brepols,Turnhout1956.
Englishtranslation:ExpositionsofthePsalms121‐150,WSAIII/20,B.Ramsey(ed.),NewCityPress,
HydePark‐NewYork2004.
Boethius,ʺInCiceronisTopicaʺ,AnAnnotatedTranslationofaMedievalDialecticalText,E.Stump
(ed./intro./transl./notes),CornellUniversityPress,2004.
Bright,P.,TheBookofRulesofTyconius‐ItsPurposeandInnerLogic,UniversityofNotreDamePress,Notre
Dame1988.
Cicero,Deinventione,E.Stroebel(ed.),Teubner,Leibzig1915.Englishtranslation:TheOrationsofMarcus
TulliusCicero,vol.IV,GeorgeBell&Sons,London1888,p.241–380.
Cicero,Deoratore.In:In:CiceroIII,LoebClassicalLibrary348,WilliamHeinemann,London1967.
Cicero,Orator.In:M.TulliCiceronisscriptaquaemanseruntomnia,vol.V,P.Reis(ed.),Teubner,Leipzig
1932.
Figeľ,J.(2015),Príhovorpripríležitosti26.výročia17.novembra1989(Speechontheoccasionof26th
anniversaryof17November1989ʺVelvetrevolutionʺ).Myowntranscriptionoftheopeningpartof
thespeech,availableat:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FpFnZV9ZT9k(accessed12October
2016).
Kannengiesser,Ch.(1994),‘Quintillian,TyconiusandAugustine‘,IllinoisClassicalStudies19,p.49–52.
Lausberg,H.(1998),HandbookofLiteraryRhetoric:AFoundationforLiteraryStudy.D.E.Orton–R.D.
Anderson(eds.),Brill,Leiden.
Livius,Aburbecondita.In:LivyI,LoebClassicalLibrary114,WilliamHeinemann,London1967.
Paška,P.(2013),PríhovornahodnotiacejkonferenciizahraničnejaeurópskejpolitikySR(Speechdeliveredat
theevaluatingconferenceofinternationalandEuropeanpoliticsoftheSlovakRepublic).Myown
transcriptionoftheopeningpartofthespeech,availableat:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m8nFX8Y7vh(12October2016).

13
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Quintilianus,Institutiooratoria,LoebClassicalLibrary,vol.I(books1‐3),WilliamHeinemann,London
1920;vol.II(books4‐6)1921;vol.III(books7‐9)1922;vol.IV(books10‐12)1922.
RhetoricaadHerennium.In:RhétoriqueàHerennius,LesBellesLettres,Paris1989.
Tyconius,LeLivredesRègles,SC488,J.‐M.Vercruysse(ed.),LesÉditionsduCerf,Paris2004.
Tyconius,TheBookofRules.W.S.Babcock(intro./transl./notes),ScholarsPress,Atlanta‐Georgia1989.
TheWestminsterDictionaryofNewTestamentandEarlyChristianLiteratureandRhetoric(2003),D.E.Aune
(ed.),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,Louisville‐London.
Ilruolodicaptatiobenevolentiaenell’interazione
tral’oratoreedilsuopubbliconell’Antichitàenei
nostrigiorni
MarcelaAndoková
DipartimentodiStudiClassici
Facoltàd‘Arte
UniversitàComenius,Bratislava,Slovacchia
marcela.andokova@uniba.sk
RIASSUNTO
Parolechiave:retoricaantica,captatiobenevolentiae,l’artedellapersuasione,discorso
efficace,emozionistimolanti,ottenerelabuonaattenzionedelpubblico
Latecnicacaptatiobenevolentiae,essenzialeperconvincereepersuadereilpubblico
costituisceunofraglistrumentipiùefficaciperiretorici.Ciceronelaconsideravaunadelle
colonneportantidell’interoedificiodell’oratoria,percuieramoltopraticatadaideclamatori
romaniedagliautorimedievali.Nell’exordiumloscopoeradirenderegliascoltatoriattenti,
recettiviebendisposti.Accantoall’auditorembenevolumparare,altredueformule
particolarmenteimportantichesibasanosull’InstitutiooratoriadiQuintilianosono:abnostra
personaeabiudicum/auditorumpersona.Quandosonoinclusenell’exordiumdeldiscorso,queste
tecnicheconsentonodiottenereunabuonaattenzionedapartedegliascoltatoriedeilettoridi
testiletterari.Allostessotempopossonoindurreleemozioniedivalorimoralidelpubblico.
Nonostantegliantichiretoriciprestasseromoltaattenzioneaquestatecnica,algiornod’oggiè
spessotrascuratadaglioratoricontemporaneioutilizzatainmodoinappropriatoalpuntoda
dissuadereilpubblicoproprioall’iniziodeldiscorso.Nell’usoretoricol’oratorenondovrebbe
usciredallafolla,mapiuttostoconnettersiconlaplateapercoinvolgerlanelsuodiscorso.Anche
sel’argomentotrattatononèaffattonuovo,risultaesseredigrandeutilitàqualoravenga
affrontatonellateoriaenellapratica,inparticolarmodoquandosipreparaundiscorsoda
tenereinpubblico,ilcuiscopoèquellodipersuaderegliascoltatori.Loscopodiquestolavoro
consistenell’individuarediversefontiteorichedellaretoricaanticabasatasull’operadiCicerone
eQuintiliano,conriferimentoallafiguradicaptatiobenevolentiae,equindiesaminarnel’usonei
testidiletteraturadiantichiautori,inparticolaredisant’Agostinod’IpponaeTyconius.Infine,

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l’applicazionedeipresuntiprincipièdimostratadauncorpuscostituitodavariesempitratti
dall’exordiumdidiscorsipubbliciodierni.
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