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Counting on the Environment. Forest Income and the Rural Poor
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... In line with previous studies (Haughton and Mukerjee, 1995;Nielsen et al., 2013;Vedeld, 2004), we calculated the income source diversity using the Simpson Index (SID) equation (1): Note: represents starting year of paving of the road where, Pi is the proportion of income coming from source i ( Table 3). The index value is between 0 and 1, and a higher value indicates a household with more highly diversified income sources. ...
... This is possible through the commercialisation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Vedeld et al. [53] investigated 57 study cases and concluded that forest products comprise 22% of a forest household's total income. According to Angelsen et al. [54], natural forest products represent 77% of total household income in 24 developing countries. ...
Background:
The prevalence of stunting in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is one of the highest globally. However, only a few studies have attempted to measure the association between stunting and vegetation, which is an important food source. The leaf area index (LAI) is an excellent measure for the vegetation state.
Objective:
This paper intended to measure the association between the LAI and stunting among children under five years of age in the DRC. Its aim was to better understand the boundary conditions of stunting and explore potential links to climate and environmental change.
Methods:
This paper adopts a secondary data analysis approach. We used data on 5241 children from the DRC Demographic Health Survey (DHS) 2013-2014, which was collected from a nationally representative cross-sectional survey. We used the satellite-derived LAI as a measure for the state of vegetation and created a 10-km buffer to extract each DHS cluster centroid's corresponding mean leaf-area value. We used a generalised mixed-effect logistic regression to measure the association between LAI and stunting, adjusting the model for mother's education, occupation and birth interval, as well as child's age and national wealth quintile. A height-for-age Z-score (HAZ) was calculated and classified according to WHO guidelines.
Results:
Children in communities surrounded by high LAI values have lower odds of being stunted (OR [odds ratio] = 0.63; 95% CI [confidence interval] = 0.47-0.86) than those exposed to low LAI values. The association still holds when the exposure is analysed as a continuous variable (OR = 0.84; 95% CI = 0.74-0.95).When stratified in rural and urban areas, a significant association was only observed in rural areas (OR = 0.6; 95% CI = 0.39-0.81), but not in urban areas (OR = 0.9; 95% CI = 0.5-0.5). Furthermore, the study showed that these associations were robust to LAI buffer variations under 25 km.
Conclusions:
Good vegetation conditions have a protective effect against stunting in children under five years of age. Further advanced study designs are needed to confirm these findings.
... The dependency level or share of forest product income to total annual household income are computed according to Vedeld et al. (2004), by dividing income from forest product collection to total annual household income and multiplying by 100. ...
Rural people living around forests in Ethiopia depend on income from forest product collection as one of their livelihood activities. The forests of Sheka are threatened by unsustainable use and conversion to alternative land uses. This study was conducted to identify and quantify income from major forest products collected from the Sheka forest and examine factors that determine income from forest product collection. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from primary and secondary sources. By stratified random sampling method, three kebeles were selected from the Masha district and 156 households were randomly selected from those kebeles and interviewed with a structured questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistics were determined by SPSS and STATA software. Multiple linear regression models were employed to determine the relationship between socio-economic factors and forest income. The result indicates 17 major forest product were collected and contributes an average of $1553.75 or 41.17% of their total annual income and was the highest contributor to total income. Forest income varies with agro-ecology and distance from the nearby markets in the study area. Households in the study area utilize more forest products for home consumption. Incomes from forest product collection are significantly related to the level of education of the household head, family size, and distance of home from the forest and market. Households in the study area depend to a higher degree on income from forest product collection and have an implication of sustainable management of forests in the long term. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 12(2): 46-52, December 2022
... These elements have led authors such as Arnold & Ruiz-Pérez (2001), Batagoda et al. (2006), Guleria et al. (2017), Thammanu et al. 2021;Vedeld et al. (2004Vedeld et al. ( , 2007 to argue that NTFPs by themselves do not represent a sufficient source of income for rural families (Southgate et al. 1996). Rather, they should be contemplated as part of a wider spectrum of rural livelihood strategies which recognize their value as household income safety nets, and the importance of the cultural values of NTFPs as reservoirs of traditional knowledge (Turner 2001;Torres et al. 2015). ...
Broad reading of the literature on NTFPs in order to highlight key issues of NTFP management, their importance for rural livelihoods, and the implications for forest policy. It demonstrates the complexity of formulating an integrated framework for the understanding of NTFP management, especially as they affect forest policies. The scope is global, but with emphasis on Latin America. Human populations have depended on and used NTFPs for millennia. For a great number of rural (and also urban) inhabitants, particularly the poorest sectors, their use represents an important source of subsistence and income-generation. It has been suggested that the use of NTFPs can generate greater incomes than other productive land use options, such as timber extraction or cattle keeping. Some studies estimate that around 25% of the income of about one billion people around the world comes from NTFPs, although that implies that, by themselves, NTFPs do not represent a sufficient source of household income. Rather,
they should be considered as part of a wider spectrum of rural livelihood strategies
which include their importance as income safety nets and as reservoirs of cultural
values and traditional knowledge. Furthermore, NTFPs have many ecological and
social values related to forest ecosystems, well-being and conservation. This diversity
of potential benefits has represented an obstacle for the creation of management
and conservation policies. The intention of this paper is to tackle some of the most
important issues raised in the literature on NTFPs, forest conservation and development,
with an entry point in the alternative understandings and definitions of NTFP.
The paper highlights some approaches intended to overcome perceived barriers for
sustainable management of NTFPs and the well-being of their human users.
... Comparative syntheses of case studies across the world (Vedeld et al. 2004;Sunderlin et al., 2005;Angelson et al., 2014) show that globally, 1.6 billion people depend to varying degrees on forests for their livelihoods. An estimated 60 million indigenous communities are almost wholly dependent on forests (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003). ...
... This high dependency on forest and forest products is observed in certain studies on India (Jodha, 2000;Narain et al., 2005;Rao, 1994), Zimbabwe (Cavendish, 2000), Chile (Bahamondes, 2003), Cambodia and Lao PDR (Dasgupta et al., 2003), Peru (Escobal & Aldana, 2003;Swinton & Quiroz, 2003), Guatemala and Honduras (Nelson & Chomitz, 2004), and others. Veldeld et al. (2004) and Kuik (2005) observe that per capita income and dependence on natural resources are inversely related. Ding (2009) finds that the poor resort to depletion of natural resources due to lack of access to capital markets and other avenues to improve their lots. ...
There is a debate surrounding the nexus between poverty and environmental degradation. While the predominant school of thought argues that poverty is directly responsible for environmental degradation, another school of thought argues that poor do not have the resources which would force them cause environmental degradation. Empirical support for both the arguments, however, is based mostly on macro data. Using micro level data, this paper makes an attempt to examine whether poverty is a factor determining forest degradation in the state of Odisha in India. The study is carried out in two districts, divergent from each other in incidence of poverty, forest coverage and percentage of Scheduled Tribe population. The study finds no empirical evidence that poverty affects degradation of forest. On the other hand, there is evidence of forest degradation with the increase in income, though region specific. Hence, it is non-poor households than poor one who could be responsible for forest degradation. This result therefore does not support the downward spiral hypothesis and questions the assumption that poverty alleviation is an essential part of avoiding forest degradation. However, importance of poverty reduction cannot be overlooked, and effective forest management can be a way to address poverty.
Forests are one of the most cherished resources of the planet. How should an owner of a forest stand manage it over time? A profit-maximizing owner will choose the forest rotation that maximizes the sum of discounted net revenues generated from the forest stand over the course of its life. Faustmann showed that the forest rotation determined in this way is superior to the other forest rotations that had and have been practiced widely by foresters. The forester’s rotations are rooted on the biology of forest growth, which includes a maximum gross yield rotation as well as a maximum sustainable yield rotation. At the Faustmann rotation, the value of waiting for one more period to cut the trees is equated to the cost of waiting for one more period. Critics argued that the economically based forest rotation such as Faustmann’s leads to a rapid deforestation, which this chapter critically examines with a focus on the current health of the forest resources of the planet.KeywordsForest harvestFaustmann rotationForester’s rotationForest growth functionDiscountingMaximum sustainable yield rotationDeforestation
Despite their ecological importance, dry forests' contribution to climate change adaptation is often neglected. Hence, this study was initiated to assess the socioeconomic contribution of dry forests to climate change adaptation in Tigray Region, Ethiopia. A mixed quantitative and qualitative research design was used to examine the role of dry forests in climate change adaptation. A household questionnaire survey, key informants, and a focus group discussion were used to collect data. The results indicated that 94% of all households visited a dry forest at least once a month to access the forest and forest products. While the dry forest income level varied significantly (p < 0.05), the overall dry forest income level contributed to 16.8% of the total household income. Dry forest income enabled the reduction of the area between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve by 21% in dry evergreen Afromontane Forest users, by 3.02% in Combretum–Terminalia woodland users, and by 3% in Acacia–Commiphora woodland users. Gender, occupation, wealth status, and distance from the forest to their homes are all factors that significantly affected Combretum–Terminalia woodland users’ income level. Among Acacia–Commiphora woodland users, the respondents’ age influenced the dry forest income level, whereas, among dry evergreen Afromontane Forest users, the family size of the household influenced the dry forest income level. The findings of this study could help policy makers understand the crucial role of dry forest income in the livelihood of the community and in climate change adaptation. Policymakers could reduce the pressure on dry forests by introducing policies that recognize the role of dry forest income in reducing poverty and income inequality and by establishing farmer cooperation in commercializing the non-timber forest products which support the long-term coping and adaptation strategy. Further research is needed to understand the increasing role of dry forest products in climate change adaptation over time and its contribution to the national economy at large.
The Miombo woodlands that cover around 93% of forested area in Tanzania are central to livelihoods of rural dwellers. Nevertheless, there is paucity of scientific studies and associated knowledge on the dependence, distribution, and diversification aspects of livelihoods in such ecosystems. Our empirical case-based findings indicate the dependence on Miombo woodlands was relatively high contributing 33.8% to total annual household income after tobacco cultivation at 39.6%. As such, forest incomes are vital for rural households living around such ecosystems. Among the poorest groups, forest income contributed to 40% of the total annual income whilst decreasing slightly as wealth increased reaching 32% among the better-off. On issues of livelihood distribution, forest incomes played a role in equalizing income distribution with a Gini change of about 0.05, however, it was tobacco cultivation that was more responsible for lowering the gap between income inequality levels with a Gini change of 0.08. In terms of diversification, rural households displayed a high level of diversity of livelihood options at a diversity index of 0.7 and forests were a diversification option. These findings contribute a policy lesson that reduced access to the miombo woodlands through exclusionary conservation mechanisms would result in considerable negative impacts on rural households’ welfare and exacerbate income differentiation in the area.
The methods used to value tropical forests have the potential to influence how policy makers and others perceive forest lands. A small number of valuation studies achieve real impact. These are generally succinct accounts supporting a specific perception. However, such reports risk being used to justify inappropriate actions. The end users of such results are rarely those who produced them, and misunderstanding of key details is a concern. One defense is to ensure that shortcomings and common pitfalls are better appreciated by the ultimate users. In this article, we aim to reduce such risks by discussing how valuation studies should be assessed and challenged by users. We consider two concise, high-profile valuation papers here, by Peters and colleagues and by Godoy and colleagues. We illustrate a series of questions that should be asked, not only about the two papers, but also about any landscape valuation study. We highlight the many challenges faced in valuing tropical forest lands and in presenting and using the results sensibly, and we offer some suggestions for improvement. Attention to complexities and clarity about uncertainties are required. Forest valuation must be pursued and promoted with caution. Copyright © 2002 by the author(s). Published here under licence by The Resilience Alliance.
Exploitation of non-wood resources would provide profits while
conserving Amazon forests. Yet little is done to promote their
development.
The Centre for International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Agricultural University of Norway's (NLH) twelve departments, associated research institutions and the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric's contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (MSc and PhD programmes) and assignments. Noragric Working Papers present research outcome, reviews and literature studies. They are intended to serve as a medium for Noragric staff and guest researchers to receive comments and suggestions for improving research papers, and to circulate preliminary information and research reports that have not yet reached formal publication.
Summary A three and a half days workshop brought together the UK, Mexican and Bolivian management team members working on the project 'Understanding small stock as livelihood assets: indicators for technology development' (project R7823 / ZC0167). The purpose of the workshop was to provide an opportunity for the team to consider the lessons from experience with the general approach taken by the project and with the processes of indicator development and to formalise methods for indicator development. By the end of the workshop the review of experience had allowed the development of a formal set of tools for indicator development (see annex 1) and application for both ex ante and on-going M&E of livestock development activities. These were favourably evaluated by a group of livestock development specialists working with Bolivian campesinos. 1 Structure of the workshop The workshop lasted three and a half days: during the first three days the project team worked together to develop indicators and field methodologies, building on insights from the August workshop and subsequent field and modelling experience. For the final half day the team was joined by a group of 8 livestock development workers working in different technical programmes within Bolivia. This provided an opportunity to share and test the methodologies and indicators developed in the previous three days. Monday 30th June: • Introduction, objectives (AD) • Progress with indicators (AD, SA)