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Is socially prescribed perfectionism veridical? A new take on the stressfulness of perfectionism

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Abstract

Socially prescribed perfectionists play an active role in creating stress through a process known as stress generation. Extensive evidence also suggests that stress among socially prescribed perfectionists stems from perceived external pressures to be perfect. However, the degree to which these sensed outside pressures reflect real or imagined demands is unclear. In particular, does having other-oriented perfectionists in one’s social network lead to greater socially prescribed perfectionism and stress? To address this, we recruited 312 undergraduates (targets) and 1014 members of their social networks (influencers). Targets completed measures of self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, stress, and neuroticism. Influencers completed a measure of other-oriented perfectionism. As expected, the relationship between other-oriented perfectionism in influencers and self-oriented perfectionism in targets was not significant. However, as anticipated, path analysis revealed that influencers’ other-oriented perfectionism contributed to targets’ socially prescribed perfectionism, which in turn contributed to targets’ stress, even after controlling for targets’ neuroticism. Findings underscore the importance of considering the veridical aspects of socially prescribed perfectionism, as well as continuing to investigate the potentially deleterious consequences of having other-oriented perfectionists in one’s social network.

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... For example, Mackinnon et al. (2012) developed a romantic partner-specific measure of socially prescribed perfectionism, which, when combined with other dysfunctional beliefs about relationships, prospectively predicted dyadic conflict and depressive symptoms. While the literature on socially prescribed perfectionism has emphasized perceived expectations of others in general (e.g., Smith et al., 2017) or specifically from romantic partners (e.g., Mackinnon et al., 2012), there is a noticeable gap concerning how socially prescribed perfectionism affects close friendships. Given the importance of friendships to emerging adults' well-being (e.g., Flett, 2022;Flett et al., 2019) and evidence suggesting that people with higher socially prescribed perfectionism tend to experience lower levels of friendship intimacy (Mackinnon et al., 2014), there is a need for research evaluating the internal reliability, concurrent validity, and predictive validity of a friendshipspecific measure of socially prescribed perfectionism. ...
... Finally, we asked individuals to report on their friend's perfectionistic demands toward them. It may be that one's perceptions of their friend are based on truth (e.g., a demanding friend), or it may reflect a maladaptive, inaccurate perception of one's social world (Smith et al., 2017). The degree to which such beliefs are accurate or exaggerated versions of reality could be studied to determine whether it is the veridical perfectionistic demands that friends place on an individual, and/or the individual's beliefs about the demands placed on them by the friend, that contribute to these maladaptive outcomes (Smith et al., 2017). ...
... It may be that one's perceptions of their friend are based on truth (e.g., a demanding friend), or it may reflect a maladaptive, inaccurate perception of one's social world (Smith et al., 2017). The degree to which such beliefs are accurate or exaggerated versions of reality could be studied to determine whether it is the veridical perfectionistic demands that friends place on an individual, and/or the individual's beliefs about the demands placed on them by the friend, that contribute to these maladaptive outcomes (Smith et al., 2017). ...
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Friendships are important for the mental well-being of emerging adults. Socially prescribed perfectionism, where individuals feel pressured to be perfect by others, can be destructive, leading to conflict with others, depressive symptoms, and problematic drinking. However, its impact on friendships is not well-explored. This study examined 174 emerging adult friendship dyads using a 4-wave, 4-month dyadic design. Data were analyzed using longitudinal actor-partner interdependence models. Using a novel friend-specific measure of socially prescribed perfectionism, we found that an individual's perceived expectation to be perfect from a friend was positively associated with increased conflict between friends, as well as with higher levels of depressive symptoms and problematic drinking in the individual. Findings lend credence to longstanding theoretical accounts and case histories suggesting socially prescribed perfectionism leads to harmful individual and relational outcomes and extends them to the specific context of friendships.
... A three-dimensional hierarchical model, which added the interpersonal dimension of narcissistic perfectionism, has also gained ground in recent years (Smith et al., 2016). Recent bifactor extensions of the hierarchical model have also differentiated a general factor of perfectionism from the specific dimensions of perfectionistic standards and concerns (e.g., Gäde, Schermelleh-Engel, & Klein, 2017;Seong et al., 2021;Smith & Saklofske, 2017). Despite their different goals and assumptions, 1 these approaches collectively try to better understand the conceptual overlap between the many elements in perfectionism questionnaires. ...
... They will be hyper-critical of the mistakes made by others while being quick to call them out and expect things to be done with perfection. Someone who frequently interact with an other-oriented perfectionist is more likely to feel the social pressure and conditional regards entailed in socially prescribed perfectionism (Smith et al., 2017). As a socio-behavioral signature expression, other-oriented perfectionism can be understood as a socialization process through which many perfectionists impose their perfectionistic representations of the world on to others. ...
... Finally, the current theoretical repositioning could be misinterpreted as antithetical to recent developments in bifactor models of perfectionism (e.g., Gäde et al., 2017;Seong et al., 2021;Smith & Saklofske, 2017). The bifactor model assumes that the covariance between perfectionistic standards and concerns is attributable to a common cause represented by a general factor of perfectionism. ...
Article
Perfectionism involves aiming and striving toward excessive goals accompanied with overly critical self-evaluations. In my current theory elaboration, I propose that the cognitive, socio-cognitive, and socio-behavioral manifestations that accompany perfectionism should be operationalized as correlates rather than indicators of the core definitional feature of dispositional perfectionism. I offer arguments to explain how theory, research, and intervention will benefit from separating these signature expressions from the core definitional feature of perfectionism. In this new framework, signature expressions inhabit their own space in the conceptual domain of perfectionism to better explain their role as putative mechanisms involved in the maintenance of perfectionism and its associations with maladjustment. The results of a published meta-analysis are reanalyzed, and a Monte Carlo simulation is presented to show the promises of the current theory elaboration. In closing, six additional arguments are advanced to explain how this rethinking of the conceptual domain of perfectionism addresses many critical issues in the extant literature.
... This suggests socially prescribed perfectionism may be reflective of object representations that do not necessarily reflect veridical judgments or perceptions of important others (cf. Smith, Speth et al., 2017) but develop as a function of early experiences with caregivers, family members, or other important people in the young person's life (Hewitt et al., 2017). This might also account for socially prescribed perfectionism and its demonstrated maladaptive outcomes in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. ...
... The veridicality of socially prescribed perfectionism is also poorly understood (cf. Smith, Speth, et al., 2017). It is not well understood whether individuals high on socially prescribed perfectionism in fact exist amid a social network where others demand perfection of them. ...
... It is not well understood whether individuals high on socially prescribed perfectionism in fact exist amid a social network where others demand perfection of them. Smith, Speth, et al.'s (2017) study on undergraduate students found that the presence of otheroriented perfectionists in an individual's social network contributed to elevated levels of socially prescribed perfectionism. This, in turn, led to increased stress in these socially prescribed perfectionists, even after accounting for neuroticism. ...
Article
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Theory and evidence converge to suggest perfectionism is a personality construct that matters a great deal and is linked with many consequential outcomes (e.g., depression, eating disorders, suicide, marital problems, and procrastination). With the multidimensional perfectionism construct turning 30 years of age, our review critically examines the past and the future of this construct with a focus on the six landmark dimensions of Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) and Frost et al.’s (1990) seminal models: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, personal standards, concerns over mistakes, and doubts about actions. Our review considers both what we understand about these dimensions given the extant empirical literature (i.e., known knowns) and areas where gaps exist in our understanding of multidimensional perfectionism and its consequences (i.e., known unknowns). Evidence suggests the core dimensions of Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) and Frost et al.’s (1990) trait and attitudinal models of perfectionism, respectively, are neither captured by nor redundant with other well-established predictors. In fact, these perfectionism dimensions appear to represent core vulnerability factors that are tied intimately to the development and maintenance of a wide range of maladaptive outcomes.
... Interestingly, however, OOP did not significantly contribute to their regression model. Although OOP is under researched in comparison to its counterparts (Stoeber, 2014(Stoeber, , 2015, a possible explanation for this may lie in OOP's positive relationship with the Dark Triad (Smith et al., 2017;Stoeber, 2014;Stoeber, Sherry & Nealis, 2015), a term used to describe narcissism, Machiavellianism and subclinical psychopathy: three socially aversive, yet non-pathological personality constructs (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Furthermore, OOP has been reported to have positive associations with reduced interest in prosocial and intimacy goals, uncaring traits and an individualistic orientation (Stoeber, 2014(Stoeber, , 2015. ...
... Additionally, OOP's positive relationship with the Dark Triad, particularly narcissism (Smith et al., 2017;Stoeber, 2014;Stoeber et al., 2015), may explicate OOP's positive relationship with overall wellbeing. For example, narcissism is a construct comprised of grandiosity, entitlement, dominance and superiority (Paulhus & Williams, 2002), which previous studies have reported as being beneficial to subjective wellbeing. ...
... Furthermore, this positive association with narcissism (Smith et al., 2017;Stoeber, 2014;Stoeber et al., 2015) may also explain OOP being a significant positive predictor of meaning. Several authors have identified narcissism as playing a part in inner emptiness, a state of low positive affect and feeling a lack of purpose or substance (Zerach, 2016). ...
... In support, Smith et al. (2017b) reported other-oriented perfectionism in mothers predicted longitudinal increases in daughters' depressive symptoms. Likewise, Smith et al. (2017c) reported the overall level of other-oriented perfectionism in influencers (family members, romantic partners, and peers aggregated) predicted socially prescribed perfectionism in targets (undergraduates). However, whether some influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., mothers) is more relevant to the socially- prescribed perfectionism-depressive symptom link than other influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., peers) is unclear. ...
... As such, other-oriented perfectionism in mothers appears to have a greater impact on offspring's socially prescribed perfectionism than other-oriented perfectionism in fathers. However, only two studies have examined the impact of both parental and non- parental influencers on socially prescribed perfectionism: Perera and Chang (2015) and Smith et al. (2017c). Perera and Chang (2015) reported that, among European-American undergraduates, the expectations prescribed by parents and the expectations prescribed by teachers predicted socially other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., mothers) has stronger ties to targets' socially prescribed perfectionism than other influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., peers). ...
... Lastly, other-oriented perfectionism and narcissistic grandiosity overlap substantially ( Smith et al., 2016a). As such, research is needed testing the specificity of Smith et al.'s (2017c) findings to other-oriented perfectionism versus narcissistic grandiosity. ...
Article
People high on socially prescribed perfectionism perceive intense external pressures to be perfect, and these pressures place them at risk for depressive symptoms. Likewise, the external pressures experienced by people high on socially prescribed perfectionism appear, in part, to be a legitimate response to members of their social network (influencers) who demand perfection from others (other-oriented perfectionists). Nonetheless, it is unclear whose other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., parents or peers) is more relevant to the socially prescribed perfectionism-depressive symptoms relationship. To address this, we studied 307 undergraduate targets and 692 influencers (mothers, fathers, siblings, peers, and romantic partners). Targets completed measures of socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms. Influencers completed measures of other-oriented perfectionism and narcissism. Path analysis revealed other-oriented perfectionism in mothers and siblings, but not other-oriented perfectionism in fathers, peers, or romantic partners, indirectly predicted targets’ depressive symptoms through targets’ socially prescribed perfectionism. Conversely, indirect effects corresponding to influencers’ narcissism were not significant. Investigators are encouraged to continue using multisource designs to test how other-oriented perfectionism in parental and non-parental influencers depresses the recipients of their perfectionistic demands.
... In support, Smith et al. (2017b) reported other-oriented perfectionism in mothers predicted longitudinal increases in daughters' depressive symptoms. Likewise, Smith et al. (2017c) reported the overall level of other-oriented perfectionism in influencers (family members, romantic partners, and peers aggregated) predicted socially prescribed perfectionism in targets (undergraduates). However, whether some influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., mothers) is more relevant to the socially- prescribed perfectionism-depressive symptom link than other influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., peers) is unclear. ...
... As such, other-oriented perfectionism in mothers appears to have a greater impact on offspring's socially prescribed perfectionism than other-oriented perfectionism in fathers. However, only two studies have examined the impact of both parental and non- parental influencers on socially prescribed perfectionism: Perera and Chang (2015) and Smith et al. (2017c). Perera and Chang (2015) reported that, among European-American undergraduates, the expectations prescribed by parents and the expectations prescribed by teachers predicted socially other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., mothers) has stronger ties to targets' socially prescribed perfectionism than other influencers' other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., peers). ...
... Lastly, other-oriented perfectionism and narcissistic grandiosity overlap substantially ( Smith et al., 2016a). As such, research is needed testing the specificity of Smith et al.'s (2017c) findings to other-oriented perfectionism versus narcissistic grandiosity. ...
Article
People high on socially prescribed perfectionism perceive intense external pressures to be perfect, and these pressures place them at risk for depressive symptoms. Likewise, the external pressures experienced by people high on socially prescribed perfectionism appear, in part, to be a legitimate response to members of their social network (influencers) who demand perfection from others (other-oriented perfectionists). Nonetheless, it is unclear whose other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., parents or peers) is more relevant to the socially prescribed perfectionism-depressive symptoms relationship. To address this, we studied 307 undergraduate targets and 692 influencers (mothers, fathers, siblings, peers, and romantic partners). Targets completed measures of socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms. Influencers completed measures of other-oriented perfectionism and narcissism. Path analysis revealed other-oriented perfectionism in mothers and siblings, but not other-oriented perfectionism in fathers, peers, or romantic partners, indirectly predicted targets’ depressive symptoms through targets’ socially prescribed perfectionism. Conversely, indirect effects corresponding to influencers’ narcissism were not significant. Investigators are encouraged to continue using multisource designs to test how other-oriented perfectionism in parental and non-parental influencers depresses the recipients of their perfectionistic demands.
... Even so, the recipients of perfectionistic demands appear to suffer more than the originators of perfectionistic demands Smith et al., 2017). For instance, Hewitt, Flett, and Mikail (1995) found spouses of people with high other-oriented perfectionism had greater marital distress, whereas the partner high on other-oriented perfectionism was not themselves affected. ...
... For instance, Hewitt, Flett, and Mikail (1995) found spouses of people with high other-oriented perfectionism had greater marital distress, whereas the partner high on other-oriented perfectionism was not themselves affected. Likewise, Smith et al. (2017) reported other-oriented perfectionism in influencers (mothers, fathers, romantic partners, and friends) predicted socially prescribed perfectionism in targets, which subsequently contributed to targets' stress. Thus, although individuals with high other-oriented perfectionism do not themselves suffer greater distress, evidence indicates they distress the people closest to them Nealis, Sherry, Sherry, Stewart, & Macneil, 2015;Smith et al., 2017). ...
... Likewise, Smith et al. (2017) reported other-oriented perfectionism in influencers (mothers, fathers, romantic partners, and friends) predicted socially prescribed perfectionism in targets, which subsequently contributed to targets' stress. Thus, although individuals with high other-oriented perfectionism do not themselves suffer greater distress, evidence indicates they distress the people closest to them Nealis, Sherry, Sherry, Stewart, & Macneil, 2015;Smith et al., 2017). In fact, being harshly judged vis-à-vis another person's unobtainable standards may lead people to feel rejected by and disliked by others (i.e., low social selfesteem), which in turn triggers depressive symptoms . ...
Article
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The perfectionism social disconnection model (PSDM) asserts socially prescribed perfectionism confers risk for depression by eroding social self-esteem. However, self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism are neglected in extant tests of the PSDM. Moreover, the PSDM attributes the source of depression to dispositional characteristics without considering interpersonal contexts. We expanded and tested the PSDM in 218 mother-daughter dyads using a daily diary design with longitudinal follow-up. Daughters completed measures of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism (Wave 1), social self-esteem (Wave 2), and depression (Wave 1 and Wave 3). Mothers completed a measure of other-oriented perfectionism (Wave 1). Daughters’ socially prescribed and self-oriented perfectionism, and mothers’ other-oriented perfectionism, conferred vulnerability to daughters’ depression by lowering daughters’ social self-esteem.
... In a parallel vein, researchers recently have begun asking whether perfectionism's apparent irrationality might be in part a reflection of or attunement to contextual interpersonal forces. Recent work finds that real interpersonal pressures (operationalized as other-oriented perfectionism endorsed by significant people in participants' lives) do predict in part participants' socially prescribed perfectionism and negative emotional consequences (Smith et al., 2017). Smith et al. (2017) conclude that perfectionism is perhaps not best understood as an experience that merely exists "between the ears" (p. ...
... Recent work finds that real interpersonal pressures (operationalized as other-oriented perfectionism endorsed by significant people in participants' lives) do predict in part participants' socially prescribed perfectionism and negative emotional consequences (Smith et al., 2017). Smith et al. (2017) conclude that perfectionism is perhaps not best understood as an experience that merely exists "between the ears" (p. 117). ...
... Leaders' other-oriented perfectionism (LOOP) is particularly relevant in the workplace (Shoss et al., 2015), as organizations increasingly expect and demand almost impossible performance standards from employees (Ocampo et al., 2020;Cîrșmari et al., 2023). LOOP also promotes employee's socially prescribed perfectionism (Smith et al., 2017(Smith et al., , 2019. Socially prescribed perfectionism engages in unethical behavior for self-protection (Shagirbasha et al., 2023). ...
... Prior research has shown that organizations as a context can not only promote certain ethical patterns, they can also influence individual moral identity (Huhtala et al., 2019). LOOP, as a context, creates external pressures on others in the social network (Smith et al., 2017), and to get the job done, employees may succumb to external pressures, even to the detriment of their personal values (Huhtala et al., 2019). Future research could improve measurement tools or research methods (e.g., multilevel designs) to explore whether this characteristic of leaders puts pressure on employees and affects their moral identity and ethical behavior. ...
Article
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Introduction Moral disengagement is an essential concept in organizational behavioral ethics, as it is strongly related to employee behaviors and attitudes. What is not clear, however, is which leader traits are directly associated with employees’ moral disengagement and which are indirectly associated with unethical behavior. This study draws on a social cognitive perspective that links leaders’ other-oriented perfectionism (LOOP) with unethical employee behavior. Specifically, we propose that LOOP provides employees with excuses and encouragement to engage in unethical pro-organizational behavior (UPB). Methods We analyzed data collected from 266 full-time employees at two-time points, and used mediated and moderated structural equation models to test the hypotheses, and the findings largely support our claims. Results The results suggest that LOOP effectively promotes employees’ involvement in UPB. Moderated mediation tests suggest that the positive indirect impact of LOOP on employees’ unethical behavior via moral disengagement was attenuated by higher employees’ moral identity. Discussion In summary, the results indicate that when leaders emphasize only perfection and make unrealistic demands on their employees, the latter perceive that engaging in unethical behavior is demanded by the leader, that the responsibility is not theirs, and thus they are more willing to engage in unethical behavior. This study discusses the implications of these findings from both practical and theoretical perspectives.
... Self-oriented perfectionism is displayed through excessive striving towards exceptionally high standards and is generally adaptive in nature; other-oriented perfectionists place high standards and expectations on others, and finally, socially prescribed perfectionism stems from a perceived need (real or imagined) to meet the demands of others in order to maintain a sense of self-worth (Hewitt et al., 1991). Socially prescribed perfectionism is commonly linked with higher levels of procrastination, anxiety and higher rates of suicide (Smith et al., Smith, Speth, et al., 2017;, Smith, Speth, et al., 2017, Smith, Vidovic, et al., 2017. ...
... Self-oriented perfectionism is displayed through excessive striving towards exceptionally high standards and is generally adaptive in nature; other-oriented perfectionists place high standards and expectations on others, and finally, socially prescribed perfectionism stems from a perceived need (real or imagined) to meet the demands of others in order to maintain a sense of self-worth (Hewitt et al., 1991). Socially prescribed perfectionism is commonly linked with higher levels of procrastination, anxiety and higher rates of suicide (Smith et al., Smith, Speth, et al., 2017;, Smith, Speth, et al., 2017, Smith, Vidovic, et al., 2017. ...
Chapter
Relationship difficulties are at the core of why most people seek counselling. The same is true in the context of higher education. Many students who seek counselling at university report experiencing issues in their intimate relationships. Transitioning to university is a major life milestone. This is a time filled with possibilities, when individuals evaluate and make important life and career choices. Also, for some, this time represents the beginning of new relationships with romantic partners. While these intimate connections can be a source of security and foster well-being, some individuals experience relationship issues that interfere with their academic performance, life satisfaction, and future success. Evidence shows that both negative relationship quality and relationship break-ups are strongly associated with poor mental health outcomes contributing to academic failure, and sometimes leading to, university attrition, and economic burden. More specifically, relationship difficulties are a significant contributor to anxiety, depression, and suicidality. This chapter will present a theoretical discussion of the literature to highlight the importance of understanding intimate relationships in the context of higher education and the effect of relationship issues (including conflict, lack of relationship skills, self-handicapping and self-sabotage, and personality traits) on the mental health of individuals, with implications for research and practice.
... Studies available in literature employing the Hewitt and Flett (1991) model showed mixed findings concerning the relationship between perfectionistic facets and perceived stress. Some authors found positive associations between perceived stress and SOP and SPP (Molnar et al., 2012) and non-significant results concerning OOP (Smith et al., 2017). However, in some cases, positive correlations between OOP and perceived stress were observed (Chang and Rand, 2000). ...
... Previous evidence suggested that these aspects of perfectionism showed different associations with indices of stress and evidence is mixed. For instance, SPP resulted to be consistently positively related to perceived stress (e.g., Smith et al., 2017). Results on SOP revealed non-significant associations with stress in some cases (e.g., Flett et al., 2016), otherwise some authors found that high SOP predicts high distress (Molnar et al., 2012). ...
Article
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The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) represents a massive global health crisis leading to different reactions in people. Those reactions may be adaptive or not depending on situational or psychological processes. Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors are likely to be exacerbated by the pandemic through multiple pathways as suggested by Rodgers et al. (2020). Among the psychological variables that may have increased dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors as a consequence of the social distancing and isolation, we looked at perfectionism. Perfectionism is a well-recognized risk and maintaining factor of eating-related symptoms and interact with stress increasing the probability of dysfunctional reactions (e.g., Wang and Li, 2017). The present study investigated the relationship between multidimensional perfectionism and eating behaviors by considering the mediating role of psychological distress. Data were collected from two countries (Italy and Spain) by means of an online survey. The samples included 465 (63.4% female) participants from Italy and 352 (68.5% female) from Spain. Participants completed the short form of the Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Lombardo et al., 2021) to assess self-oriented, other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, as well as the short form of Three Factors Eating Questionnaire (Karlsson et al., 2000) and the Italian version of Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 (Bottesi et al., 2015), respectively used to assess restrictive, emotional and uncontrolled eating on one hand, and depression, anxiety and stress on the other. Multigroup analysis was performed to test the hypothesized model. Results showed that other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism were indirectly related to most of the dysfunctional eating aspects through the mediation of psychological distress, and the pattern obtained was consistent in both countries. These findings evidence that the psychological distress potentially related to the COVID-19 disease mediates the negative impact of interpersonal perfectionism and the tendency to eat in response to negative emotions.
... Nevertheless, influencers need to set clear boundaries to protect their emotional wellbeing and maintain a healthy balance between their personal life and their social media presence. vizcaíno-verdú, a. & contreras-pulido, p. Cross-platform hatedom In relation to our fourth aim (O4), the strategies influencers use to deal with hatedom on social media, the psychological impact of this phenomenon is consistent with previous analyzes of online harassment, including anxiety (Lehto, 2022), stress (Smith et al., 2017), and depression (Lind & Wickström, 2024). Influencers are not only seen as non-ideal victims of this hate (Valenzuela-García et al., 2023), but are also deeply dehumanized and expected to respond to the demanding and uncontrollable cross-platform hatedom. ...
Article
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Amidst the rise of toxic behavior in online fan communities, this study examines the construction of cross-platform hatedom through social media and the strategies influencers use to navigate hostile digital environments. Using a mixed methods approach, this study analyzes 16,215 comments directed at six influencers using advanced natural language processing techniques and pre-trained AI models. In addition, structured qualitative interviews provided insights into the influencers’ perceptions of their interactions with fans and haters and shed light on their strategies for dealing with hatedom. The results show that hatedoms, characterized by strong affective dislike, vary significantly in their levels of toxicity and emotional polarization on different platforms, including YouTube, X, Facebook, Instagram, TikTok and Twitch. Influencers employ various coping mechanisms, such as ignoring negative interactions, blocking malicious users, and using sarcasm as a defense mechanism. They also emphasize the importance of mental health and often limit their personal engagement to protect their wellbeing. This study highlights the need for a comprehensive, multi-faceted approach to understanding hatedom that combines insights into the polarization of the digital community with the implementation of advanced technological moderation. By prioritizing the mental health and resilience of influencers, it is possible to foster a healthier digital environment amidst the ever-evolving dynamics of fan behavior on social media.
... Third, in keeping with some existing data (e.g., Smith, Speth, et al., 2017), and the emphasis on certain parents noted above, it should be taken as a given that for many people, socially prescribed perfectionism is real and veridical. As such, the focus should be on helping these people find ways to manage the demands placed on them and the impact of these very real pressures. ...
Article
Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality construct with various components. Socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., perceived social pressures and expectations to be perfect) is one key element. This trait dimension represents a chronic source of pressure that elicits feelings of helplessness and hopelessness at extreme levels. Unfortunately, at present, the destructiveness of socially prescribed perfectionism has not been fully recognized or extended conceptually despite the extensive volume of research on this dimension. To address this, we first trace the history and initial conceptualization of socially prescribed perfectionism. Next, we summarize and review findings that underscore the uniqueness and impact of socially prescribed perfectionism, including an emphasis on its link with personal, relationship, and societal outcomes that reflect poor mental well-being, physical health, and interpersonal adjustment. Most notably, we propose that socially prescribed perfectionism is a complex entity in and of itself and introduce new conceptual elements of socially prescribed perfectionism designed to illuminate further the nature of this construct and its role in distress, illness, dysfunction, and impairment. It is concluded that socially prescribed perfectionism is a significant public health concern that urgently requires sustained prevention and intervention efforts.
... The greater number of sources of perfectionistic pressure suggests a higher likelihood for Asian socially prescribed perfectionists' self-worth to be threatened. Moreover, the social perfectionistic demands perceived by socially prescribed perfectionists may not be imagined or falsely perceived but, to a small extent, legitimately stem from otheroriented perfectionists in their social network (Smith et al., 2017). Therefore, when applying interventions targeting the socio-cognitive aspect of socially prescribed perfectionism to perfectionists from collectivistic cultures, a more sophisticated approach should be adopted that considers divergent sources of perfectionistic pressure in one's social network, (e.g., Egan et al., 2016). ...
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Emerging adulthood is a developmental period marked by numerous life transitions, leading emerging adults to be susceptible to distress and related psychological risks. The current study investigated the effects of socially prescribed perfectionism and parental autonomy support on psychological stress among emerging adults. We implemented a two-wave longitudinal design spanning a six-month period and latent moderation structural equations, based on data collected from 220 South Korean emerging adults (103 males, aged from 21 to 31 years). Our findings indicated that socially prescribed perfectionism predicted longitudinal increases in perceived stress, whereas parental autonomy support did not. Moderation analysis revealed that for those with high socially prescribed perfectionism, more parental autonomy support was related to greater increases in perceived stress. The results suggested that the effect of parental autonomy support may not be universally beneficial to children’s psychological distress. Rather, the effect might vary depending on cultural context and children’s individual differences.
... [19] states that the perfectionism dimension of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale that most influences PWB on students is socially prescribed perfectionism. The results of research from [27] also show that socially prescribed perfectionism and acceptance of stress individuals have social relationships with other-oriented perfectionism from other individuals. Individuals eventually feel depressed because they accept demands from the external environment and associate with the emergence of stress. ...
... However, these relations varied greatly in magnitude (e.g. r = 0.23, Smith, Speth, et al., 2017, andr = 0.62, Gäde, Schermelleh-Engel, &Klein, 2017). ...
... In addition to assuming others hold exceedingly high standards for them, it is not uncommon that the SPP individuals believe they cannot meet the demands of the socially prescribed standards, resulting in increased self-criticism and fear of negative evaluation . In addition, recent findings indicate that individuals demonstrating SPP are even more likely to experience increased stress when individuals in their social environment actually hold higher expectations (Smith, Speth, et al., 2017). Given this increased likelihood of experiencing self-criticism and fear of negative evaluation, it is not surprising that higher scores of SPP are strongly predictive of elevated symptoms of social anxiety disorder in adults (Alden, Bieling, & Wallace, 1994;Jain & Sudhir, 2010) and maladjustment in adolescents (Flett et al., 2016). ...
Article
The purpose of this study was to identify whether maladaptive perfectionism predicts elevated symptoms of anxiety in a sample of primarily Puerto Rican middle school students. Participants included students (N = 128) from Grades 6 through 8 (48% male; average age = 11.9 years) who attended an urban, bilingual, public, charter school. Results suggested both general and specific links between maladaptive perfectionism and anxiety disorder symptoms. More specifically, socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) uniquely predicted symptoms of panic whereas self oriented perfectionism (SOP) uniquely predicted symptoms of social anxiety across the sample. These findings provide support for the previously established connection between various anxiety symptoms and perfectionism and demonstrate that such a connection exists in Latino adolescents. Given the strong relationship between different types of maladaptive perfectionism and anxiety, theoretical and cultural considerations should be considered to help better understand the nature of how perfectionism is linked to anxiety disorder manifestations. Future studies implementing more control and longitudinal designs may be useful to better understand how perfectionism may function as a transdiagnostic mechanism in the development and maintenance of anxiety in adolescents, and specifically those who identify as Latino.
... Nonetheless, relative to self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism is a more robust predictor of depression (Smith et al., 2016). Likewise, though people high on other-oriented perfectionism distress those close to them (Hewitt, Flett, & Mikail, 1995;Sherry et al., 2016;Smith, Speth, Sherry et al., 2017), other-oriented perfectionism is an inconsistent predictor of depression (Chen, Hewitt, & Flett, 2017). Accordingly, evidence suggests socially prescribed perfectionism is the perfectionism dimension most relevant to depressive symptoms. ...
Article
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The Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM) is a promising integrative model explaining relations between socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., perceiving others require perfection) and depressive symptoms. Yet, the nature of the social disconnection proposed by the PSDM requires explication. Likewise, longitudinal tests of the PSDM are scarce. We addressed these important limitations by extending, testing, and supporting the PSDM in 127 undergraduates using a five-month, two-wave longitudinal design. Our model posited socially prescribed perfectionism generates depressive symptoms via two putative triggers: interpersonal discrepancies (i.e., viewing oneself as falling short of others' expectations) and social hopelessness (i.e., negative expectations concerning future interpersonal relationships). Congruent with the PSDM, bias-corrected bootstrapped tests of mediation revealed socially prescribed perfectionism conferred vulnerability for depressive symptoms five months later via interpersonal discrepancies and social hopelessness. Furthermore, results supported the specificity of our model beyond self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism. Findings lend credence and coherence to theoretical accounts suggesting socially prescribed perfectionism has a generative role in the development of psychosocial environments conducive to depressive symptoms. Moreover, our study offers investigators a conceptual framework for understanding the specific interpersonal mechanisms involved in the socially prescribed perfectionism-depressive symptom link.
... The different sources of pressure were not separately investigated in the current study. Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that both the level and consequences of socially prescribed perfectionism are tied to the extent to which the individual's social environment involves exposure to criticism and demands to be perfect (Smith, Speth, et al., 2017;Smith, Saklofske, Yan, & Sherry, 2017). ...
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We examined the association of perfectionism with depressive symptoms and tested whether psychological detachment from work would both mediate and moderate the association. The participants were 76 primary school teachers (87% female) who responded to measures of perfectionism (Multidimensional Inventory on Perfectionism in Sports adapted for teachers), psychological detachment from work (The Recovery Experience Questionnaire), and depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory-II). Perfectionism comprised both adaptive and maladaptive dimensions. Adaptive perfectionism referred to striving for perfection, whereas maladaptive perfectionism involved negative reactions to imperfection and perceived pressure to be perfect. According to our results, negative reactions to imperfection were associated with higher depressive symptoms, and lower level of psychological detachment from work played a minor mediating role in the association. There was, however, no association between negative reactions to imperfection and higher depressive symptoms when detachment from work was high. Our findings suggest that striving for perfection and perceived pressure to be perfect might not contribute to depressive symptoms in teaching. Instead, teachers experiencing negative reactions to imperfection and low psychological detachment from work could be at risk for developing depressive symptoms. Finding ways to psychologically detach from work may benefit teachers characterized by negative reactions to imperfection.
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This paper proposes a novel population-based meta-heuristic optimization algorithm, called Perfectionism Search Algorithm (PSA), which is based on the psychological aspects of perfectionism. The PSA algorithm takes inspiration from one of the most popular model of perfectionism, which was proposed by Hewitt and Flett. During each iteration of the PSA algorithm, new solutions are generated by mimicking different types and aspects of perfectionistic behavior. In order to have a complete perspective on the performance of PSA, the proposed algorithm is tested with various nonlinear optimization problems, through selection of 35 benchmark functions from the literature. The generated solutions for these problems, were also compared with 11 well-known meta-heuristics which had been applied to many complex and practical engineering optimization problems. The obtained results confirm the high performance of the proposed algorithm in comparison to the other well-known algorithms.
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In this study, we aimed to examine the relationships between self-generated stress (SGS) and psychological well-being (PWB) and the mediating role of self-critical rumination (SCR) and self-regulation in this relationship. In this direction, the Self-Generated Stress Scale (SGSS) was adapted into Turkish in the first study. In the second study, we tested the mediating role of SCR and self-regulation in the relationship between SGS and PWB in university students. The findings showed that the Self-Generated Stress Scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool for Turkish culture and PWB and self-regulation have partial mediating roles in the relationship between SGS and PWB. These results contribute to a better understanding of the association between SGS and PWB.
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This thesis investigates the relationship between perfectionism and the perceived importance of, and satisfaction with, various components of both the Honors College experience and the experience within majors as rated by University of Maine Honors College students. UMaine Honors College students were recruited to take an online Qualtrics survey. Preliminary descriptive analysis has suggested that, while UMaine Honors College students show average levels of self-oriented perfectionism, they demonstrate exceptionally high levels of socially-prescribed perfectionism, as compared to normative samples. Additionally, UMaine Honors College students exhibit significantly higher ratings of personal importance and satisfaction assigned to components of their major in comparison with the same components of their Honors College experience. Furthermore, correlate analysis has indicated that male Honors College students show a negative correlation between personal importance assigned to major experience, personal satisfaction with major experience and self-oriented and socially-prescribed perfectionism. Further investigation is warranted to develop a better understanding of the extreme mean score of socially-prescribed perfectionism observed in UMaine Honors College students. Future studies might investigate the variables responsible for the lower ratings of importance and satisfaction assigned to the Honors College, relative to their majors. The Personal Importance & Satisfaction Inventory for the UMaine Honors College & Major Experience provides a novel framework to explore variables unseen in extant literature; this inventory, given further research to establish its reliability and validity, shows promise in evaluating weaknesses in Honors College experiences versus within-major experiences, which is a much-needed tool for baccalaureate colleges given Curran & Hill’s (2019) findings that SOP and SPP are currently increasing at dramatic rates among undergraduates.
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The mental health of students in higher education is of major concern, given the high levels of psychological distress that is known to exist amongst this cohort. In this literature review, evidence is presented based on research across three decades: it reveals a link between insecure attachment bonding in early childhood to maladaptive perfectionism as a means to feel worthy, oftentimes leading to procrastination as an unhelpful strategy to avoid the anxiety of possibly not meeting expectations. As a result, the student may experience conflicting “parts”—the part that wants to achieve high standards and the part that appears to self-sabotage—and this internal conflict appears to lead to high levels of shame, anxiety and depression. The mediator showing to effectively manage the cycle of shame that ensues when these “parts” are engaged is mindfulness and self-compassion. Suggestions for how to create a non-shaming, safe and encouraging environment include workshops that teach students and teachers about the autonomic nervous system and how to self-regulate emotions through the use of mindfulness and self-compassion techniques. As the research reveals, creating safety is the key to good outcomes both academically and from a mental health perspective.
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Individuals frequently utilize social media platforms (SMPs) to express their positive features and receive recognition. Axel Honneth proposes that recognition plays an essential role in social life, explaining both social conflicts and guiding normative social development. While SMPs appear as a perfect tool for the pursuit of recognition, they often fail to achieve the intended results. This paper argues that the failure to achieve recognition through SMPs occurs because SMPs operate according to the neoliberal principle of competition. Competition arises because several structural affordances (quantification, homogeneity, and availability of information) allow for comparing different expressions of recognition. I argue that the competitive pursuit of recognition on SMPs results in several problematic developments, causing the manifestation of perfectionism, ressentiment, and collective narcissism. I conclude that the normative potential of Honneth’s theory is compromised if recognition is pursued competitively.
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Perfectionism is highly and increasingly prevalent and is associated with concerning outcomes, including risk factors for suicidal ideation. However, it is not yet known under what conditions or through what mechanism perfectionism comes to be particularly maladaptive. Self-discrepancy theory suggests that perfectionism may be more maladaptive in the context of negative life events, through a pathway of appraisals of falling short of standards; this remains unstudied. To test this model, perfectionism, negative life events, appraisals, and demoralization were measured in a sample of 320 participants. The mediational pathway was supported, and perfectionism presented as a robust risk factor for both demoralization and appraisals of falling short of standards regardless of experience of recent negative life events. Indeed, perfectionism contributed far more variance to demoralization than this well-established risk factor. These results have clinical implications, in that perfectionism may meaningfully influence mental health outcomes even in the absence of activating life stressors, and this pathway may benefit from cognitive intervention. This study builds on extant literature to reveal an important mechanism by which perfectionism may lead to concerning outcomes, and establishes perfectionism as a consequential vulnerability factor independent of, and even relative to, negative life events.
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People high on socially prescribed perfectionism perceive intense external pressures to be perfect, and these pressures place them at risk for depressive symptoms. Likewise, the external pressures experienced by people high on socially prescribed perfectionism appear, in part, to be a legitimate response to members of their social network (influencers) who demand perfection from others (other-oriented perfectionists). Nonetheless, it is unclear whose other-oriented perfectionism (e.g., parents or peers) is more relevant to the socially prescribed perfectionism-depressive symptoms relationship. To address this, we studied 307 undergraduate targets and 692 influencers (mothers, fathers, siblings, peers, and romantic partners). Targets completed measures of socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms. Influencers completed measures of other-oriented perfectionism and narcissism. Path analysis revealed other-oriented perfectionism in mothers and siblings, but not other-oriented perfectionism in fathers, peers, or romantic partners, indirectly predicted targets' depressive symptoms through targets' socially prescribed perfectionism. Conversely, indirect effects corresponding to influencers' narcissism were not significant. Investigators are encouraged to continue using multisource designs to test how other-oriented perfectionism in parental and non-parental influencers depresses the recipients of their perfectionistic demands.
Article
The Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM) is a promising integrative model explaining relations between socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., perceiving others require perfection) and depressive symptoms. Yet, the nature of the social disconnection proposed by the PSDM requires explication. Likewise, longitudinal tests of the PSDM are scarce. We addressed these important limitations by extending, testing, and supporting the PSDM in 127 undergraduates using a five-month, two-wave longitudinal design. Our model posited socially prescribed perfectionism generates depressive symptoms via two putative triggers: interpersonal discrepancies (i.e., viewing oneself as falling short of others’ expectations) and social hopelessness (i.e., negative expectations concerning future interpersonal relationships). Congruent with the PSDM, bias-corrected bootstrapped tests of mediation revealed socially prescribed perfectionism conferred vulnerability for depressive symptoms five months later via interpersonal discrepancies and social hopelessness. Furthermore, results supported the specificity of our model beyond self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism. Findings lend credence and coherence to theoretical accounts suggesting socially prescribed perfectionism has a generative role in the development of psychosocial environments conducive to depressive symptoms. Moreover, our study offers investigators a conceptual framework for understanding the specific interpersonal mechanisms involved in the socially prescribed perfectionism-depressive symptom link.
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From the 1980’s onwards, neoliberal governance in the US, Canada, and the UK has emphasized competitive individualism and people have seemingly responded, in kind, by agitating to perfect themselves and their lifestyles. In this study, we examine whether cultural changes have coincided with an increase in multidimensional perfectionism in college students over the last 27 years. Our analyses are based on 164 samples and 41,641 American, Canadian, and British college students, who completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) between 1989 and 2016 (70.92% female, Mage = 20.66). Cross-temporal meta-analysis revealed that levels of self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, and other-oriented perfectionism have linearly increased. These trends remained when controlling for gender and between-country differences in perfectionism scores. Overall, in order of magnitude of the observed increase, our findings indicate that recent generations of young people perceive that others are more demanding of them, are more demanding of others, and are more demanding of themselves.
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Over 100 years of theory, research, and clinical observations suggest perfectionism is a defining feature of the way narcissists' think, feel, and behave. Our chapter first offers a comprehensive review of how trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation relate to the two core themes of narcissism: narcissistic grandiosity and narcissistic vulnerability. We conclude that narcissistic grandiosity has unique positive relationships with self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., demanding perfection from the self), other-oriented perfectionism (i.e., demanding perfection from other people), and perfectionistic self-promotion (i.e., promoting one's supposed perfection) and a unique negative relationship with non-display of imperfection (i.e., concern over behavioral displays of imperfection). Likewise, we conclude that narcissistic vulnerability has unique negative relationships with socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., perceiving others demand perfection), perfectionistic self-promotion, and non-display of imperfection. Next, we provide an overview of an emerging construct termed narcissistic perfectionism, using Armand Hammer's life as a case example. Overall, the literature reviewed suggests narcissistic perfectionism is a promising theory-driven and empirically supported construct. Additionally, our case history of Armand Hammer describes a man who believed he was perfect and justified in demanding and expecting perfection from his family, friends, and co-workers (i.e., a narcissistic perfectionist). Lastly, we highlight exciting and important areas for further inquiry on narcissistic perfectionism.
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This study of university students (64 men and 99 women) examined both dispositional and situational influences of self-critical (SC) perfectionism on stress and coping, which explain its association with high negative affect and low positive affect. Participants completed questionnaires at the end of the day for 7 consecutive days. Structural equation modeling indicated that the relation between SC perfectionism and daily affect could be explained by several maladaptive tendencies associated with SC perfectionism (e.g., hassles, avoidant coping, low perceived social support). Multilevel modeling indicated that SC perfectionists were emotionally reactive to stressors that imply possible failure, loss of control, and criticism from others. As well, certain coping strategies (e.g., problem-focused coping) were ineffective for high-SC perfectionists relative to low-SC perfectionists.
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This chapter provides a synopsis of research on where multidimensional perfectionism “fits” within the broader framework of contemporary personality theory. Focusing on Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) model of perfectionism--differentiating self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism--the chapter presents a summary and critical discussion of how multidimensional perfectionism relates to the dimensions and facets of two major structural models of personality (the five-factor model and the HEXACO model) and one neuropsychological model of personality (reinforcement sensitivity theory). Implications of the findings for multidimensional theories and models of perfectionism, as well as future perfectionism research, are discussed.
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Hewitt and Flett’s 45-item Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale is a widely used instrument to assess self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. With 45 items, it is not overly lengthy, but there are situations where a short form is useful. Analyzing data from four samples, this article compares two frequently used 15-item short forms of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale—Cox et al.’s and Hewitt et al.’s—by examining to what degree their scores replicate the original version’s correlations with various personality characteristics (e.g., traits, social goals, personal/interpersonal orientations). Regarding self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, both short forms performed well. Regarding other-oriented perfectionism, however, Cox et al.’s short form (exclusively composed of negatively worded items) performed less well than Hewitt et al.’s (which contains no negatively worded items). It is recommended that researchers use Hewitt et al.’s short form to assess other-oriented perfectionism rather than Cox et al.’s.
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Extensive evidence suggests neuroticism is a higher-order personality trait that overlaps substantially with perfectionism dimensions and depressive symptoms. Such evidence raises an important question: Which perfectionism dimensions are vulnerability factors for depressive symptoms after controlling for neuroticism? To address this, a meta-analysis of research testing whether socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, personal standards, perfectionistic attitudes, self-criticism, and self-oriented perfectionism predict change in depressive symptoms, after controlling for baseline depression and neuroticism, was conducted. A literature search yielded 10 relevant studies (N = 1,758). Meta-analysis using random-effects models revealed that all seven perfectionism dimensions had small positive relationships with follow-up depressive symptoms beyond baseline depression and neuroticism. Perfectionism dimensions appear neither redundant with nor captured by neuroticism. Results lend credence and coherence to theoretical accounts and empirical studies suggesting perfectionism dimensions are part of the premorbid personality of people vulnerable to depressive symptoms.
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Although perfectionism is recognized as a factor that is linked with suicide, we maintain that the role of perfectionism as an amplifier of the risk of suicide has been underestimated due to several factors. In the current article, contemporary research on the role of perfectionism in suicide is reviewed and summarized. Several themes are addressed, including: (a) consistent evidence linking suicide ideation with chronic exposure to external pressures to be perfect (i.e., socially prescribed perfectionism); (b) the roles of perfectionistic self-presentation and self-concealment in suicides that occur without warning; and (c) how perfectionism contributes to lethal suicide behaviors. We also summarize data showing consistent links between perfectionism and hopelessness and discuss the need for a person-centered approach that recognizes the heightened risk for perfectionists who also tend to experience hopelessness, psychache, life stress, overgeneralization, and a form of emotional perfectionism that restricts the willingness to disclose suicidal urges and intentions. It is concluded that when formulating clinical guidelines for suicide risk assessment and intervention and public health approaches to suicide prevention, there is an urgent need for an expanded conceptualization of perfectionism as an individual and societal risk factor. We also discuss why it is essential to design preventive programs tailored to key personality features with specific components that should enhance resilience and reduce levels of risk among perfectionists who hide behind a mask of apparent invulnerability.
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Investigating how other-oriented perfectionism (OOP) differed from self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP), Stoeber (2014a) found OOP to show unique positive relationships with the Dark Triad personality traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy) and unique negative relationships with nurturance, intimacy, and social development goals. Aiming to expand on Stoeber’s findings, the present study examined 229 university students investigating the unique relationships of the three forms of perfectionism with humor styles, callous-unemotional-uncaring traits, social value orientations, self- and other-interest, and positive self-evaluations (positive self-regard, feeling superior to others). When multiple regressions were conducted controlling for the overlap between the three forms of perfectionism, OOP showed unique positive relationships with aggressive humor, uncaring traits, an individualistic orientation, and positive self-regard and unique negative relationships with a prosocial orientation and other-interest. In contrast, SOP showed unique positive relationships with affiliative humor and other-interest and unique negative relationships with aggressive humor, callous-uncaring traits, and a competitive orientation whereas SPP showed unique positive relationships with self-depreciating humor and unemotional traits and unique negative relationships with both forms of positive self-evaluations. The findings provide further evidence that OOP is a “dark” form of perfectionism positively associated with narcissistic, antisocial, and uncaring personality characteristics.
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Over the past 20 years we have gained a comprehensive understanding of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, but our understanding of other-oriented perfectionism (OOP)—and how it differs from the other two forms of perfectionism—is still underdeveloped. Two studies with university students are presented examining OOP’s relationships with social goals, the dark triad, the HEXACO personality dimensions, and altruism. OOP showed unique positive relationships with narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy and unique negative relationships with nurturance, intimacy, and social development goals. Furthermore it showed unique relationships with social dominance goals (positive) and emotionality, agreeableness, and altruism (negative) dependent on the OOP measure used. The findings suggest that OOP is a “dark” form of perfectionism associated with antisocial and narcissistic personality characteristics.
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Purpose The purpose of this study was to review articles related to the psychometric properties of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). Methods Systematic literature searches of computerized databases were performed to identify articles on psychometric evaluation of the PSS. Results The search finally identified 19 articles. Internal consistency reliability, factorial validity, and hypothesis validity of the PSS were well reported. However, the test-retest reliability and criterion validity were relatively rarely evaluated. In general, the psychometric properties of the 10-item PSS were found to be superior to those of the 14-item PSS, while those of the 4-item scale fared the worst. The psychometric properties of the PSS have been evaluated empirically mostly using populations of college students or workers. Conclusion Overall, the PSS is an easy-to-use questionnaire with established acceptable psychometric properties. However, future studies should evaluate these psychometric properties in greater depth, and validate the scale using diverse populations.
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Burnout and engagement affect employees, organizations, and customers in numerous positive and negative ways. Consequently, it is important to know how individual differences contribute to employees' burnout and engagement. This study examines how individual differences in self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism were associated with burnout and engagement in a sample of 106 employees. Results of correlation and regression analyses showed that perfectionism explained variance in all facets of burnout (exhaustion, cynicism, reduced efficacy) and engagement (vigor, dedication, absorption). Whereas socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with higher levels of burnout and lower levels of engagement, self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism were associated with lower levels of burnout and higher levels of engagement. The findings indicate that individual differences in perfectionism may be a contributing factor to burnout and engagement in the workplace.
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Scales were developed to assess 10 specific facet traits within the broad Big Five personality domains from the item pool of the Big Five Inventory (BFI). In two independent samples, the BFI facet scales dem-onstrated substantial (a) reliability, (b) convergence with self-reports on the Revised NEO Personality Inventory and peer-reports on the BFI, and (c) discriminant validity. These brief scales offer new oppor-tunities for researchers who wish to assess specific personality characteristics within an overarching Big Five framework. for serving as judges for the correlate-matching task.
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The present research examined the relation between dimensions of perfectionism and self-appraised problem-solving behaviors and attitudes. Specifically, in two separate studies, we tested the hypothesis that socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., the perception that others demand perfection from the self) is associated with poorer social problem-solving ability. In addition, measures of psychological adjustment were included in Study 2 so that we could (1) examine whether socially prescribed perfectionism and poorer problem-solving ability were still associated after removing variance associated with psychological distress; and (2) compare depression and anxiety in terms of their respective associations with social problem-solving ability. Correlational analyses of the data from both studies confirmed that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with more negative self-perceptions of problem-solving orientation, and that the link between socially prescribed perfectionism and negative perceptions of problem-solving orientation remains present after removing variance due to levels of negative affectivity. Both depression and anxiety were associated with a negative problem-solving orientation, but only depression was associated with more negative appraisals of actual problem-solving skills. The results suggest that perceived exposure to imposed standards of perfection undermines the problem-solving process and that individuals with high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism are particularly in need of counseling interventions designed to provide a more positive problem-solving orientation.
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This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
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We tested whether perfectionism dimensions interact with specific stressors to predict depression. A depressed patient sample (N = 51) and a general psychiatric sample (N = 94) completed measures of perfectionism, hassles, and depression. Subjects in Sample 2 also completed other personality measures to assess the amount of unique variance in depression. Partial support was obtained in that in both samples self-oriented perfectionism interacted only with achievement stressors to predict depression. Socially prescribed perfectionism interacted with interpersonal stress in Sample 1 and with achievement stress in Sample 2 to predict depression. Several personality variables, including socially prescribed perfectionism, accounted for unique variance in depression. The results suggest that perfectionism dimensions are associated with depression and may constitute specific vulnerability factors.
Article
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This study of university students (64 men and 99 women) examined both dispositional and situational influences of self-critical (SC) perfectionism on stress and coping, which explain its association with high negative affect and low positive affect. Participants completed questionnaires at the end of the day for 7 consecutive days. Structural equation modeling indicated that the relation between SC perfectionism and daily affect could be explained by several maladaptive tendencies associated with SC perfectionism (e.g., hassles, avoidant coping, low perceived social support). Multilevel modeling indicated that SC perfectionists were emotionally reactive to stressors that imply possible failure, loss of control, and criticism from others. As well, certain coping strategies (e.g., problem-focused coping) were ineffective for high-SC perfectionists relative to low-SC perfectionists.
Article
Theoretical accounts suggest an important relationship between perfectionism and narcissism, and 25 years of research has tested these accounts. We meta-analyzed this literature, providing the most comprehensive test of the perfectionism-narcissism relationship to date. Thirty studies were located (N = 9,091). After controlling for overlap among perfectionism dimensions, random-effects meta-analysis indicated self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and perfectionistic self-promotion were related to narcissistic grandiosity, whereas socially prescribed perfectionism, perfectionistic self-promotion, and nondisclosure of imperfection were related to narcissistic vulnerability. Results suggest grandiose narcissists strive toward lofty goals, impose unrealistic demands on others, and promote an image of perfection. Results also suggest vulnerable narcissists actively promote an image of infallibility while defensively concealing imperfections in response to perceptions of others as demanding.
Article
Many studies show a general connection between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. However, despite increasing evidence that significant disruptions in interpersonal relationships are an important consequence of perfectionism, few studies have specifically examined the role of interpersonal disharmony in generating depressive symptoms among persons with high levels of perfectionism. To begin filling this void, the present study conducted a preliminary test of the social disconnection model (SDM; see Hewitt, Flett, Sherry, & Caelian, 2006). This model asserts that interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism, such as socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., perceiving that others are demanding perfection of oneself), generate disconnection from the social environment that contributes to depressive symptoms. The current study tested and supported the SDM by showing that perceived social support significantly mediated the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms. No association was found between socially prescribed perfectionism and received social support. The present study thus provides preliminary support for the SDM and suggests that a subjective sense of disconnection from other people represents one reason why persons with high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism are vulnerable to depressive symptoms.
Article
Perfectionism may act as a vulnerability factor for distress in response to negative life events. An important indication of the value of lower order vulnerability factors in psychological research is whether they provide incremental predictive validity beyond higher order traits such as neuroticism. Accordingly, the present longitudinal study evaluated perfectionism vulnerability models and compared these predictive models with a neuroticism diathesis-stress model in a group of first year medical students. Several dimensions of perfectionism (socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes and doubts about actions) interacted with negative life events to predict future distress symptoms but none of the interactions between perfectionism and life events provided incremental predictive validity in comparison to a neuroticism diathesis-stress model. No support was obtained for a perfectionism specific vulnerability hypothesis. The results of this study affirm the importance of incorporating measures of higher-order psychological vulnerabilities in studies seeking to demonstrate the predictive value of lower-order vulnerabilities.
Article
The current paper describes the results of an experiment in which 200 students who varied in levels of trait perfectionism performed a laboratory task and then were assessed in terms of levels of state affect, state self-esteem, and state automatic thoughts. Independent variables included task difficulty (high versus moderate level of difficulty) and performance feedback independent of their actual level of performance (positive or negative). Analyses also examined objective levels of performance (i.e., the number of errors on the task) and initial confidence in performance. Analyses showed that the experience of state automatic thoughts involving perfectionism was associated with negative automatic thoughts, negative affective reactions, and lower state self-esteem. Analyses of changes in mood and self-esteem showed generally that participants high in socially prescribed perfectionism had increased levels of dysphoria and anxiety and lower levels of state self-esteem following the experience of negative performance feedback or after having a relatively poor performance. Analyses of the physiological measures found increased systolic blood pressure among self-oriented perfectionists who had poorer performance and among socially prescribed perfectionists who had received negative feedback about their performance. The results for heart-rate changes yielded a less clear pattern, though there was evidence that participants with high socially prescribed perfectionism had increased heart rate if they received negative feedback and were relatively low in confidence. Collectively, these findings illustrate that how perfectionists react in challenging situations varies as a function of actual performance, performance feedback, and feelings of personal efficacy.
Article
This paper presents evidence from three samples, two of college students and one of participants in a community smoking-cessation program, for the reliability and validity of a 14-item instrument, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), designed to measure the degree to which situations in one's life are appraised as stressful. The PSS showed adequate reliability and, as predicted, was correlated with life-event scores, depressive and physical symptomatology, utilization of health services, social anxiety, and smoking-reduction maintenance. In all comparisons, the PSS was a better predictor of the outcome in question than were life-event scores. When compared to a depressive symptomatology scale, the PSS was found to measure a different and independently predictive construct. Additional data indicate adequate reliability and validity of a four-item version of the PSS for telephone interviews. The PSS is suggested for examining the role of nonspecific appraised stress in the etiology of disease and behavioral disorders and as an outcome measure of experienced levels of stress.
Article
Perfectionistic self-presentation is proposed as a deleterious interpersonal style that has an influence in clinical contexts that involves promoting a public image of perfection and avoiding displays and self-disclosures of imperfections. A sample of 90 clinical patients taking part in a clinical interview were assessed in terms of their levels of perfectionistic self-presentation and trait perfectionism and their affective, cognitive, and physiological reactions. Perfectionistic self-presentation dimensions were associated with (1) greater distress before and after the interview, (2) negative expectations and greater threat prior to the interview, and (3) post-interview dissatisfaction. Analyses of physiological data found that perfectionistic self-presentation was associated with higher levels of heart rate when discussing past mistakes, and, as expected, the need to avoid disclosing imperfections predicted higher levels of and greater change in heart rate when discussing past mistakes. Analyses that controlled for trait perfectionism and emotional distress showed that the need to avoid disclosing imperfections was a unique predictor of (1) appraisals of the interviewer as threatening before the interview and as dissatisfied after the interview; (2) negative pre and post self-evaluations of performance; and (3) greater change in heart rate when discussing mistakes. Perfectionistic self-presentation is discussed as an interpersonal style that can influence therapeutic alliance and treatment success.
Calculation for the Sobel test
  • K Preacher
  • G Leonardelli
Preacher, K., & Leonardelli, G. (2003). Calculation for the Sobel test. Retrieved November 30, 2016, http://quantpsy.org/sobel/sobel.htm
social problem-solving ability, and psychological distress
  • Perfectionism
Perfectionism, social problem-solving ability, and psychological distress. Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 14, 245-274.
Mplus User's Guide. Author Calculation for the Sobel test
  • L Muthén
  • B Muthén
  • K Preacher
  • G Leonardelli
Muthén, L., Muthén, B., 1998-2012. Mplus User's Guide. Author, Los Angeles, CA. Preacher, K., Leonardelli, G., 2003. Calculation for the Sobel test. Retrieved November 30, 2016, http://quantpsy.org/sobel/sobel.htm.