No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Conserving the common heritage of humankind – Options for the deep-seabed mining regime
Abstract
The seabed in areas beyond national jurisdiction is the common heritage of mankind (CHM), as declared in the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The CHM principle requires not only the sharing of benefits (the subject of a parallel article by the authors) but also the conservation and preservation of natural and biological resources for both present and future generations. The International Seabed Authority, tasked with operationalising the CHM principle in the context of deep-seabed mining, has not yet defined which measures it will take to give effect to environmental aspects of the CHM principle. This article seeks to contribute to the discussion about the operationalization of the CHM principle by specifically examining the environmental dimension of the CHM principle. To this end, the article interprets the CHM principle in the context of sustainable development and discusses a number of potential options the Authority could consider to support the application of the CHM principle. These include: funding scientific research to increase knowledge about the deep ocean for humankind; ensuring public participation in the decision-making process; debating the need for and alternatives to deep-seabed mining; determining conservation targets and levels of harm deemed acceptable; limiting environmental impacts; preserving mineable sites for future generations; compensating humankind for environmental harm; and ensuring enforcement.
... Few studies have conducted an in-depth discussion on how certain principles considered as compatible with EBM (Long et al., 2015) could be implemented in the DSM context (Jaeckel, 2015(Jaeckel, , 2016Jaeckel et al., 2017). In this respect, it is anticipated that the ISA will provide conditions for EBM to be recognized and adopted by contractors. ...
... Until recently, EBM in the context of areas beyond national jurisdiction has primarily been discussed in relation to fishing activities (Druel et al., 2012;Gjerde et al., 2013Gjerde et al., , 2016Long et al., 2017) and has rarely been applied to new uses in deep-sea areas, such as mining (Jaeckel, 2015(Jaeckel, , 2016Jaeckel et al., 2017). The present study conducted a comprehensive systematic evaluation of the presence of EBM-related principles, as currently recognized within academic literature, in the main DSM regulatory framework. ...
... According to Bourrel et al. (2018), an appropriate mechanism of benefit sharing should be established to guarantee the protection of such benefits for current and future generations. Jaeckel et al. (2017) highlights that the principle serves as a guideline to decisions related to resource management and, together with Bourrel et al. (2018), provides recommendations as to how this should be translated into practice in the light of the many challenges faced by its implementation, such as the numerous (and sometimes conflicting) interests and a concrete representation of humankind. Although, the principle is generally well recognized, a lack of clarification as to what exactly it comprises may impair the ability of the ISA to approve a financial mechanism that is appropriate and compatible with equity. ...
Recognition of ecosystem-based management principles in key documents of the seabed mining regime: implications and further recommendations. New human uses on the marine environment, such as deep-sea mining (DSM), have necessitated the adoption of more holistic approaches such as ecosystem-based management (EBM) to secure sustainable development. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the rules, regulations, and procedures adopted by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) represent the main regulatory framework to govern DSM activities. This study aimed to examine whether UNCLOS and ISA documents include references to EBM principles , and if these references vary in documents through time. Following a literature review, 26 EBM principles were collated into 8 general categories , and their adherence to 5 key documents related to the DSM regime was analysed. Results demonstrated a trend in recognizing EBM principles in documents over time, especially in the Draft Regulations for Exploitation. However, the mere recognition of EBM principles in the regulatory framework does not guarantee that the approach will be clearly understood and appropriately incorporated by contractors throughout the process. For such, further clarification on the meaning of the Ecosystem Approach in the DSM context and building the capacity of the ISA Legal and Technical Commission are among the recommendations presented by this study.
... The ISA, or "the Authority," is an intergovernmental body based in Kingston, Jamaica, which is obliged to organize, regulate, and control all activities in the Area, particularly with a view to administering its resources ( Jaeckel et al. 2017). ...
... SMnN mining will mostly take place in international waters, on the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction termed "the Area" (Jenisch 2013). According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS 1994), the International Seabed Authority (ISA or "the Authority") is obliged to organize, regulate, and control all activities in the Area ( Jaeckel et al. 2017). ...
... A UNCLOS 1994), the International Seabed Authority (ISA or "the Authority") shall organize, regulate and control all activities in the Area, particularly with a view to administering its resources-the common heritage of mankind ( Jaeckel et al. 2017). To plan future mining activities, clear definitions and demarcations are needed: ...
Seafloor manganese nodules are potatolike mineral concretions that cover large parts of the deep-sea floor. They contain various elements, among them metals, that are used in today’s high- and green-tech applications. However, there is currently a lack of knowledge in how to plan and execute deep-sea mining projects in a sustainable manner. The main objective of this dissertation is to provide mining engineers with the knowledge required for “planning the mining of seafloor manganese nodules.” This includes the development of appropriate mining-engineering and knowledge-based solutions to technically and economically assess such projects and deposits, the definition of requirements, and the validation of assumptions for spatial mine planning. The dissertation comprises three techno-economic studies, which are based on a specific case study of the European research project Blue Mining, with focus on the German license area E1, Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone, Pacific Ocean.
"THE BLUE MINING OF MARINE MINERAL RESOURCES FOR THE BENEFIT OF MANKIND WILL BE ONE OF OUR FUTURE CHALLENGES."
... It is also a recurrent topic of interest in academic debates (see particularly Childs, 2020a, 2020b. Although much of this debate concerns either DSM's environmental impact or the legal meaning of key terms such as 'common heritage of mankind' or the 'precautionary approach' (see, for example, Bourrel et al., 2018;Hunter et al., 2018;Jaeckel et al., 2017;Lallier & Maes, 2016;Levin et al., 2016;Niner et al., 2018;Ovesen et al., 2018;Tunnicliffe et al., 2018;Van Dover et al., 2011), critical social scientists have sought to locate the turn to the seabed as a source of mineral resources within broader political economic trends. Recent work has shown how the seabed becomes ripe for exploration through its construction as a 'frontier' (see Zalik, 2018), or how seabed mining zones are constituted through complex data politics (see Sammler, 2016), rendering decision-making far from neutral or apolitical. ...
... Just as the question of what the seabed is has been generally overlooked in the rush to examine questions of possible policy formulation, so too has a careful examination of who is subject to the processes and outcomes of potential DSM activities. Although there has been an increasing interest in, and attention to, 'stakeholders' -how they might engage in DSM Environmental Impact Assessments and their limited participation (see Jaeckel et al., 2017;Lallier & Maes, 2016), or as part of a wider ecosystem approach (Vierros et al., 2006) -a careful analysis of who stakeholders are (and could be) in this context remains underexplored. ...
In spite of a proliferation of academic and policy-oriented interest in deep sea mining (DSM), this paper argues that two underlying questions remain underexplored. The first relates to what exactly the seabed is; the second to who the stakeholders are. It is argued that a greater interrogation of how the seabed is defined and understood, and a deeper consideration of how stakeholders are identified and the politics of their inclusion, is crucial to the enactment of policy and planning techniques. Through the analysis of current regulations to govern DSM in both national and international jurisdictions, this paper critically examines these seemingly banal but vital questions in different contexts. It is contended that most regulations are ‘fuzzy’ when it comes to addressing these questions, with the result that different understandings of the seabed and the implications of mining are ignored and that who stakeholders are and how they are defined causes many relevant voices to be unheard. It is argued, therefore, that it is imperative to address these often-overlooked questions directly in order to inform future seabed policy and governance.
... Being vulnerable to degradation from overuse (Ostrom, 2015) and to enclosure through exclusionary appropriation (Halewood, 2013), transnational commons require international cooperation (Stern, 2011;Vogler, 2012). One approach to the governance of transnational commons is thus the principle of common heritage, which broadly entitles an imagined community to participate in the benefits derived from a commons while also creating stewardship duties and restricting sovereignty claims and private appropriation (Jaeckel et al., 2017;Joyner, 1986). The principle is expressed in various international treaties. ...
... This regime is still undergoing evolution and, so far, no exploitation projects have taken place. The unclear necessity or even desirability of DSM notwithstanding (Jaeckel et al., 2017;Kim, 2017), it nevertheless provides important insights and lessons. ...
Near‐Earth asteroids (NEAs) hold metal reserves that could sustain global consumption for millennia. Unresolved questions of technological and economic feasibility notwithstanding, NEA mining could ensure the accessibility and affordability of key strategic resources, contribute to sustainability transitions and displace environmentally and socially harmful terrestrial mining. Based on implicit and explicit normative commitments towards the common heritage principle in international space law, we develop the outlines of a regime for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from NEA mining. For doing so, we analyze the linkages between institutional design and regime effectiveness for benefit‐sharing regimes in the areas of deep‐sea mining and plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Attempting to control for differences in problem structure, we transpose this analysis to the case of NEA mining, where an effective benefit‐sharing regime would revolve around the following elements: standardized exploration and exploitation contracts, back‐end benefit‐sharing as a percentage of commercial profits, research exemptions, compliance mechanisms for preventing and reducing space pollution, as well as a reserve banking system for mining claims. For the contemporary political debate on space resources, we thus aim to provide a feasible alternative to the exclusive appropriation of space resources through private property rights.
... A considerable amount of the gas that is expected to replace oil consumption will be found in offshore reservoirs (IEA 2018), while offshore wind farms are increasingly becoming a source of global investment (Corbetta et al. 2015, 7). Seabed minerals are also coming to fore (Jaeckel et al. 2017;Levin et al., 2016). Using ship-based extraction technology, Japan successfully mined metals from its seabed in 2017, and expects large-scale commercialisation of several offshore deposits in the near future (Kyodo 2017; Woody 2017). ...
... The various areas of jurisdiction under the legal regime developed for the oceans are subsequently facing new challenges. Examples here range from efforts to implement marine protected areas (MPA) in parts of Antarctica (Brooks 2013); attempts at establishing an international code of conduct for deep-sea mining (Jaeckel et al. 2017); and the convening of the BBNJ-processes (Freestone et al., 2014;Tiller et al., 2019). ...
Maritime space is growing in importance. How states utilise, emphasise and view the maritime domain is changing. At the same time, maritime boundary disputes exist on all continents. Why do states engage in disputes over who owns what at sea? How do states delineate ownership and rights? How are these dynamics evolving? These core questions are examined in this article, which explores and reviews the concept of maritime boundaries and related disputes. The focus is on exclusive economic zones (EEZ), the extended maritime zones beyond territorial waters. Ocean boundaries delineating EEZs are important constructs for everything from oil and gas production to fisheries and environmental protection. Beyond function, trends like an increasing focus on the intangible attributes of disputes at sea, combined with the ongoing institutionalisation of ocean-space since the adoption of the United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1982, force us to update our assumptions regarding the political dynamics of ocean-space.
... 145 of UNCLOS has crucial importance for the regulation of the exploitation conditions. In fact, the protection of the environment can be considered a precondition that the ISA must ensure before it can fulfil its mandate to develop the resources of the Area (Jaeckel, 2015(Jaeckel, , 2017bJaeckel et al. , 2017), in line with Wolfrum (2009), who clearly states that «the principle embraces the obligation to preserve the area and resources in question for future generations, which includes the concept of sustainable development». This view supports the position that the Area has to be understood as the seafloor beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, including its mineral resources and all related ecosystems in situ . ...
... He concludes that the standard of protection is higher than mere conservation, which could be realised by designating MPAs and introducing effective environmental impact assessment procedures. As Jaeckel et al. (2017) summarise, the Seabed Chamber in its advice (ITLOS, 2011) articulates three aims that are presumed to be shared by States, namely ensuring: that high environmental standards are upheld by all; the safety of mining operations; and that any mineral development does not undermine the common heritage of mankind. ...
Although operational since 1994, there is still no commonly agreed definition of what the common heritage principle entails. The process of developing the ISA regulations for the exploitation of minerals from the Area, ongoing since 2015, has revealed a fundamentally different understanding of the common heritage princi- ple by States and stakeholders in different regions of the world. There has only been limited debate and no particular forum in the ISA or elsewhere that aims to bring together the different expectations of States and stakeholders, the different ethical concepts, and the related reflections on the principle within the regulatory frame- work under development.
As the common heritage of mankind has its roots in the civil governance of the commons in terms of, for example, peaceful use, inclusiveness, equity of partici- pation, as well as access and benefit-sharing, it is suggested here that the member States of the International Seabed Authority initiate a collaborative process towards an agreement of a contemporary vision for the implementation of the common her- itage principle, ideally preceding the elaboration of the details of the Mining Code. It would provide an opportunity for all States and stakeholders to learn about the diversity of aspirations and wishes that are tied to the concept and principle, and to reconsider the presumed benefits from deep seabed minerals mining in light of the global sustainability agenda, planetary boundaries, and the obligation for intergen- erational justice.
With the process being as important as the resulting common vision, more strength could be given to some key elements of the common heritage provisions in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982, namely solidarity, sustainability, and collective governance in the context of today's ocean governance regime. This could include:
- developing a vision for the common heritage, which will maximise the benefits to mankind as a whole in the long term, including its contributions towards achieving the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs. This requires a change of focus from national priorities to an Earth systems view;
- ensuring transparency and inclusive participation;
- establishing mechanisms for independent expert advice to be taken into consideration;
- institutionalising the interests of future generations by appointing a trustee; reconsidering the benefits and costs to mankind from the exploitation of minerals;
- developing a long-term environmental vision, strategy, and action plan for the common heritage and establishing environmental goals as a gatekeeper against eventual exploitation contracts;
investing in knowledge and capacity-development, especially during the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030);
- enabling systematic resource assessment and analysis for better planning of the transition towards circular economic paths by establishing a global resource governance mechanism;
- anchoring the values of the common heritage of mankind in the public conscience as a gift that implies an ethic of caring and responsibility – today and for future generations.
... Furthermore, as seen earlier from Article 145, the principle also entails the effective protection of the marine environment from harmful effects arising from activities in the Area. Alongside the protection of the marine environment, the common heritage of mankind principle further integrates the concepts of intergenerational equity and sustainable development into the international seabed mining discourse ( Jaeckel et al. 2017). As such, the need to preserve the marine environment and to conserve mineral resources for future generations is an integral pillar of the common heritage of mankind. ...
... Both these aspects are related concerns as they should be taken into account in determining whether mining the international seabed is feasible and sustainable to begin with. Apart from that, lacklustre knowledge generation attitudes and the absence of a unit dedicated solely to environmental matters ( Jaeckel et al. 2017) are an impediment that could easily be resolved. The suitability of using incentives to advance and encourage the adoption of environmentally sound technologies should also be examined ( Lodge et al. 2017). ...
This chapter provides an overview of the international and national regulatory framework pertaining to deep seabed mining activities. It begins by discussing the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, the backdrop for all marine activities – be they national or international – and examines the obligations of states to protect the marine environment from the harmful effects arising from deep seabed mining. Next, the chapter examines the international regime for deep seabed mining (i.e. “activities in the Area”), explaining the “common heritage of mankind” status of the Area (i.e. the international seabed); the functions of the International Seabed Authority (ISA), the international organization established to govern deep seabed mining in the Area; and the concept of state sponsorship of non-state entities (i.e. private actors) for deep seabed mining in the Area. The chapter follows with a discussion of the development of national legislation to regulate deep seabed mining, examining efforts in the Pacific region where many prospective deep-sea mining sites are located. This includes a look at the legislative regimes of several Pacific Island nations, namely, Papua New Guinea, Tonga and the Cook Islands, for whom deep seabed mining may soon become a reality – as well as New Zealand and Japan, countries with comparatively developed rule of law and legislative regimes that have undertaken or considered deep seabed mining in their national waters. Overall, the chapter critically describes and evaluates the current regulatory status in the international and national seabed areas and highlights some salient gaps that require urgent attention in order to ensure marine environmental protection and mitigate impacts on humans.
... Realizing the importance of dominant governance in the High sea under the circumstance of the absence of the lacune-filling regulatory measures, the current lack of consensus of opinions among UN member states in addressing dilemma of promulgating a harmonious CHM in ABNJ might possibly prolong the current practice of following 'rule of capture' or 'first-come and firstserved' basis (Jaeckel et al., 2017;Tladi, 2019;Berry, 2021, and this deadlock is probable of giving favourable conditions for developed states to continue dominating their geographical seabed extension of MGRs acquisition and research in ABNJ (Wang & Chang, 2020;Harris et al., 2019;Mickelson, 2019) even though there have been growing concerns since the recent mark of Nagoya Protocol 1 about the acknowledgement of the application of CHM in BBNJ, which is a central agenda in the past five Substantive Session BBNJ (see Fig. 3). ...
... Realizing the importance of dominant governance in the High sea under the circumstance of the absence of the lacune-filling regulatory measures, the current lack of consensus of opinions among UN member states in addressing dilemma of promulgating a harmonious CHM in ABNJ might possibly prolong the current practice of following 'rule of capture' or 'first-come and firstserved' basis (Jaeckel et al., 2017;Tladi, 2019;Berry, 2021, and this deadlock is probable of giving favourable conditions for developed states to continue dominating their geographical seabed extension of MGRs acquisition and research in ABNJ (Wang & Chang, 2020;Harris et al., 2019;Mickelson, 2019) even though there have been growing concerns since the recent mark of Nagoya Protocol 1 about the acknowledgement of the application of CHM in BBNJ, which is a central agenda in the past five Substantive Session BBNJ (see Fig. 3). ...
The current political tension among developed states and developing nations regarding the exploration, exploitation, benefit-sharing, and conservation of marine genetic resources (MRGs) in ungoverned areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) requires a new marine, regulative regime, which is considered as the premise for the creation of the international consensus of promulgating the ‘Common Heritage of Mankind’ principle (CHM). This study employed desk research methods to synthesize, compare, and analyze UNCLOS (1982), Nagoya Protocol (2014), ongoing ILBI sessions, and other recent studies to figure out the regulatory gap within the Law of the Sea under UNCLOS. By carefully generalizing and scrutinizing the documentation, the study strongly emphasizes the necessity to implement the CHM principle in ABNJ instead of promoting the concept of ‘first come, first served’ basis for the sake of the equitable sharing of benefits, and the conservation of MGRs in ABNJ for the current and future generations. The study also provides the connotations of CHM principle, which serves theoretical basis for some marine management approaches. Consequently, these perspectives stem from a representative developing state with a long coastal line – Vietnam. The general, theoretical, and practical viewpoints would significantly contribute to current and future international law-making process with respect to the formulation of a new legal marine regime for regulating the exploitation, equitable access, and conservation of MGRs in ABNJ according to the ideal concept of CHM principle thereof.
... This principle includes concepts of ensuring shared benefits from the outcomes of seabed mining and the consideration of conservation and preservation alongside resource exploitation (e.g. Jaeckel et al., 2017). The drafting of regulations for the exploration and exploitation of deep sea minerals, known as the "Mining Code" are still underway, with significant focus on how environmental conservation can be integrated into exploitation. ...
With the growth of renewable technologies, patterns in the demand for mineral resources required have shifted, with increasing demand for emerging technologies and a growing reliance on a wider suite of elements. Given their extreme enrichment in many of these critical elements, ferromanganese (FeMn) crust deposits have the potential to be an important future resource but the variability at the scale of a prospective exploration site remains poorly understood. This problem is acute for FeMn crust understanding in the Atlantic Ocean where fewer in-depth studies have been carried out to date. This study provides a systematic investigation into the distribution of FeMn crusts and the variation in texture and composition at the scale of an individual
seamount in the NE Atlantic. Relationships with environmental factors are investigated to provide an improved understanding of the formation, distribution and preservation processes that influence FeMn crust characteristics at this local scale. Ferromanganese crusts from Tropic Seamount were observed across a range of water depths and environments, and distribution modelling predicted highest presence probabilities
in summit and flank regions. The distribution of FeMn crusts at this scale is driven by both the substrate characteristics and interactions of local topography and current regimes which exert fundamental controls on the distribution of exposed hard surface and the period of exposure for FeMn crust precipitation. Concentrations of Co (mean of 0.5 wt%) and Te (mean of 51 ppm) in Tropic Seamount FeMn crusts showed the highest concentrations in summit regions, and coincide with regions of active surface erosion. Significant variability in composition was observed across the seamount. Statistical analyses of composition, alongside element mapping and textural studies,
showed that the high variability in FeMn crust composition is affected by local scale topography. Combined with the interaction with local current regimes, this can play a key role in determining the flux of detrital material to FeMn crusts and associated dilution of hydrogenetic FeMn phases.
... Although states have primary responsibility for the implementation of UNCLOS, 47 corporations are the key actors of the regime at the seabed. The heavily reinforced machinery of extractive corporations will operate in remote, sunless lease areas kilometers below the surface, removing the seafloor and their multiplicities of unknowable life-forms, relations, and materialities over the terms of potentially multi-decadal licenses. ...
... Fourth, the marine environment must be ef fective ly protected from harmful effects of seabed mining for the benefit of present and future generations (UNCLOS, article 145). This is simultaneously the most difficult criterion to realise and the most important one for future generations who may want to benefit from ecosystem services of the deep oceans (Levin et al. 2016;Jaeckel, et al. 2017;Niner et al. 2018). At the same time, sponsoring states and the ISA are both under an obligation to apply the precautionary approach in respect of seabed-mining activities in the Area. ...
The deep oceans and their protection, management, research, and resources are governed by a range of legal instruments. This chapter sets out the relevant legal framework for the deep oceans and discusses the role of scientists in ocean governance. The chapter introduces the law’s spatial zoning approach to marine governance and considers the role of coastal states in managing marine spaces and resources through domestic law. The chapter then offers a discussion of the international legal framework for deep-sea fishing, marine pollution, deep-sea mining, and marine scientific research, before analysing current gaps in the law relating to marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction, as well as ocean fertilisation.
... Recent studies point to a concern that mineral exploitation will begin without establishing appropriate governance structures to manage environmental risks (Craik, 2020;Ardron et al., 2018;Cuyvers et al., 2018;Thompson et al., 2018;Zalik, 2018;Jaeckel et al., 2016Jaeckel et al., , 2017. These studies largely focus on governance in international waters, and pre-date recent regulatory developments at the ISA (2019). ...
Progress towards deep sea mining (DSM) is driven by projected demands for metals and the desire for economic development. DSM remains controversial, with some political leaders calling for a moratorium on DSM pending further research into its impacts. This paper highlights the need for governance architectures that are tailored to DSM. We conceptualise DSM as a type of complex orebody, which encompasses the breadth of environmental, social and governance (ESG) risks that make a mineral source complex. Applying a spatial overlay approach, we show that there are significant data gaps in understanding the ESG risks of DSM. Such uncertainties are compounded by fact that there are no extant commercial DSM projects to function as a precedent-either in terms of project design, or the impacts of design on environment and people. Examining the legislation of the Cook Islands and International Seabed Authority, we demonstrate how regulators are defaulting to terrestrial mining governance architectures, which cannot be meaningfully implemented until a fuller understanding of the ESG risk landscape is developed. We argue that DSM be approached as a distinct extractive industry type, and governed with its unique features in frame.
... ). The principle, in being so defined, necessarily brings with it governance requirements beyond normal business-as-usual, particularly concerning fair and equitable benefitsharing, and protection and preservation of the marine environment(Jaekel et al., 2016;Jaeckel et al., 2017). Given the as yet unknown impacts of full-scale commercial DSM on the environment and ecosystems, a precautionary approach has been identified by the ISA in its 'Mining Code' 87 (e.g. ...
This thesis considers the good environmental governance of deep-seabed mining (DSM), with a focus on the seabed ‘Area’ beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). DSM in ABNJ has not yet begun, due in part to a lack of internationally agreed upon regulations. Shortly after this thesis research began, however, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) began consultations and drafting of its exploitation regulations, making this research particularly timely. Herein, two themes run throughout: i) transparency and ii) statistically robust monitoring of environmental impacts. For each of these themes, the research presented here suggests that there is considerable room fort he ISA to improve its practices. For example, it is currently much less transparent than bodies managing international fisheries (Chapter 2). Furthermore, its practices largely do not meet the expectations contained in recognised standards for terrestrial mining and other related sectors(Chapter 3). Regarding the monitoring of environmental impacts, the ISA calls for statistical robustness. However, it currently lacks guidance on how such robustness should be assessed and reported upon. Mortality modelling conducted here (Chapter 4), using data from the Clarion Clipperton Zone, suggests that impacts on benthic megafauna from neighbouring polymetallic nodule mining operations could be difficult to detect until it is ‘too late’; i.e. only after serious harm has already occurred. To be able to detect early warnings of possible serious environmental harm, monitoring design will need to take into account increased statistical power from the outset, which will require large sample areas (containing 500-750 individuals) and adequate replication ( ≥5 sites) in order to be able to rule out ‘false negatives’; i.e. type II errors. The thesis contains 45 recommendations, which if implemented by the ISA would improve the likelihood of statistically robust environmental monitoring and informed decision making. Additionally, in Chapter 5 (Epilogue), three simply stated, overarching good practices are put forward, not only for the ISA, but for DSM contractors and researchers alike: i) ensure DSM environmental data are readily available; ii) establish robust statistical practices in the analysis of environmental data; and iii) be inclusive when considering the results of environmental data analyses.
... The ISA has a different revenue management challenge: how to distribute the proceeds from mining in the Area equitably, and for the benefit of all of humankind 76 . Built into the concept of the common heritage of humankind is the principle of intergenerational equity 77 . The idea of partitioning resources among current and future generations is an important component of sustainability for non-renewable resources. ...
This Review focuses on whether the emerging industry of deep-seabed mining aligns with the sustainable development agenda. We cover motivations for deep-seabed mining, including to source metals for technology that assists with decarbonization, as well as governance issues surrounding the extraction of minerals. Questions of sustainability and ethics, including environmental, legal, social and rights-based challenges, are considered. Slowing the transition from exploration to exploitation and promoting a circular economy may have regulatory, technological and environmental benefits. This Review covers the sustainability of deep-seabed mining, suggesting a slower transition from exploration to exploitation may be beneficial.
... Representative sampling of those communities is costly, and investigations of their natural variability usually require between 3 and 25 years (Van Dover, 2011;Levin et al., 2016;Van Dover et al., 2018). ISA does not clearly define harmful effects, items to be observed and assessed in baseline surveys, and processes taken in EIAs (Collins et al., 2013;Jaeckel, 2016;Jaeckel et al., 2016Jaeckel et al., , 2017Levin et al., 2016;Durden et al., 2017. Thus, some researchers have considered commercial mining activities on the deep seabed to be premature because predicting the impacts on the ecosystem is not possible (Beaulieu et al., 2017;Van Dover et al., 2017). ...
This paper proposes institutional innovations to advance a transparent monitoring system for the environmental impacts from mineral development on the deep seabed beyond national jurisdictions managed by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). Using a literature review, ISA’s regulations, and five cases of other environmental monitoring of the deep sea, this study observes that ISA’s environmental monitoring system for exploration and exploitation currently lacks critical elements to facilitate transparency. Insufficient compliance reporting and review systems, as well as limited access to information by stakeholders, lower the system’s effectiveness. ISA has not developed adequate mechanisms to support effective multinational collaboration in monitoring. The ISA monitoring system without these characteristics may not be sufficiently adaptive to allow detection and management of environmental changes in the deep seabed. This study suggests 15 institutional recommendations to ISA in order to enhance transparency for monitoring nodule mining in the Central Pacific deep seabed. Principal recommendations include establishing compliance review committees independent of ISA governing bodies, implementing collective monitoring and reporting by adjacent contractors, and reconsidering the centralized decision-making authority by the Secretary-General to improve confidentiality.
... A considerable amount of the gas that is expected to replace oil consumption will be found in offshore reservoirs (International Energy Agency [IEA] 2017), while offshore wind-farms are increasingly becoming a source of global investment (Corbetta et al. 2015, 7). Seabed minerals are also coming to fore (Levin et al. 2016;Jaeckel et al. 2017). 2 Using ship-based extraction technology, Japan successfully mined metals from its seabed in 2017, and expects large-scale commercialisation of several offshore deposits from 2020 onwards (Kyodo 2017). ...
This book is about how coast guards are becoming states’ foremost tool to manage changes occurring in ocean politics generally, and in the Arctic specifically. It looks at states’ rights at sea, changes occurring in the Arctic region, how coast guards are handling issues arising, and how international cooperation can deal with some of the related challenges.
... A considerable amount of the gas that is expected to replace oil consumption will be found in offshore reservoirs (International Energy Agency [IEA] 2017), while offshore wind-farms are increasingly becoming a source of global investment (Corbetta et al. 2015, 7). Seabed minerals are also coming to fore (Levin et al. 2016;Jaeckel et al. 2017). 2 Using ship-based extraction technology, Japan successfully mined metals from its seabed in 2017, and expects large-scale commercialisation of several offshore deposits from 2020 onwards (Kyodo 2017). ...
This concluding chapter takes a look at what the findings showcased in this book concerning the role of coast guards, the growing importance of maritime space in politics, and the opportunities and limitations surrounding cooperation between states at sea (both bilaterally and multilaterally) hold for ocean politics more generally, as governance of marine resources and managing maritime disputes climb on the political agendas across the world. This chapter concludes that coast guard tasks and their role in cross-boundary cooperation are on the rise, not only in the Arctic but globally as oceans are increasingly on political agendas.
... A considerable amount of the gas that is expected to replace oil consumption will be found in offshore reservoirs (International Energy Agency [IEA] 2017), while offshore wind-farms are increasingly becoming a source of global investment (Corbetta et al. 2015, 7). Seabed minerals are also coming to fore (Levin et al. 2016;Jaeckel et al. 2017). 2 Using ship-based extraction technology, Japan successfully mined metals from its seabed in 2017, and expects large-scale commercialisation of several offshore deposits from 2020 onwards (Kyodo 2017). ...
The Arctic is changing. Although maritime conditions vary across this vast region, increased activity from state and non-state actors alike are challenging the littoral northern states. This chapter takes a look at the changes occurring in the Arctic, specifically focusing on the contrasts between the North American and European Arctic regions, using Greenland, Canada and Norway as examples. The overall trend has been that the number of maritime vessels has increased steadily since the 1990s, while vessel activity is becoming more complex, diverse, and spread-out. The end of this chapter turns to the need for coast guard tasks and what these entails.
... A considerable amount of the gas that is expected to replace oil consumption will be found in offshore reservoirs (International Energy Agency [IEA] 2017), while offshore wind-farms are increasingly becoming a source of global investment (Corbetta et al. 2015, 7). Seabed minerals are also coming to fore (Levin et al. 2016;Jaeckel et al. 2017). 2 Using ship-based extraction technology, Japan successfully mined metals from its seabed in 2017, and expects large-scale commercialisation of several offshore deposits from 2020 onwards (Kyodo 2017). ...
There are more to coast guards than just their immediate role as upholders of law and order at sea. They are also being utilised as platforms to initiate and scale up international cooperation between states. This chapter explores Arctic cooperation on maritime issues, looking at an example of bilateral coast guard cooperation by examining the most in-depth case to-date, namely between Norway and Russia. Despite being on opposite sides concerning security interest (NATO–Russia), these two neighbours have managed their ongoing disputes through low-level cooperation on coast guard and maritime affairs. This can in turn help us better understand the Arctic governance system in general, as well as why the role of coast guards is on the rise in northern waters.
... A considerable amount of the gas that is expected to replace oil consumption will be found in offshore reservoirs (International Energy Agency [IEA] 2017), while offshore wind-farms are increasingly becoming a source of global investment (Corbetta et al. 2015, 7). Seabed minerals are also coming to fore (Levin et al. 2016;Jaeckel et al. 2017). 2 Using ship-based extraction technology, Japan successfully mined metals from its seabed in 2017, and expects large-scale commercialisation of several offshore deposits from 2020 onwards (Kyodo 2017). ...
Coast guards and navies vary across the countries in question. Each set-up and division of labour is tailored to the national and historic circumstances in which they were developed, while they are also often a result of the size of both the country itself (geographically), its population and economy. This chapter looks at what a coast guard entails, why they came about, and explicitly examines six Arctic coast guards: Denmark (Greenland); Iceland; Norway; Canada; USA; and Russia. Summarising these differing structures, this chapter turns to a brief discussion on the notion of an effective coast guard-model in the Arctic and beyond.
... A considerable amount of the gas that is expected to replace oil consumption will be found in offshore reservoirs (International Energy Agency [IEA] 2017), while offshore wind-farms are increasingly becoming a source of global investment (Corbetta et al. 2015, 7). Seabed minerals are also coming to fore (Levin et al. 2016;Jaeckel et al. 2017). 2 Using ship-based extraction technology, Japan successfully mined metals from its seabed in 2017, and expects large-scale commercialisation of several offshore deposits from 2020 onwards (Kyodo 2017). ...
Cooperation across maritime boundaries have increasingly come into focus as Arctic states attempt to tackle a growing gap between aspirations and capabilities in their respective northern waters. Multilateral cooperation has been touted as a tool to manage an increasingly challenging situation in northern waters. As the most blatant example of this, an Arctic Coast Guard Forum was officially established in 2015 after years of deliberation on its potential role. This chapter explicitly examines the notion of pan-Arctic cooperation on coast guard issues, discussing its potential and limitations. Finally, it relates these trends to general literature on international cooperation and its relevance for understanding contemporary cooperation at sea between states.
... A considerable amount of the gas that is expected to replace oil consumption will be found in offshore reservoirs (International Energy Agency [IEA] 2017), while offshore wind-farms are increasingly becoming a source of global investment (Corbetta et al. 2015, 7). Seabed minerals are also coming to fore (Levin et al. 2016;Jaeckel et al. 2017). 2 Using ship-based extraction technology, Japan successfully mined metals from its seabed in 2017, and expects large-scale commercialisation of several offshore deposits from 2020 onwards (Kyodo 2017). ...
Maritime issues have been climbing the political agendas since the early 2000s. This chapter explores the foundational background for how and why states acquired rights at sea in the first place, and how this fit with various conceptualisations of the maritime domain. It maps how states’ rights at sea came about more generally, and how the ocean differs from land in terms of sovereign rights and legal institutionalisation throughout the twentieth century. Concepts such as ocean governance, territorial waters, the EEZ and the continental shelf, as well as UNCLOS (Law of the Sea), are explained and discussed. Finally, this chapter turns to examine how and why states cooperate at sea, based on theories from the field of international relations.
... Scientists, amongst others, have expressed concern over possible ecological impacts of commercial scale DSM (e.g., Wedding et al., 2015;Van Dover et al., 2017). As that deepseabed resources beyond national jurisdictions are legally the "common heritage of mankind" (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea [UNCLOS], 1982), there is a need for international bodies (e.g., the ISA or the United Nations) to determine what level of impact is acceptable to society more broadly ( Jaeckel et al., 2017). 6 | Summary of findings and recommendations (in the order presented in section Discussion). ...
The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is in the process of preparing exploitation regulations for deep-seabed mining (DSM). DSM has the potential to disturb the seabed over wide areas, yet there is little information on the ecological consequences, both at the site of mining and surrounding areas where disturbance such as sediment smothering could occur. Of critical regulatory concern is whether the impacts cause “serious harm” to the environment. Using metazoan megafaunal data from the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (northern equatorial Pacific), we simulate a range of disturbances from very low to severe, to determine the effect on community-level metrics. Two kinds of stressors were simulated: one that impacts organisms based on their affinity to nodules, and another that applies spatially stochastic stress to all organisms. These simulations are then assessed using power analysis to determine the amount of sampling required to distinguish the disturbances. This analysis is limited to modelling lethal impacts on megafauna. It provides a first indication of the effect sizes and ecological nature of mining impacts that might be expected across a broader range of taxa. To detect our simulated “tipping point,” power analyses suggest impact monitoring samples should each have at least 500–750 individual megafauna; and at least five such samples, as well as control samples should be assessed. In the region studied, this translates to approximately 1500–2300 m2 seabed per impact monitoring sample, i.e., 7500–11,500 m2 in total for a given location and/or habitat. Detecting less severe disturbances requires more sampling. The numerical density of individuals and Pielou’s evenness of communities appear most sensitive to simulated disturbances and may provide suitable “early warning” metrics for monitoring. To determine the sampling details for detecting the desired threshold(s) for harm, statistical effect sizes will need to be determined and validated. The determination of what constitutes serious harm is a legal question that will need to consider socially acceptable levels of long-term harm to deep-sea life. Monitoring details, data, and results including power analyses should be made fully available, to facilitate independent review and informed policy discussions.
... For example, some decades ago, the notion of a 'common heritage of mankind' qualified the conditions that would justify the mining of mineral resources on the ocean floor. Nowadays, when mineral exploitation in deep waters is more feasible, this view is challenged (Silver et al. 2015;Campbell et al. 2016;Jaeckel et al. 2017). Correspondingly, views (of the individual actor and of codified guidance) vary regarding what is sound exploitation and rightful appropriation (Vidas 2011). ...
This chapter explores geoethical thinking as a means for offering alternative modes of living in a world where humans and natural systems are inextricably linked. Real-world examples demonstrate the societal relevance of geoethics. Four essays illustrate different aspects and specific contexts. The first explores the societal significance of geoscience as a ‘stewardship-science’ and elicits the often hidden influence of geoscience in contemporary societies. The second describes an adaptive and collaborative governance approach affording more sustainable futures for small-scale fisheries. This approach combines universal values with contextual practices to inform geoethics-inspired governance approaches. The third argues that more rigorous engagement with citizen science would demonstrate the societal relevance of geoethics. The final essay explores how ‘society–Earth-centric’ narratives can help citizens better understand their (inter)actions within the Earth system.
... For example, some decades ago, the notion of a 'common heritage of mankind' qualified the conditions that would justify the mining of mineral resources on the ocean floor. Nowadays, when mineral exploitation in deep waters is more feasible, this view is challenged (Silver et al. 2015;Campbell et al. 2016;Jaeckel et al. 2017). Correspondingly, views (of the individual actor and of codified guidance) vary regarding what is sound exploitation and rightful appropriation (Vidas 2011). ...
The societal relevance and purpose of geoscience are discussed from a conceptual perspective in this chapter. It explores how people should live ethically in times of anthropogenic global change and describes the history and current state of ‘human niche-building’ (or ‘engineering’, in its broadest sense) at the planetary scale. It outlines how the Earth can be conceived as a single system, ‘people included’, by considering the geosphere, biosphere and ‘noosphere’—a term repurposed here to denote the human agent and its socio-technological means, consisting of physical and mental artefacts. It posits Kohlberg’s hierarchy of moral adequacy as a reference scale for assessing the maturity of human–Earth interactions, and argues for the social value of geoethical thinking in shaping public narratives about these interactions.
... SMnN mining will mostly take place in international waters, on the seabed and ocean floor, and on the subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction termed Bthe Area ( Jenisch 2013). According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS 1994), the International Seabed Authority (ISA or Bthe Authority^) is obliged to organize, regulate, and control all activities in the Area (Jaeckel et al. 2017). To plan future mining activities, clear definitions and demarcations are needed: ...
The recent and renewed interest in deep-sea mining relates to the decrease of ore grades of known land-based deposits, the increasing costs in land-based mining, as well as rising metal prices, and an increased demand for strategic metals. This study examines the economic requirements for future commercial mining projects focusing on manganese nodules. Beside the common measures of profitability, the net present value (NPV), and the internal rate of return (IRR), an additional measure, the net profit (NP), is presented to indicate the profitability by considering past and future cost and price trends. Furthermore, the approach may be applied to determine the areas of commercial interest. The Blue Mining project in the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission serves as a reference case study. Having applied the developed methodology to a set of assumptions and estimates, results indicate that nodule mining projects would—at the time being and the foreseeable future—be launched at the verge of financial profitability.
... The Area and its mineral resources have been designated as the "Common Heritage of Mankind" [15]. Mining there is controlled by the International Seabed Authority (ISA), an international body composed of States party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which is charged with managing the Area and its resources on behalf of all mankind, as a kind of trustee on behalf of present and future generations [16]. The legal status of the Area and its resources influences every aspect of the ISA regime, including the determination of an adequate balance between facilitating mining and protecting the marine environment [17]. ...
Deep-sea mining (DSM) may become a significant stressor on the marine environment. The DSM industry should demonstrate transparently its commitment to preventing serious harm to the environment by complying with legal requirements, using environmental good practice, and minimizing environmental impacts. Here existing environmental management approaches relevant to DSM that can be used to improve performance are identified and detailed. DSM is still predominantly in the planning stage and will face some unique challenges but there is considerable environmental management experience in existing related industries. International good practice has been suggested for DSM by bodies such as the Pacific Community and the International Marine Minerals Society. The inherent uncertainty in DSM presents challenges, but it can be addressed by collection of environmental information, area-based/spatial management, the precautionary approach and adaptive management. Tools exist for regional and strategic management, which have already begun to be introduced by the International Seabed Authority, for example in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone. Project specific environmental management, through environmental impact assessment, baseline assessment, monitoring, mitigation and environmental management planning, will be critical to identify and reduce potential impacts. In addition, extractive companies’ internal management may be optimised to improve performance by emphasising sustainability at a high level in the company, improving transparency and reporting and introducing environmental management systems. The DSM industry and its regulators have the potential to select and optimize recognised and documented effective practices and adapt them, greatly improving the environmental performance of this new industry.
... Within this study, survey participants highlight the value of hydrothermal vents as a frontier in scientific research and exploration (Principles 3.1, 3.4, 3.5), as an inspirational environment (Principle 3.2) and an important component of ocean education (Principle 3.3). The cultural values people ascribe to hydrothermal vents, including their intrinsic value, will be particularly important to consider within areas beyond national jurisdiction where the seabed is considered the common heritage of humankind, and requires the conservation and preservation of resources (both natural and biological) for present and future generations [28]. ...
Difficulties in quantifying the value of an ecosystem have prompted efforts to emphasize how human well-being depends on the physical, chemical and biological properties of an ecosystem (i.e., ecosystem structure) as well as ecosystem functioning. Incorporating ecosystem structure and function into discussions of value is important for deep-sea ecosystems because many deep-sea ecosystem services indirectly benefit humans and are more difficult to quantify. This study uses an ecosystem principles approach to illustrate a broader definition of value for deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Expert opinion, solicited using an iterative survey approach, was used to develop principles that describe hydrothermal vent processes and their links to human well-being. Survey participants established 28 principles relating to ecosystem structure (n = 12), function (n = 6), cultural services (n = 8) and provisioning services (n = 2), namely the provision of mineral deposits and genetic resources. Principles relating to cultural services emphasized the inspirational value of hydrothermal vents for the arts and ocean education, as well as their importance as a frontier in scientific research. The prevalence of principles relating to ecosystem structure and function (n = 18) highlights the need to understand subsequent links to ecosystem services. For example, principles relating to regulating services were not established by the expert group but links between ecosystem function and regulating services can be made. The ecosystem principles presented here emphasize a more holistic concept of value that will be important to consider as regulations are developed for the exploitation of minerals associated with deep-sea hydrothermal vents.
... Marine scientific research is often invoked as an instrument to increase knowledge about the deep ocean for the benefit of humankind. 101 However, scientific knowledge is often considered on the same level of importance of, for example, public opinion and participation in the decision-making process, 102 which are rarely based on scientific data and competent analysis. ...
This paper draws a parallel between mineral resources of the deep sea and marine genetic resources. The
paper first discusses the discovery and first deep sea exploration of minerals bearing metals of economic
interest. Secondly, the paper gives a brief historical overview of metal prices, and other external factors,
such as the technological challenge and the global economic conditions, that have so far prevented from
entering into an exploitation phase of deep seabed mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Subsequently,
the paper provides an outline of the state of the art in the scientific investigation of marine genetic
resources, and gives an overview of possible harmful consequences of exploiting hotspots of marine
life through bioprospecting in the deep sea. The two examples analysed serve to substantiate the idea that
international authorities tend to be established at a too early stage of scientific knowledge, pressured by
misleading preconceptions, which are not based on sound and free marine scientific research.
... According to the UNCLOS (1982), seabed resources located beyond the EEZs are declared as common heritage of the humankind (Bourrel, Thiele and Currie, 2016). Therefore, the ISA has to guarantee the equity between developed and developing countries, achieving a sustainable development of the resources (Jaeckel, Gjerde and Ardron, 2017). In that sense, part of the benefits obtained from deep-sea mining in international waters have to be shared with developing countries by imposing an international royalty to mining companies (Antrim, 2005;Lodge, 2006). ...
Deep-sea mining activities are expected to commence in the next decade; the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has already issued twenty nine exploration licenses for polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and polymetallic crusts. The ISA is seeking to approve the exploitation regulations for polymetallic nodules in the next two years, but there are significant research and knowledge gaps that still have to be explored. The discharge of dewatering plumes, the analysis of the effect of vortex-induced vibrations (VIV) on mining risers, and the development of updated and detailed economic models -which are among the most pressing ones - are addressed in this thesis. PLUMEX field studies were conducted in the Pacific Ocean to create and monitor six dewatering plumes. The data obtained from the experiments will be used to validate analytic and numeric plume models that will help to assess the environmental impacts. Additionally, a preliminary VIV analysis of a simple riser configuration was conducted to show the significant impact of VIV on the fatigue life. The results showed that the fatigue life could be reduced to less than one year. Lastly, an independent and thorough economic model is being developed at MIT to allow the simulation of different scenarios and forecast the economic result of a polymetallic nodule exploitation. The ISA will consider the results from the model to determine the royalties and fees that will be paid by future contractors in order to share their benefit with the humankind.
... La convention de Montego Bay de 1982 sur le droit de la mer constitue la première mesure internationale de gestion d'un commun, à savoir l'océan global, face à l'intérêt grandissant des États côtiers envers les ressources océaniques. Néanmoins, dans la Convention, seules les zones en dehors des juridictions nationales acquièrent un statut de « bien public mondial » (Jaeckel et al., 2017). Les zones économiques exclusives (ZEE) créées par cette convention, où s'étendent les compétences des États côtiers sur la gestion des ressources (mais pas la circulation, qui reste libre, à l'inverse de la bande côtière des douze milles nautiques -les eaux territoriales), font l'objet d'un réinvestissement des politiques publiques qui s'illustre par diverses formes de gestion et de planification des espaces marins. ...
Marine Areas in the Pacific Caught Between Commoning and Grabbing
Oceanic spaces are the last territorial frontier to be conquered, delimited, and administered. This “scramble for the sea” in the Pacific Ocean is fueled by economic (deep-sea mining and island development), conservationist (biodiversity conservation), and political (sovereignty) issues. The interplay between the multiplicity of actors involved at different scales and the plurality of the resources targeted is linked to heterogeneous timescapes, and generates processes situated on an axis which opposes grabbing and commoning, both conceptually and politically.
The study of traditional marine stakeholders, such as small-scale fishers in the Mediterranean, represents a site of a changing seascape. This is characterized by impeding factors of the past but also a possibility for improved future trajectories. Small-scale fisheries (SSF) have played a crucial socio-economic role in the Mediterranean for decades, and they continue to comprise over 80% of the fishing fleets and provide direct and indirect economic contributions to coastal communities. Their contribution to blue economy has so far been described as low, but this is largely due to a narrow conception both of benefits to be drawn from the development of maritime sectors (which have focused strongly on economic growth) and types of innovation that are capable of supporting the transition to sustainability (which have overlooked social innovation). This chapter outlines the multi-scale contributions of the small-scale fisheries and presents innovative approaches of the sector towards the markets, both of which support the inclusion of SSF in the blue economy sector. The chapter focuses on key instances of recently developed initiatives by the SSF across the Mediterranean with impacts on the supply chain and the marketing of their products. We argue that these market interventions contribute to the ultimate governance objectives, and challenge the conception of SSF as a non-innovative sector. We propose that a richer engagement with the blue economy paradigm supports the perception of the SSF as a prospective sector, to match the promotion of aquaculture among others.
Despite the progress in the international and regional governance efforts at the level of climate change, ocean acidification (OA) remains a global problem with profoundly negative environmental, social, and economical consequences. This requires extensive mitigation and adaptation effective strategies that are hindered by current shortcomings of governance. This multidisciplinary chapter investigates the risks of ocean acidification (OA) for aquaculture and fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea and its sub-basins and the role of regional adaptive governance to tackle the problem. The identified risks are based on the biological sensitivities of the most important aquaculture species and biogenic habitats and their exposure to the current and future predicted (2100) RCP 8.5 conditions. To link OA exposure and biological sensitivity, we produced spatially resolved and depth-related pH and aragonite saturation state exposure maps and overlaid these with the existing aquaculture industry in the coastal waters of the Mediterranean basin to demonstrate potential risk for the aquaculture in the future. We also identified fisheries’ vulnerability through the indirect effects of OA on highly sensitive biogenic habitats that serve as nursery and spawning areas, showing that some of the biogenic habitats are already affected locally under existing OA conditions and will be more severely impacted across the entire Mediterranean basin under 2100 scenarios. This provided a regional vulnerability assessment of OA hotspots, risks and gaps that created the baseline for discussing the importance of adaptive governance and recommendations for future OA mitigation/adaptation strategies. By understanding the risks under future OA scenarios and reinforcing the adaptability of the governance system at the science-policy interface, best informed, “situated” management response capability can be optimised to sustain ecosystem services.
This Open Access book on Ocean Governance examines sustainability challenges facing our oceans today. The book is organized into three sections: knowledge systems, policy foundations and thematic analyses. The knowledge produced in the book was catalyzed by the scientific outcomes within the European-funded Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST) network “Ocean Governance for Sustainability – Challenges, Options and the Role of Science”. This network brings together scientists, policy-makers and civil society representatives from 28 nation states to cooperate on ocean governance research. This book offers a compilation of new research material including focused case studies, broad policy syntheses and reflective chapters on the history and current status of knowledge production systems on ocean governance. New research material is presented, although some chapters draw on secondary sources. The book starts with synthetic review chapters from the editors, outlining past and present knowledge systems, addressing how and why ocean governance for sustainability is where it currently stands with critical reflections on existing narratives, path dependencies and colonialist histories. This is followed by chapters addressing, synthesizing and analyzing different legal and policy frameworks for ocean governance both regionally and internationally. At the core of the book are the thematic analyses, which provide focused case studies with detailed contextual information in support of different ocean governance challenges and sustainability pathways around the world. The book concludes with a chapter explicitly targeting students, researchers and policy-makers with key take-away messages compiled by the editors.
A “blue economy” seeks to establish socially equitable, environmentally sustainable, and economically viable ocean sectors. This article briefly reviews where the term came from and why it has quickly risen as the foremost policy narrative for shaping future oceans. Enabling equitable, sustainable, and economically viable blue economies can be supported through shared technological and scientific advances but will ultimately depend on acknowledging and addressing deep historical inequities in our societies and economic sectors. It is essential to understand this aspect so that we can critique, improve, and implement ocean policies that explicitly recognize, protect, and benefit frontline and marginalized peoples and communities, and ocean social-ecological systems, across the world.
The ocean plays a key role in sustaining life on our planet and is inextricably linked to biodiversity, climate, human well-being, and health. However, the governance of the ocean is primarily pursued through sectoral-based legal and institutional frameworks that falls short in ensuring the long-term protection of the marine environment and the sustainability of marine resources. This is especially concerning in areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (ABNJ) where human activities continue to expand. The existence of two distinct regimes in ABNJ, namely the High Seas (applicable to the water column, which is a global common) and the Area (applicable to the international seabed and its mineral resources, which are the common heritage of mankind), that have been largely regulated separately, impede the development and implementation of integrated marine environmental governance and biodiversity conservation in ABNJ. On the one hand, the International Seabed Authority (ISA), which is mandated to administer the mineral resources of the Area, is currently discussing a set of regulations to enable future exploitation activities. On the other hand, multilateral negotiations are taking place for the development of an internationally legally binding instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (referred to as the proposed ‘BBNJ’ Instrument). Both processes offer a unique opportunity to foster an ecosystem approach to management (EAM) in ABNJ. In this article, we elaborate on options for stronger governance integration and the development of a coherent and collaborative interplay between these two processes. To this end, we explore the potential of Regional Environmental Management Plans (REMPs) established by the ISA as a case study to contribute to global biodiversity conservation, and the opportunity for the proposed BBNJ Instrument to promote overarching coherence to biodiversity conservation in ABNJ, premised on EAM. We conclude that the proposed BBNJ Instrument could have a pivotal role to streamline multilateral action for the conservation of biodiversity in ABNJ by adopting an ambitious, overarching environmental vision and strategic goals, accompanied by strong implementation and enforcement mechanisms.
Traditional knowledge, customary marine management approaches and integrated relationships between biodiversity, ecosystems and local communities promote conservation and ensure that marine benefits are reaped in a holistic, sustainable and equitable manner as fostered by contemporary ocean governance. However, the interaction between traditional knowledge, the present scientific approach to marine resource management and specific regulatory frameworks has often been challenging. To a certain extent, the value of community practices and customary rules, which has provided an incentive for regional cooperation and coordination, is acknowledged in several legal systems of the Pacific Island States and a number of regional and international instruments, but this important interconnectivity can certainly be perfected.
The common heritage of mankind (CHM) is of a relatively recent origin. This study examines Arvid Pardo's speech to the United Nations General Assembly in 1967, in which he urged that body to designate the seabed beyond national control as CHM. The commentary next looks at Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 82, as amended by the 1994 Agreement, which incorporates the CHM as a core principle governing mineral mining in the deep bottom area beyond national jurisdiction. Finally, it discusses CHM's future prospects in relation to the draft International Seabed Authority (ISA) Exploitation Regulations, the Enterprise, an ISA organ that has yet to be operationalized, and ongoing discussions about an international legally binding instrument on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity under the UNCLOS. The purpose of this study is to highlight the complexity surrounding the CHM, which is a key principle governing deep seabed activities.
Recently, new data about deep-sea ecosystems has stirred scientific, economic, and ecological agendas, but little is known about the public’s perspectives of the deep sea. Our goal is to explore the public’s common sense knowledge of the deep sea, with a view to inform science communication efforts. Based on social representations theory, we investigated the relationship between the public’s meanings associated with the deep sea and psychosocial and positional variables, such as attitudes and education level, and reflected on the implications of the findings for science communication. The study was conducted in Portugal, a coastal, sea-connected country. The sample consisted of 315 adults from different age groups and social strata. Participants were asked to elicit and rank their thoughts about the deep sea using a ranked association technique and fill in questions about sociodemographic information, perceptions, and attitudes concerning the deep sea. Results showed that the social representations of the deep sea were structured as emotional versus rational views and as superficial ocean knowledge versus novel or unusual views. Moreover, results evinced a relationship between representations and psychosocial and positional variables. The gap between scientific and common sense knowledge was evident amongst participants with a low education level and low science engagement, whilst highly educated and science-engaged participants’ representations seemed to be narrowed by instrumental views on science. This research is significant to better directing science communication to increase well-informed public participation in decision-making related to deep sea management and other socio-scientific issues by responding to audience’s background knowledge.
Global environmental architectures have the potential to reduce inequalities, however, legal, and political procedures and structures may also increase injustices and disempowerment. Multilateral environmental agreements create large regimes over some of the most expansive planetary systems. Contracting states list the purposes, motivations and considerations that led them to conclude legally binding agreements in treaty preambles that are an interpretive tool, a declaration of context, motivation, and intent of the contracting states or parties. This study produces an environmental justice conceptual framework that references the scholarship on environmental justice and environmental governance, outlines the elements required to introduce environmental justice debates into treaty preambles, and gives an example of its application to determine whether the preambles include justice concepts. The preambles selected are from treaties with broad geographic and subject matter scope: they regulate oceans, climate, and biodiversity, the transport of waste, mercury pollution, migratory and endangered species, and wetlands. Using the environmental justice conceptual framework, the study found a justice gap between how justice is addressed in justice debates and literatures and the stated intent of the contracting parties in the preambles. The conclusions support the literature that argues that multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) are ahistorical as regards the moral responsibility that lies at the heart of the definitions of justice.
Most of the references are automatic mesh generation, but the accuracy of armored umbilical cable (AUC) analysis is not high enough. There is no detailed introduction about high-quality mesh generation method. Therefore, a high quality mesh method (hexahedral mesh generation method) for AUC for deep sea equipment is proposed in this paper. Hexahedral mesh generation method is often used in the analysis of structures subjected to bending or torsion and structures with large deformation. The analysis of AUC is exactly the analysis of bending or torsional structures and large deformation structures. The model is divided into five types for end face member: a circular, a circular ring, a fan-shaped, a side with a curved triangular and a curved square side. In addition, different hexahedral mesh methods for five different cross-section types, get a high quality hexahedral mesh of each part and assemble it by combination, forming a high quality AUC three-dimensional hexahedral mesh model. At last, finite element analysis is carried out to determine the accuracy of the hexahedral mesh model. The results show: hexahedral mesh can improve analysis accuracy more than automatically generated mesh. This will provide technical support for the design, reliability analysis of the AUC.
Today the International Seabed Authority (ISA), through its member States, is in the process of developing regulations to govern deep-sea mineral mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction, with self-imposed regulatory deadlines of July 2020. Given the complexities of the ISA's dual responsibility to both develop and protect the seabed for all of humanity over time, this article explores to what extent the standards established in the 1988 Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA) might guide the ISA through its paradoxical mandate. Principles embraced in CRAMRA include the need for: i) sufficient information to ensure informed decisions, ii) consideration of impacts on dependent and associated seabed ecosystems; iii) requirements for comprehensive and cumulative impact assessments; iv) assurances of technological capacity to monitor key environmental parameters and measure change; v) effective operating procedures for accident responses, and vi) priority use of the precautionary principle. These principles with regard to mineral resource regulation in the icy and fragile Antarctic frontier operationalize the precautionary approach and can generate valuable lessons for regulating the future deep-sea mining industry to protect the remote, dark and similarly fragile deep ocean frontier.
The natural capital of the vast deep ocean is significant yet not well quantified. The ecosystem services provided by the deep sea provide a wide range of benefits to humanity. Proposed deep-sea economic activities such as fishing, deep-sea mining and bioprospecting therefore need to be assessed in this context. In addition to quantifying the economic benefits and costs of such activities on their own, their potential impact on the deep-sea natural capital also needs to be considered.
Responsible interaction of people with the Earth system calls for deep engagement with ethical considerations. Due to their professional knowledge and skills, geoscientists in particular should reflect on the ethical implications of their work that could guide responsible interactions. Geoethics offers geoscientists a framework for operationalising and exercising this responsibility whilst also orienting other professions and society towards responsible interactions with the Earth system. This chapter explores the meaning of geoethics in detail and describes the current state of geoethical thinking and its application to geoscience research and practice. It argues that reference values and general principles should be reconciled with context-dependent perspectives in complex decision-making settings, and reflects on the potential of geoethics to inform a more ‘responsible anthropocentrism’.
Over the past 15 years the International Seabed Authority (ISA), the United Nations agency charged with regulating extraction from the ocean floor and seabed in areas beyond national jurisdiction (a zone referred to as the “Area”), has assigned exploration contracts for deep sea mineral exploration for specific zones under its purview. Pressures have mounted in recent years for a rapid roll out of an ISA mineral exploitation regime. Under international law, the deep seabed pertains to the entire global community under the principle of the common heritage of (hu)mankind. Parastatal and private firms granted rights by the UN and/or their home states for exploration prior to the ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), are among the actors in these contracts. They include US firms, notably Lockheed Martin, which participated in deep‐sea mining consortia in the 1970s and 1980s. The paper argues that the neo‐mercantilist dynamics surrounding ISA negotiations show how the geopolitics of proprietary data and political economy of finance constitute the deep seabed. The power certain states and firms hold in shaping the ISA exploitation regime arises in part from the contested legal position of ocean frontiers beyond state jurisdiction.
Sound governance arrangement in socio-ecological systems (human niche) use ethical frameworks, civic participation and formalized guidance. To explore this hypothesis, experiences from marine small-scale fisheries and seabed mining drive the research question ’what is the function of ethics for governability?’ Subsequently, this essay discusses generic features of complex-adaptive socio-ecological systems, the commonalities of the 'Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries' and Geoethics, Kohlberg’s model of ‘stages of moral adequacy’ when applied to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), and the function of creativity to enable effective civic participation. Combining these lines of inquiries leads to the conclusion that ethical frameworks, civic participation and formalized guidance mutually support governability, multi-actor/level policy-making, and the sustainability of human niche-building.
The text is an attempt to relate different threads of my interests; general system behaviour, conditions to governability, aquatic environments and geoethics. also see IAPG blog: https://iapgeoethics.blogspot.com/2018/07/responsible-mining-at-seabed-wickedness.html
Covering more than half the planet, the deep ocean sequesters atmospheric CO2 and recycles major nutrients; is predicted to hold millions of yet-to-be-described species; and stores mind-boggling quantities of untapped energy resources, precious metals, and minerals (1). It is an immense, remote biome, critical to the health of the planet and human well-being. The deep ocean (defined here as below a typical continental shelf break, >200 m) faces mounting challenges as technological advances—including robotics, imaging, and structural engineering—greatly improve access. We recommend a move from a frontier mentality of exploitation and single-sector management to a precautionary system that balances use of living marine resources, energy, and minerals from the deep ocean with maintenance of a productive and healthy marine environment, while improving knowledge and collaboration.
Deep-sea hydrothermal-vent ecosystems have stimulated decades of scientific research and hold promise of mineral and genetic resources that also serve societal needs. Some endemic taxa thrive only in vent environments, and vent-associated organisms are adapted to a variety of natural disturbances, from tidal variations to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. In this paper, physicochemical and biological impacts of a range of human activities at vents are considered. Mining is currently the only anthropogenic activity projected to have a major impact on vent ecosystems, albeit at a local scale, based on our current understanding of ecological responses to disturbance. Natural recovery from a single mining event depends on immigration and larval recruitment and colonization; understanding processes and dynamics influencing life-history stages may be key to effective minimization and mitigation of mining impacts. Cumulative impacts on benthic communities of several mining projects in a single region, without proper management, include possible species extinctions and shifts in community structure and function.
Van Dover, C. L. 2011. Mining seafloor massive sulphides and biodiversity: what is at risk? – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 68: 341–348.
Scientific exploration of the deep sea in the late 1970s led to the discovery of seafloor massive sulphides at hydrothermal vents. More recently, sulphide deposits containing high grades of ore have been discovered in the southwest Pacific. In addition to metal-rich ores, hydrothermal vents host ecosystems based on microbial chemoautotrophic primary production, with endemic invertebrate species adapted in special ways to the vent environment. Although there has been considerable effort to study the biology and ecology of vent systems in the decades since these systems were first discovered, there has been limited attention paid to conservation issues. Three priority recommendations for conservation science at hydrothermal vent settings are identified here: (i) determine the natural conservation units for key species with differing life histories; (ii) identify a set of first principles for the design of preservation reference areas and conservation areas; (iii) develop and test methods for effective mitigation and restoration to enhance the recovery of biodiversity in sulphide systems that may be subject to open-cut mining.
Property relations in oceans have a complex history, shaped in part by the deep seas’ distance from processes of territorialization on land. While the national marking of some coastal space through the largely accepted, if not universally ratified, premises of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) sets specific territorial extensions for states, the metaphorical and practical fluidity of oceans exemplify how their care is essentially an issue of global governance (Steinberg 2001). The oceans are the quintessential commons onto which contaminants and wastes can be externalized (Clapp 2002); the reduced social relations on those spaces distinguish them as a frontier zone, removed from terrestrial relations. The offshore, and particularly the ‘deep’ offshore, is isolated from human settlements. This places a physical limit on the capacity of external, and even internal, actors to observe and account for the rush to extraction there. Indeed, the marine zone offers spaces freer from public disruption and constant forms of social accountability than on land. As applied to finance, the term offshore refers to regions where state oversight and regulatory rules are attenuated (Hudson 2000, Cameron and Palan 2004).
The deep ocean absorbs vast amounts of heat and carbon dioxide, providing a critical buffer to climate change but exposing
vulnerable ecosystems to combined stresses of warming, ocean acidification, deoxygenation, and altered food inputs. Resulting
changes may threaten biodiversity and compromise key ocean services that maintain a healthy planet and human livelihoods.
There exist large gaps in understanding of the physical and ecological feedbacks that will occur. Explicit recognition of
deep-ocean climate mitigation and inclusion in adaptation planning by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) could help to expand deep-ocean research and observation and to protect the integrity and functions of deep-ocean
ecosystems.
In June 1994, some twelve years after the conclusion of the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea, the UN Secretary-General reported to the General Assembly that informal consultations had led to agreements that appeared to have removed the obstacles to general adherence to the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.
This article asks whether the effort involved in the nine years of the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III) negotiation was worthwhile. It finds various styles of treaty-making in the Law of the Sea Convention and examines some of the dynamics of the UNCLOS III negotiation process which provide possible reasons for this unusual mix of treaty-making models. It then assesses whether this monumental international treaty-making venture was indeed worth the effort.
One of the key features of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea is its recognition that the seabed and its resources beyond national jurisdiction are the common heritage of mankind. Part XI of the Convention gives precise legal meaning to this term. The International Seabed Authority is responsible for implementing the common heritage principle. Since the Authority was established in 1994, a comprehensive legal regime for the Area has been established. Despite initial problems, the international machinery for the administration of this regime is functioning well. The Authority has made good progress, on the basis of the evolutionary approach set out in the 1994 Agreement, in elaborating a regulatory regime for access to the resources of the Area. Much more work remains to be done, however; in particular, if the economic benefits of the common heritage are to be realized.
This paper offers some brief reflections on issues surrounding the ongoing debate in relation to the legal status of marine genetic resources in areas beyond national jurisdiction. It considers one possible solution to the ideological divide over the relevance of the common heritage of mankind to marine genetic resources, modelled on Article IV of the Antarctic Treaty. The suitability of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as a possible model is also considered. The fact that this later model is now being canvassed by some States marks a major step forward in international discussions on the issue. Other possible models that have been canvassed in the academic literature are also considered. The fact that these alternatives have not been canvassed at length in diplomatic discussions to date highlights the fact that a detailed examination of the wide range of possible options is urgently needed.
For nearly a decade, governments have been discussing the need to improve efforts to conserve and sustainably use marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). Support for a new international agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) – an Implementing Agreement – on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in ABNJ has been growing. In June 2012, at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, States agreed to take a decision on the development of an international instrument under UNCLOS before the end of the 69th session of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), which runs from September 2014 to August 2015. In follow-up to this commitment, it was agreed to consider the “scope, parameters and feasibility” of this instrument. To inform these international discussions, this article highlights some potential options for the content of a new UNCLOS Implementing Agreement. It first reviews the history of UN discussions, and then elaborates on options to address key elements identified as priorities for States in 2011: marine genetic resources, including the sharing of benefits, area-based management tools, including marine protected areas, environmental impact assessments, capacity-building and the transfer of marine technology. It addresses cross-cutting issues such as the governing principles, institutional structure as well as on other critical points such as High Seas fishing and flag State responsibilities. The article concludes with suggestions on possible next steps in order to succeed in the negotiations for an agreement.
After decades of preparation, firm moves forward with plans to harvest
mineral-rich nuggets from sea floor.
With the Law of the Sea Convention celebrating its 10th anniversary in 2004, an opportunity arises to assess the impact of new institutions created by the Convention. An analysis is undertaken of the work of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, the International Sea-Bed Authority, and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. It is argued that all three of these institutions are playing an important role in the evolution of the law of the sea, and giving effect to fundamental norms of the Convention, such as the common heritage principle. However, conflicts loom over the delimitation of maritime space, forum shopping, and treaty parallelism. It is concluded that these institutions will continue to play an important role for the law of the sea in the coming decade.
Deep-water corals are slow growing, fragile and vulnerable to the impacts of deep-water fisheries and the development activities of the offshore industries. In Ireland there is now evidence of major damage to deep-water corals linked to a recent expansion of the Irish deep-water fishery. This fishery uses trawls fitted with robust rock hopping gear and employs a high risk fishing technique, which is potentially very destructive to coral habitats. Consequently resource managers have been exploring the potential of marine protected areas (MPA) as a tool for the conservation of these coral ecosystems in the North East Atlantic. MPAs aim to minimise the socio-economic costs associated with closures or other management restrictions while still achieving the desired conservation objectives. However, the decision to use MPAs (and thereby restrict fishing) is often taken in the light of uncertainty over the value of the reserved habitats to the fishing industry. This paper reports on a choice experiment study carried out in Ireland in early 2007 aimed at partly addressing this uncertainty. The study primarily focused on determining the economic value held by the Irish public for the conservation of deep-sea corals using several variants of the concept of MPAs. They have endorsed MPA strategies that banned trawling in an MPA that included all areas where corals are thought to exist with no personal tax imposed, banned trawling in an MPA covering all known corals with a personal tax imposed of €1 p.a. and banned all fishing in an MPA covering all areas where corals are thought to exist with a personal tax imposed of €1 p.a. In terms of the probabilities attached to the individual attributes, the most preferred policy options were to ban trawling, protect all areas where corals are thought to exist, and pay a ring-fenced personal tax of €1 p.a.
Extracting minerals from sea-floor vents should not go ahead without a
coherent conservation framework, argues Cindy Lee Van Dover.
In July 1994 an Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was adopted by the UN General Assembly. This Agreement, the outcome of Informal Consultations sponsored by the UN Secretary-General, in effect substantially amends the regime of seabed mining laid down in Part XI of the UN Convention, thus removing the obstacle to accession to the Convention by the principal industrialized powers. The UN Convention entered into force on 16 November 1994. This article offers an analysis of the main provisions of the new Agreement and assesses its Impact on the prospects for universal participation in the UN Convention.
14 LOSC Annex IV Article 1. 16 LOSC, Article 173. See also LOSC)(g) and Annex IV, Article 10. 17 LOSC 18 LOSC, Annex IV Article 2. 19 IA
- Rules Of
12 ISA, Rules of Procedures of the Legal and Technical Commission, Rules 11, 13.
13 IA, Annex Section 8(1)(a).
14 LOSC, Article 158(2), Annex IV.
15 LOSC, Article 170(1), Annex IV Article 1.
16 LOSC, Article 173. See also LOSC, articles 140(2), 160(2)(g) and Annex IV,
Article 10.
17 LOSC, Article 170(1).
18 LOSC, Annex IV Article 2.
19 IA, Annex Section 1(3).
20 IA, Annex Section 2(2).
21 IA, Annex Section 2(1).
22 IA, Annex Section 2(2).
23 IA, Annex Section 2(2).
24 IA, Annex Section 2.
25 IA, Annex Section 2(2).
- Un Doc
- A Res
UNGA, UN Doc A/RES/2749(XXV), 17 December 1970.
47 Sulphides Exploration Regulations, Regulation 34; ISA. ISBA/19/LTC/8 (1
48 LOSC, Article 133. 49 LOSC, Article 256 50 IA
March 2013).
48 LOSC, Article 133.
49 LOSC, Article 256; Exploration Regulations, Regulation 1(4).
50 IA, Annex Section 8(1)(a).
Entry into force of the Law of the Sea Convention
- M H Nordquist
M.H. Nordquist, J.N. Moore (Eds.), Entry into force of the Law of the Sea
Convention, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague, 1995 〈http://www.brill.
com/entry-force-law-sea-convention〉.
The Development of the Regime for Deep Seabed Mining
- S N Nandan
- M W Lodge
- S Rosenne
S.N. Nandan, M.W. Lodge, S. Rosenne, The Development of the Regime for
Deep Seabed Mining, Kluwer Law International, The Hague and Charlottesville
2002, pp. 56-66 〈https://www.isa.org.jm/sites/default/files/files/documents/
regime-ae.pdf〉.
United Nations convention on the law of the Sea, 1982: a commentary
- S N Nandan
- M W Lodge
- S Rosenne
S.N. Nandan, M.W. Lodge, S. Rosenne, United Nations convention on the law of
the Sea, 1982: a commentary, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague, 2002
〈http://www.brill.com/united-nations-convention-law-sea-1982-volume-vi〉.
Environmental impact assessment and the International Seabed Authority
- Le Gurun
G. Le Gurun, Environmental impact assessment and the International Seabed
Authority, in: C.J. Bastmeijer, T. Koivurova (Eds.), Theory Pract. Transbound.
Environ. Impact Assess, Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden, 2007,
pp. 221-264, http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004164796.i-400.
Review of implementation of the environmental management plan for the Clarion-Clipperton Zone
- Seascape Consultants
Seascape Consultants. Review of implementation of the environmental management plan for the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, 20 May 2014, page 10. 〈http://
isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/20Sess/LTC/CCZ-EMPRev.pdf〉.
Nandan's summary at the conclusion of the Secretary-General's informal consultation on outstanding issues relating to the deep seabed mining provisions of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
- Mr
Mr. Nandan's summary at the conclusion of the Secretary-General's informal
consultation on outstanding issues relating to the deep seabed mining provisions of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 23 July 1991, reprinted in
ISA, Secretary-General's Informal Consultations on Outstanding Issues Relating to the Deep Seabed Mining Provisions of the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the SEA: Collected Documents. ISA, 2002, page 31. 〈http://www.
isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Pubs/SG-InformConsultations-ae.pdf〉.