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Conservation trophy hunting: implications of contrasting approaches in native and introduced-range countries

Authors:
Achyut Aryal
Achyut Aryal
Craig Morley at Toi Ohomai Institute of Technology
Craig Morley
Phil E Cowan at Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research
Phil E Cowan
Weihong Ji at Massey University
Weihong Ji
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Abstract

Tensions between trophy hunting, sport/conservation hunting, invasive mammal species control and compassionate conservation highlight the rising worldwide issue in the wildlife management and the tourism sector. Hunting, either for food or recreation, has played a significant role in the development of the conservation movement from its inception. While initially considered part of wildlife tourism, some ‘conservation hunting’ focuses exclusively on trophy hunting, especially iconic species, often justified to generate conservation benefits and revenue for the local community. Exploitation to incentivise protection has many proponents, but the trade-off at a population level for the protection of animal lives has considerable ethical and practical challenges. Further, trophy hunting can also drive population-level changes that may cause population collapse. Here we discuss trophy hunting practice in Nepal, New Zealand and compare the harvesting approaches in native and introduce range countries.
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ISSN: 1488-8386 (Print) 2160-0651 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tbid20
Conservation trophy hunting: implications of
contrasting approaches in native and introduced-
range countries
Achyut Aryal, Craig G. Morley, Phil Cowan & Weihong Ji
To cite this article: Achyut Aryal, Craig G. Morley, Phil Cowan & Weihong Ji (2017): Conservation
trophy hunting: implications of contrasting approaches in native and introduced-range
countries , Biodiversity, DOI: 10.1080/14888386.2016.1263974
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2016.1263974
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BIODIVERSITY, 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2016.1263974
Conservation trophy hunting: implications of contrasting approaches in native
and introduced-range countries
Achyut Aryala,b,e, Craig G. Morleyb, Phil Cowanc and Weihong Jid
aSchool of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; bDepartment of
Forest and Resource Management, Toi Ohomai Institute of Technology, Rotorua, New Zealand; cLandcare Research, Christchurch, New Zealand;
dInstitute of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand; eWaste Management NZ Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand
ABSTRACT
Tensions between trophy hunting, sport/conservation hunting, invasive mammal species control
and compassionate conservation highlight the rising worldwide issue in the wildlife management
and the tourism sector. Hunting, either for food or recreation, has played a signicant role in the
development of the conservation movement from its inception. While initially considered part of
wildlife tourism, some ‘conservation hunting’ focuses exclusively on trophy hunting, especially iconic
species, often justied to generate conservation benets and revenue for the local community.
Exploitation to incentivise protection has many proponents, but the trade-o at a population level
for the protection of animal lives has considerable ethical and practical challenges. Further, trophy
hunting can also drive population-level changes that may cause population collapse. Here we
discuss trophy hunting practice in Nepal, New Zealand and compare the harvesting approaches in
native and introduce range countries.
We believe that tensions between trophy hunting, sport/
conservation hunting, invasive mammal species con-
trol and compassionate conservation are highlighting a
rising worldwide issue in the wildlife management and
the tourism sector that needs to be addressed (Aryal
et al. 2015; Leader-Williams et al. 2005; Ramp and Beko
2015). Hunting, either for food or recreation, has played
a signicant role in the development of the conservation
movement from its inception (Leopold [1933] 1986,
1949). While initially promoted as part of wildlife tourism,
some ‘conservation hunting’ focuses exclusively on trophy
hunting, especially of iconic species. Such hunting is oen
justied in terms of conservation benets and revenue for
the local community. While exploitation to incentivise
protection has many proponents, we consider that the
trade-o at a population level for the protection of animal
lives has considerable ethical and practical challenges that
need to be addressed (Ramp and Beko 2015). Further,
the ecological consequences of trophy hunting need
closer examination to ensure unanticipated or negative
outcomes are avoided, such as population-level changes
that may cause population collapse (Aryal et al. 2015).
In the twenty-rst century, the tenets of animal con-
servation ethics (Gamborg, Palmer, and Sandoe 2012)
support the development of sustainable trophy hunt-
ing approaches that maintain viable populations while
assisting local communities to improve their social and
economic status. For example, bharal (Pseudois nayaur)
and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) have been
hunted for sport and trophies in Nepal since the 1980s,
generating considerable revenue based on hunting quo-
tas determined by the government (Aryal et al. 2015).
However, the non-lethal approach promoted by the com-
passionate conservation ethic (Ramp and Beko2015)
views trophy hunting quite dierently.
e motivation for promoting trophy hunting is oen
driven by context-dependent values which, we believe,
need to be more closely evaluated. As an example, in both
New Zealand and Nepal, tahr are prized as a recreational/
trophy hunting resource (Aryal et al. 2015; Davys, Forsyth,
and Hickling 1999; Department of Conservation (DoC)
1993, 2006; Forsyth 1999). In New Zealand, tahr are
considered a ‘pest’ by conservationists because they are
non-native and hunted. By contrast, within their native
range in Nepal, tahr are categorised as near-threatened
(IUCN Red Data; Bhatnagar and Lovari 2008). While tro-
phy hunting has generated signicant revenue in Nepal
and other countries (Aryal et al. 2015), it is having a severe
KEYWORDS
Trophy hunting;
conservation; tahr; blue
sheep
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 4 November 2016
Accepted20 November 2016
© 2017 Biodiversity Conservancy International
CONTACT Achyut Aryal savefauna@gmail.com
2 A. ARYAL ET AL.
ratio of the target species, population structures, level
of predators and human impact (Milner, Nilsen, and
Andreassen 2007; Whitman et al. 2004). For sustainable
hunting of tahr in Nepal we recommend a minimum
age threshold of greater than seven years of age (and
for bharal, a horn size greater than 46 cm, curved and
more than eight years old: based on the lifespan of the
animal, 10–15 years; Aryal, unpusblished data). In
developing these strategic hunting policies, we believe
a more considerate conservation approach is required
that incorporates both animal welfare and the ethics of
hunting, and maximisation of the benet to conservation
from the money raised by trophy hunting.
Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the authors.
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not exceeded and that the correct age classes are taken,
whilst also promoting respect for all wildlife. Similarly, we
suggest that all quotas should be set based on scientic
date and well-constructed population harvesting models.
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sheep (Ovis canadensis) trophy prices reached US$400,000
at auction and contributed signicantly to government
revenue and the local community (Aryal et al. 2015).
Trophy hunting for males may create a population
imbalance and additional risks of population extinction.
erefore, we suggest a minimum age for trophy males
should be set as part of hunting quotas based on sex
BIODIVERSITY 3
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Simple Summary: Trophy hunting and mass tourism were introduced to Khunjerab National Park, northern Pakistan to generate income for the community and help conserve and sustain the ecosystem in the region. These initiatives have provided economic benefits, but only at the cost of other environmental problems, as both trophy hunting and mass tourism have resulted in various ecological issues. Trophy hunting has not been based on scientific population data and has thus not helped increase numbers of wild ungulates or wild carnivores. Although mass tourism has increased enormously in this region, it has damaged the ecosystem through pollution generation and negatively impacted wildlife. We suggest that trophy hunting should be stopped, and mass tourism should be shifted to ecotourism as a sustainable solution to help improve the ecosystem, while generating income for the local community. Further studies are required to investigate ecotourism as a potential mitigation measure for the conservation issues in this region. Abstract: Trophy hunting and mass tourism are the two major interventions designed to provide various socioeconomic and ecological benefits at the local and regional levels. However, these interventions have raised some serious concerns that need to be addressed. This study was conducted in Khunjerab National Park (KNP) with an aim to analyze comparatively the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of trophy hunting and mass tourism over the last three decades within the context of sustainability. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with key stakeholders and household interviews were conducted to collect data on trophy hunting and mass tourism, and on local attitudes towards these two interventions in and around KNP. The results revealed that 170 Ibex (Capra sibirica) and 12 Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) were hunted in the study area over the past three decades, and trophy hunting was not based on a sustainable harvest level. Trophy hunting on average generated USD 16,272 annual revenue, which was invested in community development. However, trophy hunting has greatly changed the attitudes of local residents towards wildlife: a positive attitude towards the wild ungulates and strongly negative attitude towards wild carnivores. In addition, trophy hunting has reduced the availability of ungulate prey species for Snow leopards (Panthera uncia), and consequently, Snow leopards have increased their predation on domestic livestock. This has, in turn, increased human-snow leopard conflict, as negative attitudes towards carnivores result in retaliatory killing of Snow leopards. Furthermore, according to official record data, the number of tourists to KNP has increased tremendously by 10,437.8%, from 1382 in 1999 to 145,633 in 2018. Mass tourism on average generated USD 33,904 annually and provided opportunities for locals to earn high incomes, but it caused damages to the environment and ecosystem in KNP through pollution generation and negative impacts on wildlife. Considering the limited benefits and significant problems created by trophy hunting and mass tourism, we suggest trophy hunting should be stopped and mass tourism Animals 2020, 10, 597 2 of 20 should be shifted to ecotourism in and around KNP. Ecotourism could mitigate human-Snow leopard conflicts and help conserve the fragile ecosystem, while generating enough revenue incentives for the community to protect biodiversity and compensate for livestock depredation losses to Snow leopards. Our results may have implications for management of trophy hunting and mass tourism in other similar regions that deserve further investigation.
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Issues and Opportunities Associated with Trophy Hunting and Tourism in Khunjerab National Park, Northern Pakistan
Article
Full-text available
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Trophy hunting and mass tourism are the two major interventions designed to provide various socioeconomic and ecological benefits at the local and regional levels. However, these interventions have raised some serious concerns that need to be addressed. This study was conducted in Khunjerab National Park (KNP) with an aim to analyze comparatively the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of trophy hunting and mass tourism over the last three decades within the context of sustainability. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with key stakeholders and household interviews were conducted to collect data on trophy hunting and mass tourism, and on local attitudes towards these two interventions in and around KNP. The results revealed that 170 Ibex (Capra sibirica) and 12 Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) were hunted in the study area over the past three decades, and trophy hunting was not based on a sustainable harvest level. Trophy hunting on average generated USD 16,272 annual revenue, which was invested in community development. However, trophy hunting has greatly changed the attitudes of local residents towards wildlife: a positive attitude towards the wild ungulates and strongly negative attitude towards wild carnivores. In addition, trophy hunting has reduced the availability of ungulate prey species for Snow leopards (Panthera uncia), and consequently, Snow leopards have increased their predation on domestic livestock. This has, in turn, increased human–snow leopard conflict, as negative attitudes towards carnivores result in retaliatory killing of Snow leopards. Furthermore, according to official record data, the number of tourists to KNP has increased tremendously by 10,437.8%, from 1382 in 1999 to 145,633 in 2018. Mass tourism on average generated USD 33,904 annually and provided opportunities for locals to earn high incomes, but it caused damages to the environment and ecosystem in KNP through pollution generation and negative impacts on wildlife. Considering the limited benefits and significant problems created by trophy hunting and mass tourism, we suggest trophy hunting should be stopped and mass tourism should be shifted to ecotourism in and around KNP. Ecotourism could mitigate human–Snow leopard conflicts and help conserve the fragile ecosystem, while generating enough revenue incentives for the community to protect biodiversity and compensate for livestock depredation losses to Snow leopards. Our results may have implications for management of trophy hunting and mass tourism in other similar regions that deserve further investigation.
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  • Nov 2015
  • HYSTRIX
ABSTRACT Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (DHR) of Nepal, the only hunting reserve in the country, is famous for trophy hunting of bharal or ‘blue sheep’ (Pseudois nayaur) and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus). Although trophy hunting has been occurring in DHR since 1987, its’ ecological consequence is poorly known. We assessed the ecological consequences of bharal and the Himalayan tahr hunting in DHR and measured the economic contribution of hunting to the government and local communities based on the revenue data. The bharal population increased significantly from 1990 to 2011, but the sex ratio was skewed from male-biased (129Male:100Female) in 1990 to female-biased (82Male:100Female) in 2011. Similarly, the recent survey of Himalayan tahr in DHR showed that there was a total of 285 individuals with a sex ratio of 60 Male: 100 Female. Bharal and Himalayan tahr trophy hunting have generated economic benefits through local employment generation and direct income of US364,072duringthelastfiveyears.Governmentrevenuecollectedfrom2007−08to2011−12totalledUS364,072 during the last five years. Government revenue collected from 2007-08 to 2011-12 totalled US184,372 from hunting of bharal and Himalayan tahr. Male-focused trophy hunting as practiced in DHR may not be an ecologically sustainable practice due to its effect on the sex ratio that may lead negative consequences to the genetic structure of the population in a long term. Therefore, bharal and tahr population dynamics and sex ratios must be considered while setting harvest quotas in DHR. KEYWORDS: bharal, Himalayan tahr, hunting, conservation, local community, revenue, sex ratio, population,
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Ethics of wildlife management and conservation: What should we try to protect?
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2012
What should we protect when managing and conserving wildlife? There’s no single answer. Competing values, and different prioritizations of values create ethical dilemmas and disagreements. Although the idea of “wildlife” is usually taken to mean animals not bred or controlled by humans, increasingly, wild animals are not just left alone to live their own lives. In response to pressures on wild animals and their habitats, a nature and wildlife protection movement has grown over the last two centuries. Often this protection has taken the form of active wildlife management, where some species are controlled as part of a policy to promote the success of other species. This raises key questions about the responsibilities we have to wild animals. What should we try to protect? How should we balance different, potentially conflicting, values such as nature protection and individual animal welfare? First, we’ll give an overview of wildlife management values central to these debates. Then we’ll outline five different possible ethical perspectives through which it is possible to think about wildlife management and conservation. http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/ethics-of-wildlife-management-and-conservation-what-80060473
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Compassion as a Practical and Evolved Ethic for Conservation
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2015
  • BIOSCIENCE
The ethical position underpinning decisionmaking is an important concern for conservation biologists when setting priorities for interventions. The recent debate on how best to protect nature has centered on contrasting intrinsic and aesthetic values against utilitarian and economic values, driven by an inevitable global rise in conservation conflicts. These discussions have primarily been targeted at species and ecosystems for success, without explicitly expressing concern for the intrinsic value and welfare of individual animals. In part, this is because animal welfare has historically been thought of as an impediment to conservation. However, practical implementations of conservation that provide good welfare outcomes for individuals are no longer conceptually challenging; they have become reality. This reality, included under the auspices of “compassionate conservation,” reflects an evolved ethic for sharing space with nature and is a major step forward for conservation.
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Trophy Hunting of Black Rhino Diceros bicornis: Proposals to Ensure Its Future Sustainability
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2005
  • J Int Wildl Law Pol
Proposing the use of charismatic species of large mammals as a conservation tool is often controversial, even though the Conservation of Biological Diversity promotes sustainable use as one of its three pillars. Indeed, sustainable use has been important in helping to recover southern white rhinos, the South African population of which was downlisted in 1994 to Appendix II of CITES for trophy hunting and live sales only. The Appendix I listed black rhino is now also beginning to recover, particularly in South Africa and Namibia, where how best to deal with surplus males arising from successful biological management is an increasing problem. Furthermore, black rhinos are now being increasingly moved to private land, where incentives from use may help help promote metapopulation management goals. As a result, the African Rhino Specialist Group anticipated proposals to trophy hunt black rhinos, and were concerned to recommend criteria that proponent countries would need to meet for such proposals to succeed. These recommendations address four guiding principles: •ensuring that any offtakes are biologically sustainable and based on good monitoring;•ensuring that incentives from any hunting opportunities are maximized, without discriminating between state agencies and the private sector;•rewarding good biological management and long-term commitment to black rhino conservation; and•ensuring that appropriate internal and external controls are in place.
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Recreational Himalayan thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus) hunters in Canterbury, New Zealand: A profile and management implications
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 1999
Although recreational hunting is the primary means of controlling Himalayan thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus) in New Zealand, there is no published information describing the characteristics and attitudes of thar hunters. We conducted a postal survey of hunters who held permits to hunt thar in part of Canterbury in 1994–1995, and achieved a 31% response rate (n = 92 replies). Respondents were typically aged 30–39 and had ≤ 5 years experience hunting thar. The primary motivation given for hunting thar was the opportunity of shooting a trophy male. The strong desire to kill a trophy male was reflected in the reported harvest, which was significantly male‐biased relative to the estimated population sex‐ratio. Our results suggest that the ability of recreational thar hunters to reduce thar densities could be increased by; (i) strategic location of new huts, and (ii) managers providing better information about areas of high thar density, perhaps in national hunting magazines.
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Compassion as a Practical and Evolved Ethic for Conservation
Chapter
  • Sep 2016
The ethical position underpinning decision making is an important concern for conservation biologists when setting priorities for interventions. The recent debate on how best to protect nature has centered on contrasting intrinsic and aesthetic values against utilitarian and economic values, driven by an inevitable global rise in conservation conflicts. These discussions have primarily been targeted at species and ecosystems for success, without explicitly expressing concern for the intrinsic value and welfare of individual animals. In part, this is because animal welfare has historically been thought of as an impediment to conservation. However, practical implementations of conservation that provide good welfare outcomes for individuals are no longer conceptually challenging; they have become reality. This reality, included under the auspices of ?compassionate conservation ,? reflects an evolved ethic for sharing space with nature and is a major step forward for conservation.
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Sex-Biased Harvesting and Population Dynamics in Ungulates: Implications for Conservation and Sustainable Use
Article
The consumptive use of wildlife, in particular trophy hunting and game ranching of ungulates, has been advocated as a tool for conservation in Africa. We show that these methods of harvesting differ significantly from natural predation, with trophy hunting showing extreme selection for adult males and game ranching leading to disproportionate harvests of young males. Little information, either theoretical or empirical, exists concerning the effect of these harvesting regimes on the long-term population dynamics of ungulate populations. Despite that, the potential effects of sex-skewed harvests are numerous. In this paper, we investigate one potentially deleterious effect of sex-skewed harvests. Both theory and experimental data suggest that male ungulates are limited in their absolute ability to inseminate females. Using a Leslie-Matrix model and published data on impala, we show that the interaction between sperm limitation and harvests with highly male-biased sex ratios can lead to greatly reduced female fecundity (defined as the number of young born) and population collapse. These results are robust and suggest that present methods of harvesting may not be optimal, or viable, in the long term.
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Lion density and population structure in the Selous Game Reserve
Article
  • Dec 2003
  • AFR J ECOL
In 1992, tourist hunting in the Selous Game Reserve generated 1.28 million dollars for the Tanzanian government, of which 0·96 million dollars were returned to wildlife conservation. Lions (Panthera leo) are one of three critical species for tourist hunting, consistently generating 12%–13% of hunting revenue from 1988 to 1992. Because of their ecological and economic importance (and intrinsic value), it is important that lion quotas be set so that offtake is sustainable. The population density of lions in Selous ranges from 0·08 to 0·13 adults km−2, comparable to unhunted ecosystems. The adult sex ratio (36–41% male) and the ratio of cubs to adults (29% cubs) are similar to those of unhunted populations. The ratio of lions to hyaenas is lower in heavily hunted areas (0·17 lions/hyena) than in unhunted areas (0·43 lions/hyena). Hunting levels between 1989 and 1994 took 2·7–4·3% of adult males annually, which is sustainable. The current quota is 10–16% of the adult male population, which exceeds natural mortality rates for male lions. To remain stable if the quota was filled, the population would have to compensate via increased fecundity, increased juvenile survival, or an altered sex-ratio. Compensation occurs in Selous by producing (or raising) more male than female cubs (66–81% of juveniles are male). Only 28% of the Selous quota was filled in 1992. The percentage of quota filled (both in Selous and nationwide) has dropped since 1988 as quotas have increased. The current intensity of lion hunting in Selous is sustainable, but the quota cannot be filled sustainably.
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Long-term harvesting and male migration in a New Zealand population of Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicu
Article
  • Jun 1999
1. Sexual differences in behaviour and ecology have important implications for the management of harvested ungulate populations. 2. This study investigated the long-term effects of harvesting on the abundance and distribution of sexes within an introduced population of Himalayan tahr in the Two Thumb and Sibbald Ranges, New Zealand. Annual counts of tahr were made from 1984 to 1996 in two catchments subject to different harvest regimes. 3. Although populations in the two catchments increased at similar rates over the study period, their adult sex ratios diverged significantly in the late 1980s. In Carneys Creek, which was subject to unrestricted harvest, the adult sex ratio was initially equivalent to the estimated population sex ratio, but from 1991 it was significantly male-biased. In North Branch, 10 km from Carneys Creek but subject only to adult (trophy) male harvest, the population was significantly female-biased in all years. 4. There was a large and male-biased harvest in Carneys Creek in 1993, suggesting that immigration of males may have been responsible for the long-term changes in sex ratio observed there. In contrast, the harvest of males in North Branch was insufficient to explain its female-biased population. 5. Monthly counts of male and female tahr in Carneys Creek between December 1993 and February 1996 revealed a consistent seasonal change in the abundance of sub-adult males, and perhaps adult males, but not females. Sub-adult males immigrated into Carneys Creek during spring, increasing to a summer maximum before emigrating during autumn; few sub-adult males were present during winter. 6. Counts at six additional sites during summer and autumn 1996 indicated that the probable source of these males was an adjacent hunting reserve. This hunting reserve, which included North Branch, contained a female-biased population with moderate female density. 7. The observed changes appear to have been a consequence of sexual differences in habitat selection and mobility. In particular, outside the rut the larger-bodied males avoided habitats containing high densities of females. 8. Harvesting has the potential to affect the spatial distribution of age–sex classes for sexually dimorphic ungulates. Managers need to consider these effects when designing and interpreting harvest and monitoring programmes.
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