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EXTINCTION OF QUATERNARY MAMMALIAN HABITATS OF
MEGAFAUNA IN SABARAGAMU BASIN, SRI LANKA
1Aravinda Ravibhanu Sumanarathna, 2Jinadasa Katupotha, 3Kamal Abeywardhana and
4Buddhika Madurapperuma
1,3 South Asian Astrobiology & Palaeobiology Research Unit of Eco Astronomy Sri Lanka
2 Department of Geography,University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka
1Faculty of Environment & Natural Science University of Southampton,United Kingdom
4Department of Forestry and Wildland Resources, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, USA
ABSTRACT
The Quaternary period of the geographic history of the earth includes two geologic epochs viz., the Pleistocene
and the Holocene. Both epochs divided the faunal stages and human cultural phases based on climate and sea
level changes that took place during these periods. The Quaternary ice age began roughly about 2.58 MYO with
cool and dry climate conditions. The extinct Australopithecines and many other extinct genera of mammalian
mega fauna appeared during this time. Thus, the Quaternary period shows the extinctions of numerous
predominantly larger, especially mammalian mega faunal species, many of them lived during the transition from
the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch. The debate on the demise of the mammalian megafauna is often
characterized by two highly polarized points of view: (1) climate-induced extinction; and (2) human-induced
extinction. In Pleistocene period most parts of the Northern Hemisphere of earth were covered with glaciers
creating a cold climate. Due to this glacial formation the main sea level was much lower than it is today. The low
sea level facilitated the connection of Sri Lanka with the Indian mainland with a land bridge. Therefore, a number
of mega fauna and micro fauna were able to cross to Sri Lanka from India along this land bridge. The last land
bridge was emerged around 7500 years BP. During the Pleistocene Period Sri Lanka experienced heavy rainfall
causing the emergence of rain forest in the country. The heavy rainfall in the Sabaragamu Basin also provided
habitats for a number of marsh loving animals including mammals. However, at the end of the Pleistocene epoch,
drastic climatic changes were occurred resulting in the extinction of a number of animal taxa. Pleistocene fauna
in Sri Lanka is known as Rathnapura Fauna. Their fossils are found in alluvial deposits in the Sabaragamu basins
©2017 EASL. All rights reserved
E C O A S T R O N O M Y G R A N D
Home Page : http://ecoastronomysrilanka.dsdweb.info/
Edition Grand Volume - 01-ISSUE -01 ( 2017 © All rights reserved)
J O U R N A L O F E C O A S T R O N O M Y
South Asian Astrobiology & Paleontology Research Unit
A r t i c l e i n f o r
Corresponding Authors : ara22ravibhanu@gmail.com 1, katupotha@gmail.com 2, kamalabyewardhana@gmail.com 3,
Buddhika.Madurapperuma@humboldt.edu 4
Key Words: Quaternary mammalian fauna, Sabaragamu Basin, Ratnapura fauna, Extinction
Please cite this article in press as: Sumanarathna, A.R., et al., EXTINCTION OF QUATERNARY MAMMALIAN HABITATS
OF MEGAFAUNA IN SABARAGAMU BASIN, SRI LANKA, Journal of Eco Astronomy (2017), Vol 01, Issue 01, PP 16- 31
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Page17
1. INTRODUCTION
The Pleistocene is generally recognized as a time of gigantism in terrestrial mammals. “The
causes for such gigantism are not completely understood, but they most likely include a response to
colder conditions and an improved ability to resist predators and reach food higher on shrubs or
buried beneath snow” (https://www.britannica.com/science/Quaternary/Quaternary-life). Ninety
percent of the animals represented by Quaternary fossils were recognized by Charles Lyell (1820) as
being similar to modern forms including many genera and even species of shellfish, insects, marine
microfossils, and terrestrial mammalian mega fauna living today are similar or identical to their
Pleistocene ancestors (https://www.britannica.com/). Many Pleistocene fossils demonstrate
spectacular differences from 1833 to up-to-date by palaenotologists, geologist, sedimentologists, the
International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA), International Geological Correlation
Programmes (IGCPs), International Union for Geological Sciences (IUGS) and individuals from
different disciplines and geographical locations have been discussed by Chalrs Lyells findings (1830),
and have found extinct and new marine and terrestrial fauna emphasizing the Quaternary period. Such
studies are very useful for further investigation of extinction of the mammalian megafauna from
different regions of the world. The Indian subcontinent represents a rich source of diverse
paleoanthropological data in the form of pollen assemblages, various isotopic records, vertebrate and
invertebrate fossil assemblages, and prehistoric stone tools in a range of palaeoecological contexts
(Metzke et al.,2010). Most of the Quaternary fossil evidence, including hominin specimens comes
from the fluvial sediments of the Narmada and other similar rivers (Chauhan, 2008). During the
Quaternary climate and sea level changes, which were followed the glacial and interglacial stages,
allowed to fauna migrating or lodging in continents as well as nearing islands (Katupotha, 2013).
Therefore, a number of mega fauna and micro fauna were able to cross to Sri Lanka from India. The
last land bridge was emerged around 7500 yr BP (Katupotha, 1995). The diverse paleoanthropological
records, vertebrate and invertebrate fossil assemblages, and prehistoric stone tools in a range of
palaeoecological contexts found in Sri Lanka from Gem pits and coastal deposits proved by
Deranigala (1958) and Deraniyaga (1992).
2. METHODS
Fossil identification was carried out according to the special characters that found in those
fossils and anatomical comparisons were also done (EASL Research Center, Kuruwita 2015).
Relative dating was used to place those fossils in correct positions of the geological time scale (i.e.,
the age of an object in comparison to another). Biostratigraphy was used to place them in a correct
order, but we do not yield any numerical estimates, which related to carbon dating or thermo
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luminescence (TL). As primary sources, such as early research and publications were utilized. For
fossil characterization and studying of special features, digital vernier caliper (150 mm : 6 inch), and
Scale bars were used. For locating those fossil bearing places, Garmin 30 GPS with BaseCamp GIS
were also used.
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Pleistocene fossils were discovered in association with “Ratnapura (alluvial deposits) gem
pits” from Sabaragamu Basin in the Ratnapura district of Sri Lanka (Fig. 1) . Fossils were described
as the “Ratnapura Fauna” by Deraniyagala (1958), and he attempted to identify, classify, and
taxonomically describe their palaeoecology, palaeoclimatology and palaeoenvironment. Table 1
shows the list of extinct mammalian megafauna in Sri Lanka during the Quaternary period. A pictorial
representation of fossils found in the Sabaragamu Basin during 1990-2013 is given by Figures 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7 and 8.
Figure 1: Geological view of Sabaragamu Basin, which shows the extinctions of mammalian distribution in
Sabaragamu Basin in Ratnapura District, Sri Lanka.[SUBEX:ST01-Sub excavation point Eheliyagoda,
SUBEX:ST02- Sub excavation point Parakaduwa, SUBEX:ST03-Sub excavation point Kuruvita,
SUBEX:ST04-Sub excavation point Rathnapura, Most abundance animal fossils of main excavation site
(MEX:ST01)-A: Elephas spp., B: Hippopotamus, C: Rhinoceros spp., D:Tiger or leo, E: Crocodiles spp.
© Eco Astronomy Data Base, 2015]
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Table 1. Extinctions of mammalian megafauna species during the transition from the Pleistocene to the
Holocene epoch in Sri Lanka
Familia
Sub
familia
Genus
Species
Subspecies
English
Name &
Locality
Other
References
Felidae
Pantherinae
Panthera
Panthera leo
(extinct)
Panthera leo
sinhaleyus
(Deraniyagala,
1939)
39,000 yr
Sri Lanka
Lion
Kelum et al.,
2005
Felidae
Pantherinae
Panthera
Panthera
tigris
(extinct)
16,500 yr
Tiger
Panthera
tigris
sudanensis
Deraniyagala,
1951 ?
Felidae
Panthera
Panthera
pardus
Panthera
pardus kotiya
Tiger ?
Canidae
Caninae
Canis
Canislupus
?
Bovidae
Bovinae
Boselaphus
Boselaphus
tragocamelus
(extinct)
Four-
horned
Antelope
Bovidae
Antilopinae
Antilope
Antilope
cervicapra
(extinct) ?
?
Bovidae
Bovinae
Bos
Bosgaurus
(extinct)
Bibos
sinhaleyus,
1962
Sri Lankan
Gaur
Canidae
Caninae
Cuon
Cuon alpinus
Wild Dog
?
Hippopota
-midae
Hippopotamus
Linnaeus
Hippopotamu
samphibious
(extinct)
Hexaprotodon
sinhaleyus,
1937
(extinct)
Rhinoceros
sinhaleyus,
1936
(extinct)
Rhinoceros
kagavena,
1956
(extinct)
Elephas
maximus
sinhaleyus
Sri Lankan
Elephant
Bovidae
Bibos
Bovinae
Bovinae
sinhaleyus
Source: Action plan for conservation & sustaninable use of palaebiodiversity in Sri Lanka, 2016: Biodiversity
Secretariat, Ministry of Environment & Renewable Energy and Personal Observations.
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Figure 2. A: Mature female Rusa unicolor and lateral view of mandible, B: Distribution of Rusa unicolor in Sri
Lanka, India, southern China, and southeastern Asia (1. R. u. unicolor; 2. R. u. dejeani; 3. R. u. cambojensis; 4.
R. u. hainana; 5. R. u. swinhoii; 6. R. u. equina; and 7. R. u. brookei). C. Rusa unicolor (Fossil No PSLSA01) –
Right mandible, outer or ducal expects with 2 pre molars and molars. Location- Edandawela (Gem Pit),
Kuruwita, Sri Lanka, by Kamal & Aravinda 2007.
Figure 3. A1: Continental tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), A2: Sunda tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica), A3:
Indochinese tiger (Panthera tigris corbetti), B: Representative images of Cranium and Mandible of Saber tooth
cat (Smilodon fatalis; left) and Bengal tiger which approximately related to Sri Lankan’s extinct one (Panthera
tigris; right). C: Panthera tigris or Panthera leo sinhaleyus (Fossil No PSLSA02) – Canine tooth in right lower
mandible. Location- Galukagama MahaEla, Puwakattaovita (Gem Pit) Kuruwita, Sri Lanka by Kamal &
Aravinda 2008, D: Side view of Lions Skull.
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Figure 4. A: Skeleton of Rhicocéros unicorne, B: Rhinoceros sondaicus Desmarest 1822- Java-Nashorn - Javan
Rhinoceros [Bildquelle: Horsfield, Thomas: Zoological researches in Java, and the neighbouring islands, 1824],
C: Rinoceros sinhaleyus (Fossil No PSLSA03) =(Proximal portion of Scapula. Location- Kuruwita, Sri Lanka.
By Kamal & Aravinda 2007
Figure 5. A: Reconstruct image of the pre hisroric Crocodylu species in Sri Lanka, B: Crocodylu ssp. Tooth
(Fossil No PSLSA04), Location - Khengama, Ovita Kumbura (Gem pit), Kuruwita, Sri Lanka, by Kamal &
Aravinda 2013 March.
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Figure 6. A: Bovine vertibra of Bibos sinhaleyus (Fossil No PSLSA05), Location- Ovita Kumbura, Khenagaa
West (Gem pit-20 feet below) Kuruwita, Sri Lanka by Kamal & Aravinda 2005, B: Illustration of Gaur, Indian
Bibos gauris.
Figure 7. Frist upper molar tooth of Rhinoceros spp. (Fossil No PSLSA06), Location: Galukagama, Maha ela
(Gem Pit) Kuruwita,Sri Lanka, By Kamal & Aravinda 1994
Figure 8. Premolars of Elephas maximus sinhaleyus (Fossil No PSLSA07), Location : Mawee Kubura (Gem
pit ) , Kuruwita, Sri Lanka, By Kamal & Aravinda 1993
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3.1 Panthera leo sinhaleyus (extinct)
Panthera leo (the lion) fossilis laid upon the gem field at a depth of 6.5m below the surface
from a gem pit about four miles away at Pahala Vela, Galadande Mandiya, Gonapitiya, Kuruwita near
the Kuru Ganga. The holotype is a third lower left carnassial in the Deraniyagala collection at the
British Museum (Deraniyagala, 1958). This race is restricted to Sri Lanka; originally the lion appears
to have inhabited Sri Lanka and India and was possibly replaced by the Bengal tiger that invaded
India from the Northeast. The similarity between the African name is “Simba” meaning Lion, and the
Indian equivalent Simha suggests that one is derived from the other. The lack of lion fossils in Africa
suggests that the African is derived from the Indian Panthera leo sinhaleyus also known as the Sri
Lanka Lion, was a prehistoric subspecies of lion,which endemic to Sri Lanka. It appears to have
become extinct prior to the arrival of culturally modern humans, 39,000 years ago. This lion is only
known from two teeth, found in alluvial deposits at Kuruwita. Deraniyagala cited fossils of three lion
teeth found from the island; first in 1936, second in 1947 and the third in 1961. Manamendra-
Arachchi et al. (2005) described that Deraniyagala did not explain explicitly how he diagnosed the
holotype of this subspecies as belonging to a lion, though he justified its allocation to a distinct
subspecies of lion by its being "narrower and more elongate" than those of recent lions in the British
Natural History Museum collection.
The lion has been one of the most widespread mammals, having enjoyed a Pleistocene range
that included Africa, Eurasia, North America and tropical South America, while the fossil record
confirms that the species range in the Indian subcontinent did extend south to the 21º N and east to 87º
E (Pilgrim 1931; Dutta 1976), approximately a line joining Gujurat to Bengal, but there is no evidence
of the existence of the lion in Asia east of Bengal or anywhere in peninsular India and Sri Lanka,
except for Panthera leo sinhaleyus. Panthera leo fossilis, also known as the Early Middle Pleistocene
European cave lion, is an extinct feline of the Pleistocene epoch.
3.2 Panthera tigris (extinct)
Panthera tigris is a member of the Felidae family and the largest of four "big cats" in the
genus Panthera. The Panthera tigris tigris (Bengal tiger) is a tiger subspecies native to India,
Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan (Fig. 3). The pattern of genetic variation in the Bengal tiger
corresponds to the premise that tigers arrived in India approximately 12,000 years ago. Kitchener and
Dugmore (2000) considered that the changing biogeographical range of the Panthera tigris through
the last glacial-interglacial cycle, based on habitat associations of modern tiger specimen records, and
environmental reconstructions from the LGM. These cycles indicate that the numerous glacial cycles
that span the evolutionary history of the tigers since its appearance in the fossil record about 2 Ma ago
and the oldest tiger fossils (around 2 Ma old) are from northern China and Java. The key issue is to
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determine the extent to which ancestral populations of the tiger were geographically isolated.
However, Pleistocene glacial and interglacial fluctuations and other geological events probably
caused repeated geographic restrictions and expansions of tigers. Hemmer (1987), Kitchener and
Dugmore (2000) estimated the most recent common ancestor for tiger mtDNA haplotypes was
72,000–108,000 years ago, with a lower and upper bound of 39,000 years and 157,000 years,
respectively. Recent history of tigers in the Indian subcontinent is consistent with the lack of tiger
fossils from India prior to the late Pleistocene and the absence of tigers from Sri Lanka, which was
separated from the subcontinent by rising sea levels in the early Holocene. However, a recent study of
two independent fossil finds from Sri Lanka, one dated to approximately 16,500 years ago, tentatively
classifies them as being a tiger (Manamendra-Arachchi, 2005).
However, the discovery of the Ratnapura tiger in alluvium, together with hippopotamus and
rhinoceros fossils, demonstrates that tigers did indeed occur in the island. Nine fossils and sub fossils
were identified that belonging to Tiger. Five of the fossils dated among those and identified 14,000 –
20,000 years old. One fossil that belonged to Lion was identified . The tiger was living 17,000 years
ago (Manamendra-Arachchi, 2009). The Holocene range of the tiger extends to the southernmost tip
of the peninsular India and to all of tropical continental Asia. The apparent absence of evidence of
tigers in Sri Lanka and Pleistocene peninsular India has led to the conclusion that tigers arrived in
south India “too late to get into Ceylon” (Pocock, 1930) as a result of the India-Sri Lanka land bridge
having been submerged since the Late Pleistocene. On the basis of the few known Indian tiger fossils
dating to the Holocene and the recent literature too, dates of the arrival of tigers to the Indian
peninsula were occurred in the last glacial maximum, ca. 19,000 years BP.
Panthera tigris probably differentiated in the early Pleistocene (1.806–2.588 Ma ago) in
northcentral and northeastern China. The earliest forms averaged smaller than those of later
Pleistocene times. Thus it seems that the species has reached it’s maximum size in the living
subspecies
P.
tigris
altaica.
The early Pleistocene species Panthera palaeosinensis, from northern
China, appears to represent an early tiger or a form ancestral to the tiger (Mazak, 1981).
Researches on fossil remains have been conducted by many scientists, for example, Mazak (1981)
summarized the fossils records in Sri Lanka. Accordingly fossil remains, definitely identified as
Panthera tigris, are of lower to upper Pleistocene age and originated from the Altai caves in central
Asia, eastern and northern China, including Choukoutien localities, Japan, Jana River in northern
Siberia, the Ljachov Island situated off the northern coast of Siberia, and from Sumatra and Java. In
addition, several sub-Recent tiger remains were found in Caucasus region, India, and Borneo.
It
is
not clear whether the material from Borneo represents a member of the native late Pleistocene fauna
or a later introduction by humans (there is no reliable evidence of tigers on Borneo within historic
times).
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3.3 Elephas maximus sinhaleyus (extinct)
The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is one of the most seriously endangered species of
large mammals in the world. Given its enormous size and body mass, it is also one of the few species
of terrestrial mega herbivores still exist. Its present geographical distribution extends from the Indian
subcontinent in the west to Indo-China in the east across 13 countries including islands such as Sri
Lanka, Sumatra and Borneo. The entire population in the wild is estimated to be between 35,000 and
55,000. Even optimistic figures indicate that there are only about one tenth as many Asian as African
elephants (Hendavitharana et al., 1994).
Deraniyagala found one Fossil and explained the extinct Sri Lankan elephant as subspecies of
Elephas maximus sinhaleyus
(
Deraniyagala, 1958
). Deraniyagala explained the t
usks usually
present, molars smaller and mandibular spout wider than in forma typical. In addition, he
explained that there were t
hree recently extinct subspecies of Elephas maximus
asurus
(Mesopotamia),
Elephas maximus eondaicus
(Java) and
Elephas maximus rubridens
(China).
The extinct elephant species were living 100,000 years ago have been reported as
Hypselephas hysudricus sinhaleyus (Fig. 9) by Deraniyagala (1937) and as Elephas hysudricus by
Manamendra-Arachchi (2008). Elephas maximus sinhaleyus was secured in 1947 from a gem pit
about four miles away at Pahala Vela, Galadande Mandiya, Gonapitiiya, Kuruwita near the Kuru
Ganga. The fossils were laid upon the gem field at a depth of 6.5m below the surface, and yielded
Elephas maximus sinhaleyus (Deraniyagala, 1958). It frequently occurs in association with
hippopotamus fossils from Gatahatta as far as Ratnapura, and with rhinoceros from Gatahatta to
Pelmadulla.
The origin of Elephas maximus remained unknown until 1936, when its fossils were
discovered in Sri Lanka, and even as recently as 1942 the general opinion was that nothing was
known of its origin except that it appeared suddenly rather late in the age of man. It is true that a few
isolated fossil proboscidean molars were assigned to an extinct Japanese race of this elephant named
Elephas maximus buski (Deraniyagala, 1958), however, those belong to Palaooloxodon namadicua
naumanni (Fig. 10), and no Elephas maximus fossils were found in Japan. In various other countries
also isolated and often fragmentary teeth have been ascribed to Elephas maximus, but in every
instance these have proved to be either those of the extinct Palaeoloxodon namadicus or the remains
of some subspecies of Elephas maximus that had become extinct during prehistoric or historic times.
Since its earliest remains occur only in Sri Lanka, Elephas maximus apparently evolved from some
Plio-Quaternary proboscidean, which had become isolated here upon the Island's separation from
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Asia. During a Pleistocene reconnection with India, the Ceylon animal had invaded the mainland and
wandered northwards until it encountered the Himalayan mass if, whereupon it had spread along its
base eastwards as far as Wallace's line (the Wallace's Line is a boundary that separates the eco-
transitional zone between Asia and Australia). West of the line is found organisms related to Asiatic
species; to the east, a mixture of species of Asian and Australian origin is present, and westwards until
checked by the Mediterranean sea and the deserts of Arabia and North Africa. Over this vast expanse
in a belt stretching from 40 degrees north to 10 degrees south, land subsidence, changing
river
systems, deepening river gorges and expanding deserts, assisted the mountain ranges as barriers,
and resulted in the evolution of twelve (12) subspecies (Deraniyagala,1958).
The distribution of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus maximus is confined to the island of
Sri Lanka, Elephas maximus sumatranus to the island
of
Sumatra, and Elephas maximus indicus
occupies the rest of the range. Ten fossil species of Elephas were recognized; the earliest is from the
middle Pliocene Ekora beds, southeastern Turkana, Kenya, formed about 4.5 million years ago
(Shoshani and Eisenberg, 1982). Two of these species are native to Africa and three to southern Asia.
3.4 Rhinoceros Spp. (extinct)
The rhinoceros family is characterized by its large size (one of the largest remaining
megafauna), with all of the species able to reach one tonne or more in weight; an herbivorous diet;
and a thick protective skin about 1.5–5 cm thick, formed from layers of collagen positioned in a lattice
Figure 10. Palaeoloxodon namadicus sinhaleyus is
one of extinct elephant species in Sri Lanka.
Illustreated by: Deraniyagala (1958)
Figure 9. Hypselephas hysudricus sinhaleyus
is one of extinct elephant species in Sri
Lanka.Illustreated by Deraniyagala (1958)
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structure; relatively small brains for mammals this size (400–600g); and a large horn. They generally
eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment food in their hindgut allows them to subsist on
more fibrous plant matter, if necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls, the African species of rhinoceros
lack teeth at the front of their mouths, relying instead on their powerful premolar and molar teeth to
grind up plant food. Both African species and the Sumatran Rhinoceros have two horns, while the
Indian and Javan Rhinoceros have a single horn. Rhinoceros was living 80,000 years ago.
Most known fossil remains of Rhinoceros unicornis appear to be of probably middle Pleisto-
cene (Fig. 4) . The direct precursor of the living Indian rhinoceros was Rhinoceros unicornis fossilis
(synonyms R.sivalensis and R. palaeindicus), from the upper Siwalik beds, within the known historic
range of the species. Rhinoceros namadicuss from the Narbada or Narmada beds is probably
synonymous with Rhinoceros unicornis fossilis. Rhinoceros kendengindicus Dubois from Java was
closely related to the present species and should probably be regarded as a subspecies of it.
Rhinoceros unicornis kendengindicus occurred in the Djetis and Trinil beds alongside Rhinoceros
sondaicus, but has not been found in the Upper Pleistocene Ngandong deposits where the latter is the
only rhinoceros. The various fossils of this genus from China can be referred to two species: the
Pleistocene Rhinoceros sinensis Owen, which though in many respects is intermediate between the
two living species, shows progressive characters linking it to Rhinoceros unicornis and the Upper
Pliocene species Rhinoceros oweni Rmgstrom, which was placed in a separate genus Sinorhinus
(Laurie et al., 1983).
3.5 Rhinoceros sinhaleyus, 1936 (extinct)
Rhinoceros is also known as rhino. The finding about rhinoceros indicated as two species by
Deraniyagala, the older, less developed one, the Rhinoceros sinhaleyus Deraniyagala (1936), which
has squarer and lower teeth that the more rectangular-toothed Rhinoceros kagavena in the Ratnapura
fauna of Sri Lanka. The former became extinct earlier, in Deraniyagala view (1958). Rhinoceros
fossils were found from Kuruwita gem pit, 6.0m beneath from the surface at Hiriliyadda, Talavitiya
(Kuruwita), which is undated but probably Middle Pleistocene (Deraniyagala 1958). This form shows
few characters to differentiate it from Rhinoceros
unicornis,
and like the Javanese fossil occurs
alongside a race of Rhinoceros
unicornis.
Rhinocerotidae of large heavyset herbivorous perissodactyl mammals of Africa
and Asia that have one or two upright keratinous horns on the snout and thick gray to
brown skin with little hair. The order
Perissodactyla
is only represented in Sri Lanka by
the superfamily Rhinocerotidae
.
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3.6 Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus, 1937 (extinct) Hippopotamus
The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), or hippo, from the ancient Greek for "river
horse", is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant
species in the family Hippopotamidae, the other is the Pygmy Hippopotamus. After the elephant, the
hippopotamus is the largest land mammal and the heaviest extant artiodactyls, despite being
considerably shorter than the giraffe. The hippopotamus is semi-aquatic, inhabiting rivers and lakes
where territorial bulls preside over a stretch of river and groups of 5 to 30 females and young. During
the day they remain cool by staying in the water or mud; reproduction and childbirth both occur in
water. They emerge at dusk to graze on grass. While hippopotam uses rest near each other in the
water, grazing is a solitary activity and hippos are not territorial on land.
In ‘the Pleistocene of Ceylon’ Deraniyagala (1936, 1939, 1944 and 1958) explains his
findings of Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus and Hexaprotodon sivalensis sinhaleyus based on gem pits in
the Ratnanapura area about seven kilometers away at Pahala Vela, Galadande Mandiya, Gonapitiiya,
and Kuruwita near the Kuru Ganga. The fossils were laid at a depth of 6.5m below the surface.
Accordingly, Deraniyagala revealed the fossilized remains of the lower jaws and teeth of a Sri
Lankan hippopotamus. The lower jawbone of the hippopotamus reveals six incisor teeth, whereas the
hippopotamus that survives in Africa has only four incisors. The extinct Ceylon hippopotamus has
been named the Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus. The change in climate from heavy rainfall that fed
numerous large rivers and lakes to a more moderate rainfall that reduced the island's waterbodies was
probably responsible for the extinction of the world's second heaviest land mammal in the island
(Deraniyagala 1958).
The earliest known hippopotamus fossils, belonging to the genus Kenyapotamus in Africa, date
to around. Hippopotamus and Rhinoceros was living 80,000 years ago. The extinction of this animal
might have occurred sometime shortly after the middle Pleistocene times, since its nearest a relative,
the extinct Indian hippopotamus from former lake beds which are now traversed by the Nerbudda
(Narmada) River, became extinct in middle Pleistocene times about 50,000 years ago.
4. CONCLUSIONS
End of Pleistocene the climate change resulted in the extinction of a number of animals and
fossilization in alluvial beds. The last ice age ended about 14,000 years ago (temporary), but we
cannot be certain that this was related to the Earth’s precession. The Earth's axis rotates (processes)
just as a spinning top does, the period of precession is about 26,000 years. Therefore, the North
Celestial Pole will not always be pointing towards the same star field, precession is caused by the
gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon on the Earth. However, earth’s precession was tend to
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stimulate the increase of temperature and patterns of extinction, distribution, evolution as a result of
changing geomagnetic field. This extinction wave did not stop at the end of the Pleistocene, but
continued due to the sea level fluctuations, especially on isolated islands in Holocene epoch. Among
the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists and sedimentologists are natural climate change and
overkilled by humans. With the technological and cultural development of the humans, who appeared
during the Middle Pleistocene and invaded many previously uninhabited regions of the world during
the Late Pleistocene and Holocene.
Eminent paleontologist, zoologist, and also an artist, Deraniyagala from Sri Lanka has been
specialized in fauna and human fossils of the Indian subcontinent. By Late Jurassic Period of Sri
Lanka was positioned within 67oS - 65oS and 32oE - 36o E in the southern hemisphere and by the end
of Miocene Period Sri Lanka located itself between 4oN - 8oN and 77oE - 79oE in northern hemisphere
(Katupotha, 2013). Jurassic and Miocene fossils from Sri Lanka are very significant to compare those
with other locations of the world and very useful to the study of evolutionary stages through the
climate changes of Sri Lanka. But, whole the country has subjected to Quaternary glacial cycles due
to the advancing and retreating continental glaciers; warmer, cooler and dry climatic conditions;
evolution of hominids and associated cultures, and also extinction the megafauna; deposition of
terrestrial and marine deposits, and the development of soil. Due to this evolutionary process some
ancestors of former geologic periods were extinct, some were adopted and others were newly evolved.
Fossils found in Sri Lanka from different eras. Though we have number of fossils yet there is
no law or an act has been made to protect and preserve these fossils. Therefore, palaeo – Biodiversity
heritage in Sri Lanka is being gradually destroyed bydirect human activities. Today for gem industry
people using bacos to dig gem pits in Sabaragamuwa basin. Because of using bacos fossils that are in
Pleistocene era are getting destroyed. Therefore, Eco Astronomy Organization has started to preserve
the animal and plant fossils that have been found in Sabaragamu basin during 1990-2013. As a first
step of this the main information of Sabaragamu basin fossils has published as a research papers. The
Eco Astronomy Organization have planned to exhibit and preserve fossils through Project Batadomba
Cave Geo Tourism with help of provincial council and other government organization.
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