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EXTINCTION OF QUATERNARY MAMMALIAN HABITATS OF MEGAFAUNA IN SABARAGAMU BASIN, SRI LANKA

Authors:
  • Eco Astronomy Inc | Morocco
  • South Asian Astrobiology & Eath Science Research Unit : Eco Astronomy Sri Lanka

Abstract and Figures

The Quaternary period of the geographic history of the earth includes two geologic epochs viz., the Pleistocene and the Holocene. Both epochs divided the faunal stages and human cultural phases based on climate and sea level changes that took place during these periods. The Quaternary ice age began roughly about 2.58 MYO with cool and dry climate conditions. The extinct Australopithecines and many other extinct genera of mammalian mega fauna appeared during this time. Thus, the Quaternary period shows the extinctions of numerous predominantly larger, especially mammalian mega faunal species, many of them lived during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch. The debate on the demise of the mammalian megafauna is often characterized by two highly polarized points of view: (1) climate-induced extinction; and (2) human-induced extinction. In Pleistocene period most parts of the Northern Hemisphere of earth were covered with glaciers creating a cold climate. Due to this glacial formation the main sea level was much lower than it is today. The low sea level facilitated the connection of Sri Lanka with the Indian mainland with a land bridge. Therefore, a number of mega fauna and micro fauna were able to cross to Sri Lanka from India along this land bridge. The last land bridge was emerged around 7500 years BP. During the Pleistocene Period Sri Lanka experienced heavy rainfall causing the emergence of rain forest in the country. The heavy rainfall in the Sabaragamu Basin also provided habitats for a number of marsh loving animals including mammals. However, at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, drastic climatic changes were occurred resulting in the extinction of a number of animal taxa. Pleistocene fauna in Sri Lanka is known as Rathnapura Fauna. Their fossils are found in alluvial deposits in the Sabaragamu basins
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EXTINCTION OF QUATERNARY MAMMALIAN HABITATS OF
MEGAFAUNA IN SABARAGAMU BASIN, SRI LANKA
1Aravinda Ravibhanu Sumanarathna, 2Jinadasa Katupotha, 3Kamal Abeywardhana and
4Buddhika Madurapperuma
1,3 South Asian Astrobiology & Palaeobiology Research Unit of Eco Astronomy Sri Lanka
2 Department of Geography,University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka
1Faculty of Environment & Natural Science University of Southampton,United Kingdom
4Department of Forestry and Wildland Resources, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, USA
ABSTRACT
The Quaternary period of the geographic history of the earth includes two geologic epochs viz., the Pleistocene
and the Holocene. Both epochs divided the faunal stages and human cultural phases based on climate and sea
level changes that took place during these periods. The Quaternary ice age began roughly about 2.58 MYO with
cool and dry climate conditions. The extinct Australopithecines and many other extinct genera of mammalian
mega fauna appeared during this time. Thus, the Quaternary period shows the extinctions of numerous
predominantly larger, especially mammalian mega faunal species, many of them lived during the transition from
the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch. The debate on the demise of the mammalian megafauna is often
characterized by two highly polarized points of view: (1) climate-induced extinction; and (2) human-induced
extinction. In Pleistocene period most parts of the Northern Hemisphere of earth were covered with glaciers
creating a cold climate. Due to this glacial formation the main sea level was much lower than it is today. The low
sea level facilitated the connection of Sri Lanka with the Indian mainland with a land bridge. Therefore, a number
of mega fauna and micro fauna were able to cross to Sri Lanka from India along this land bridge. The last land
bridge was emerged around 7500 years BP. During the Pleistocene Period Sri Lanka experienced heavy rainfall
causing the emergence of rain forest in the country. The heavy rainfall in the Sabaragamu Basin also provided
habitats for a number of marsh loving animals including mammals. However, at the end of the Pleistocene epoch,
drastic climatic changes were occurred resulting in the extinction of a number of animal taxa. Pleistocene fauna
in Sri Lanka is known as Rathnapura Fauna. Their fossils are found in alluvial deposits in the Sabaragamu basins
©2017 EASL. All rights reserved
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Edition Grand Volume - 01-ISSUE -01 ( 2017 © All rights reserved)
J O U R N A L O F E C O A S T R O N O M Y
South Asian Astrobiology & Paleontology Research Unit
A r t i c l e i n f o r
Corresponding Authors : ara22ravibhanu@gmail.com 1, katupotha@gmail.com 2, kamalabyewardhana@gmail.com 3,
Buddhika.Madurapperuma@humboldt.edu 4
Key Words: Quaternary mammalian fauna, Sabaragamu Basin, Ratnapura fauna, Extinction
Please cite this article in press as: Sumanarathna, A.R., et al., EXTINCTION OF QUATERNARY MAMMALIAN HABITATS
OF MEGAFAUNA IN SABARAGAMU BASIN, SRI LANKA, Journal of Eco Astronomy (2017), Vol 01, Issue 01, PP 16- 31
OPEN ACCESS
Page17
1. INTRODUCTION
The Pleistocene is generally recognized as a time of gigantism in terrestrial mammals. “The
causes for such gigantism are not completely understood, but they most likely include a response to
colder conditions and an improved ability to resist predators and reach food higher on shrubs or
buried beneath snow” (https://www.britannica.com/science/Quaternary/Quaternary-life). Ninety
percent of the animals represented by Quaternary fossils were recognized by Charles Lyell (1820) as
being similar to modern forms including many genera and even species of shellfish, insects, marine
microfossils, and terrestrial mammalian mega fauna living today are similar or identical to their
Pleistocene ancestors (https://www.britannica.com/). Many Pleistocene fossils demonstrate
spectacular differences from 1833 to up-to-date by palaenotologists, geologist, sedimentologists, the
International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA), International Geological Correlation
Programmes (IGCPs), International Union for Geological Sciences (IUGS) and individuals from
different disciplines and geographical locations have been discussed by Chalrs Lyells findings (1830),
and have found extinct and new marine and terrestrial fauna emphasizing the Quaternary period. Such
studies are very useful for further investigation of extinction of the mammalian megafauna from
different regions of the world. The Indian subcontinent represents a rich source of diverse
paleoanthropological data in the form of pollen assemblages, various isotopic records, vertebrate and
invertebrate fossil assemblages, and prehistoric stone tools in a range of palaeoecological contexts
(Metzke et al.,2010). Most of the Quaternary fossil evidence, including hominin specimens comes
from the fluvial sediments of the Narmada and other similar rivers (Chauhan, 2008). During the
Quaternary climate and sea level changes, which were followed the glacial and interglacial stages,
allowed to fauna migrating or lodging in continents as well as nearing islands (Katupotha, 2013).
Therefore, a number of mega fauna and micro fauna were able to cross to Sri Lanka from India. The
last land bridge was emerged around 7500 yr BP (Katupotha, 1995). The diverse paleoanthropological
records, vertebrate and invertebrate fossil assemblages, and prehistoric stone tools in a range of
palaeoecological contexts found in Sri Lanka from Gem pits and coastal deposits proved by
Deranigala (1958) and Deraniyaga (1992).
2. METHODS
Fossil identification was carried out according to the special characters that found in those
fossils and anatomical comparisons were also done (EASL Research Center, Kuruwita 2015).
Relative dating was used to place those fossils in correct positions of the geological time scale (i.e.,
the age of an object in comparison to another). Biostratigraphy was used to place them in a correct
order, but we do not yield any numerical estimates, which related to carbon dating or thermo
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luminescence (TL). As primary sources, such as early research and publications were utilized. For
fossil characterization and studying of special features, digital vernier caliper (150 mm : 6 inch), and
Scale bars were used. For locating those fossil bearing places, Garmin 30 GPS with BaseCamp GIS
were also used.
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Pleistocene fossils were discovered in association with “Ratnapura (alluvial deposits) gem
pits” from Sabaragamu Basin in the Ratnapura district of Sri Lanka (Fig. 1) . Fossils were described
as the “Ratnapura Fauna” by Deraniyagala (1958), and he attempted to identify, classify, and
taxonomically describe their palaeoecology, palaeoclimatology and palaeoenvironment. Table 1
shows the list of extinct mammalian megafauna in Sri Lanka during the Quaternary period. A pictorial
representation of fossils found in the Sabaragamu Basin during 1990-2013 is given by Figures 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7 and 8.
Figure 1: Geological view of Sabaragamu Basin, which shows the extinctions of mammalian distribution in
Sabaragamu Basin in Ratnapura District, Sri Lanka.[SUBEX:ST01-Sub excavation point Eheliyagoda,
SUBEX:ST02- Sub excavation point Parakaduwa, SUBEX:ST03-Sub excavation point Kuruvita,
SUBEX:ST04-Sub excavation point Rathnapura, Most abundance animal fossils of main excavation site
(MEX:ST01)-A: Elephas spp., B: Hippopotamus, C: Rhinoceros spp., D:Tiger or leo, E: Crocodiles spp.
© Eco Astronomy Data Base, 2015]
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Table 1. Extinctions of mammalian megafauna species during the transition from the Pleistocene to the
Holocene epoch in Sri Lanka
Familia
Sub
familia
Genus
Species
Subspecies
English
Name &
Locality
Other
References
Felidae
Pantherinae
Panthera
Panthera leo
(extinct)
Panthera leo
sinhaleyus
(Deraniyagala,
1939)
39,000 yr
Sri Lanka
Lion
Kelum et al.,
2005
Felidae
Pantherinae
Panthera
Panthera
tigris
(extinct)
16,500 yr
Tiger
Panthera
tigris
sudanensis
Deraniyagala,
1951 ?
Felidae
Panthera
Panthera
pardus
Panthera
pardus kotiya
Tiger ?
Canidae
Caninae
Canis
Canislupus
?
Bovidae
Bovinae
Boselaphus
Boselaphus
tragocamelus
(extinct)
Four-
horned
Antelope
Bovidae
Antilopinae
Antilope
Antilope
cervicapra
(extinct) ?
?
Bovidae
Bovinae
Bos
Bosgaurus
(extinct)
Bibos
sinhaleyus,
1962
Sri Lankan
Gaur
Canidae
Caninae
Cuon
Cuon alpinus
Wild Dog
?
Hippopota
-midae
Hippopotamus
Linnaeus
Hippopotamu
samphibious
(extinct)
Hexaprotodon
sinhaleyus,
1937
(extinct)
Rhinoceros
sinhaleyus,
1936
(extinct)
Rhinoceros
kagavena,
1956
(extinct)
Elephas
maximus
sinhaleyus
Sri Lankan
Elephant
Bovidae
Bibos
Bovinae
Bovinae
sinhaleyus
Source: Action plan for conservation & sustaninable use of palaebiodiversity in Sri Lanka, 2016: Biodiversity
Secretariat, Ministry of Environment & Renewable Energy and Personal Observations.
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Figure 2. A: Mature female Rusa unicolor and lateral view of mandible, B: Distribution of Rusa unicolor in Sri
Lanka, India, southern China, and southeastern Asia (1. R. u. unicolor; 2. R. u. dejeani; 3. R. u. cambojensis; 4.
R. u. hainana; 5. R. u. swinhoii; 6. R. u. equina; and 7. R. u. brookei). C. Rusa unicolor (Fossil No PSLSA01)
Right mandible, outer or ducal expects with 2 pre molars and molars. Location- Edandawela (Gem Pit),
Kuruwita, Sri Lanka, by Kamal & Aravinda 2007.
Figure 3. A1: Continental tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), A2: Sunda tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica), A3:
Indochinese tiger (Panthera tigris corbetti), B: Representative images of Cranium and Mandible of Saber tooth
cat (Smilodon fatalis; left) and Bengal tiger which approximately related to Sri Lankan’s extinct one (Panthera
tigris; right). C: Panthera tigris or Panthera leo sinhaleyus (Fossil No PSLSA02) Canine tooth in right lower
mandible. Location- Galukagama MahaEla, Puwakattaovita (Gem Pit) Kuruwita, Sri Lanka by Kamal &
Aravinda 2008, D: Side view of Lions Skull.
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Figure 4. A: Skeleton of Rhicocéros unicorne, B: Rhinoceros sondaicus Desmarest 1822- Java-Nashorn - Javan
Rhinoceros [Bildquelle: Horsfield, Thomas: Zoological researches in Java, and the neighbouring islands, 1824],
C: Rinoceros sinhaleyus (Fossil No PSLSA03) =(Proximal portion of Scapula. Location- Kuruwita, Sri Lanka.
By Kamal & Aravinda 2007
Figure 5. A: Reconstruct image of the pre hisroric Crocodylu species in Sri Lanka, B: Crocodylu ssp. Tooth
(Fossil No PSLSA04), Location - Khengama, Ovita Kumbura (Gem pit), Kuruwita, Sri Lanka, by Kamal &
Aravinda 2013 March.
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Figure 6. A: Bovine vertibra of Bibos sinhaleyus (Fossil No PSLSA05), Location- Ovita Kumbura, Khenagaa
West (Gem pit-20 feet below) Kuruwita, Sri Lanka by Kamal & Aravinda 2005, B: Illustration of Gaur, Indian
Bibos gauris.
Figure 7. Frist upper molar tooth of Rhinoceros spp. (Fossil No PSLSA06), Location: Galukagama, Maha ela
(Gem Pit) Kuruwita,Sri Lanka, By Kamal & Aravinda 1994
Figure 8. Premolars of Elephas maximus sinhaleyus (Fossil No PSLSA07), Location : Mawee Kubura (Gem
pit ) , Kuruwita, Sri Lanka, By Kamal & Aravinda 1993
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3.1 Panthera leo sinhaleyus (extinct)
Panthera leo (the lion) fossilis laid upon the gem field at a depth of 6.5m below the surface
from a gem pit about four miles away at Pahala Vela, Galadande Mandiya, Gonapitiya, Kuruwita near
the Kuru Ganga. The holotype is a third lower left carnassial in the Deraniyagala collection at the
British Museum (Deraniyagala, 1958). This race is restricted to Sri Lanka; originally the lion appears
to have inhabited Sri Lanka and India and was possibly replaced by the Bengal tiger that invaded
India from the Northeast. The similarity between the African name is “Simba” meaning Lion, and the
Indian equivalent Simha suggests that one is derived from the other. The lack of lion fossils in Africa
suggests that the African is derived from the Indian Panthera leo sinhaleyus also known as the Sri
Lanka Lion, was a prehistoric subspecies of lion,which endemic to Sri Lanka. It appears to have
become extinct prior to the arrival of culturally modern humans, 39,000 years ago. This lion is only
known from two teeth, found in alluvial deposits at Kuruwita. Deraniyagala cited fossils of three lion
teeth found from the island; first in 1936, second in 1947 and the third in 1961. Manamendra-
Arachchi et al. (2005) described that Deraniyagala did not explain explicitly how he diagnosed the
holotype of this subspecies as belonging to a lion, though he justified its allocation to a distinct
subspecies of lion by its being "narrower and more elongate" than those of recent lions in the British
Natural History Museum collection.
The lion has been one of the most widespread mammals, having enjoyed a Pleistocene range
that included Africa, Eurasia, North America and tropical South America, while the fossil record
confirms that the species range in the Indian subcontinent did extend south to the 21º N and east to 87º
E (Pilgrim 1931; Dutta 1976), approximately a line joining Gujurat to Bengal, but there is no evidence
of the existence of the lion in Asia east of Bengal or anywhere in peninsular India and Sri Lanka,
except for Panthera leo sinhaleyus. Panthera leo fossilis, also known as the Early Middle Pleistocene
European cave lion, is an extinct feline of the Pleistocene epoch.
3.2 Panthera tigris (extinct)
Panthera tigris is a member of the Felidae family and the largest of four "big cats" in the
genus Panthera. The Panthera tigris tigris (Bengal tiger) is a tiger subspecies native to India,
Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan (Fig. 3). The pattern of genetic variation in the Bengal tiger
corresponds to the premise that tigers arrived in India approximately 12,000 years ago. Kitchener and
Dugmore (2000) considered that the changing biogeographical range of the Panthera tigris through
the last glacial-interglacial cycle, based on habitat associations of modern tiger specimen records, and
environmental reconstructions from the LGM. These cycles indicate that the numerous glacial cycles
that span the evolutionary history of the tigers since its appearance in the fossil record about 2 Ma ago
and the oldest tiger fossils (around 2 Ma old) are from northern China and Java. The key issue is to
JOURNAL OF ECO ASTRONOMY©2017
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determine the extent to which ancestral populations of the tiger were geographically isolated.
However, Pleistocene glacial and interglacial fluctuations and other geological events probably
caused repeated geographic restrictions and expansions of tigers. Hemmer (1987), Kitchener and
Dugmore (2000) estimated the most recent common ancestor for tiger mtDNA haplotypes was
72,000108,000 years ago, with a lower and upper bound of 39,000 years and 157,000 years,
respectively. Recent history of tigers in the Indian subcontinent is consistent with the lack of tiger
fossils from India prior to the late Pleistocene and the absence of tigers from Sri Lanka, which was
separated from the subcontinent by rising sea levels in the early Holocene. However, a recent study of
two independent fossil finds from Sri Lanka, one dated to approximately 16,500 years ago, tentatively
classifies them as being a tiger (Manamendra-Arachchi, 2005).
However, the discovery of the Ratnapura tiger in alluvium, together with hippopotamus and
rhinoceros fossils, demonstrates that tigers did indeed occur in the island. Nine fossils and sub fossils
were identified that belonging to Tiger. Five of the fossils dated among those and identified 14,000
20,000 years old. One fossil that belonged to Lion was identified . The tiger was living 17,000 years
ago (Manamendra-Arachchi, 2009). The Holocene range of the tiger extends to the southernmost tip
of the peninsular India and to all of tropical continental Asia. The apparent absence of evidence of
tigers in Sri Lanka and Pleistocene peninsular India has led to the conclusion that tigers arrived in
south India “too late to get into Ceylon” (Pocock, 1930) as a result of the India-Sri Lanka land bridge
having been submerged since the Late Pleistocene. On the basis of the few known Indian tiger fossils
dating to the Holocene and the recent literature too, dates of the arrival of tigers to the Indian
peninsula were occurred in the last glacial maximum, ca. 19,000 years BP.
Panthera tigris probably differentiated in the early Pleistocene (1.8062.588 Ma ago) in
northcentral and northeastern China. The earliest forms averaged smaller than those of later
Pleistocene times. Thus it seems that the species has reached it’s maximum size in the living
subspecies
P.
tigris
altaica.
The early Pleistocene species Panthera palaeosinensis, from northern
China, appears to represent an early tiger or a form ancestral to the tiger (Mazak, 1981).
Researches on fossil remains have been conducted by many scientists, for example, Mazak (1981)
summarized the fossils records in Sri Lanka. Accordingly fossil remains, definitely identified as
Panthera tigris, are of lower to upper Pleistocene age and originated from the Altai caves in central
Asia, eastern and northern China, including Choukoutien localities, Japan, Jana River in northern
Siberia, the Ljachov Island situated off the northern coast of Siberia, and from Sumatra and Java. In
addition, several sub-Recent tiger remains were found in Caucasus region, India, and Borneo.
It
is
not clear whether the material from Borneo represents a member of the native late Pleistocene fauna
or a later introduction by humans (there is no reliable evidence of tigers on Borneo within historic
times).
OPEN ACCESS
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3.3 Elephas maximus sinhaleyus (extinct)
The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is one of the most seriously endangered species of
large mammals in the world. Given its enormous size and body mass, it is also one of the few species
of terrestrial mega herbivores still exist. Its present geographical distribution extends from the Indian
subcontinent in the west to Indo-China in the east across 13 countries including islands such as Sri
Lanka, Sumatra and Borneo. The entire population in the wild is estimated to be between 35,000 and
55,000. Even optimistic figures indicate that there are only about one tenth as many Asian as African
elephants (Hendavitharana et al., 1994).
Deraniyagala found one Fossil and explained the extinct Sri Lankan elephant as subspecies of
Elephas maximus sinhaleyus
(
Deraniyagala, 1958
). Deraniyagala explained the t
usks usually
present, molars smaller and mandibular spout wider than in forma typical. In addition, he
explained that there were t
hree recently extinct subspecies of Elephas maximus
asurus
(Mesopotamia),
Elephas maximus eondaicus
(Java) and
Elephas maximus rubridens
(China).
The extinct elephant species were living 100,000 years ago have been reported as
Hypselephas hysudricus sinhaleyus (Fig. 9) by Deraniyagala (1937) and as Elephas hysudricus by
Manamendra-Arachchi (2008). Elephas maximus sinhaleyus was secured in 1947 from a gem pit
about four miles away at Pahala Vela, Galadande Mandiya, Gonapitiiya, Kuruwita near the Kuru
Ganga. The fossils were laid upon the gem field at a depth of 6.5m below the surface, and yielded
Elephas maximus sinhaleyus (Deraniyagala, 1958). It frequently occurs in association with
hippopotamus fossils from Gatahatta as far as Ratnapura, and with rhinoceros from Gatahatta to
Pelmadulla.
The origin of Elephas maximus remained unknown until 1936, when its fossils were
discovered in Sri Lanka, and even as recently as 1942 the general opinion was that nothing was
known of its origin except that it appeared suddenly rather late in the age of man. It is true that a few
isolated fossil proboscidean molars were assigned to an extinct Japanese race of this elephant named
Elephas maximus buski (Deraniyagala, 1958), however, those belong to Palaooloxodon namadicua
naumanni (Fig. 10), and no Elephas maximus fossils were found in Japan. In various other countries
also isolated and often fragmentary teeth have been ascribed to Elephas maximus, but in every
instance these have proved to be either those of the extinct Palaeoloxodon namadicus or the remains
of some subspecies of Elephas maximus that had become extinct during prehistoric or historic times.
Since its earliest remains occur only in Sri Lanka, Elephas maximus apparently evolved from some
Plio-Quaternary proboscidean, which had become isolated here upon the Island's separation from
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Asia. During a Pleistocene reconnection with India, the Ceylon animal had invaded the mainland and
wandered northwards until it encountered the Himalayan mass if, whereupon it had spread along its
base eastwards as far as Wallace's line (the Wallace's Line is a boundary that separates the eco-
transitional zone between Asia and Australia). West of the line is found organisms related to Asiatic
species; to the east, a mixture of species of Asian and Australian origin is present, and westwards until
checked by the Mediterranean sea and the deserts of Arabia and North Africa. Over this vast expanse
in a belt stretching from 40 degrees north to 10 degrees south, land subsidence, changing
river
systems, deepening river gorges and expanding deserts, assisted the mountain ranges as barriers,
and resulted in the evolution of twelve (12) subspecies (Deraniyagala,1958).
The distribution of the Asian elephant Elephas maximus maximus is confined to the island of
Sri Lanka, Elephas maximus sumatranus to the island
of
Sumatra, and Elephas maximus indicus
occupies the rest of the range. Ten fossil species of Elephas were recognized; the earliest is from the
middle Pliocene Ekora beds, southeastern Turkana, Kenya, formed about 4.5 million years ago
(Shoshani and Eisenberg, 1982). Two of these species are native to Africa and three to southern Asia.
3.4 Rhinoceros Spp. (extinct)
The rhinoceros family is characterized by its large size (one of the largest remaining
megafauna), with all of the species able to reach one tonne or more in weight; an herbivorous diet;
and a thick protective skin about 1.55 cm thick, formed from layers of collagen positioned in a lattice
Figure 10. Palaeoloxodon namadicus sinhaleyus is
one of extinct elephant species in Sri Lanka.
Illustreated by: Deraniyagala (1958)
Figure 9. Hypselephas hysudricus sinhaleyus
is one of extinct elephant species in Sri
Lanka.Illustreated by Deraniyagala (1958)
Page27
structure; relatively small brains for mammals this size (400600g); and a large horn. They generally
eat leafy material, although their ability to ferment food in their hindgut allows them to subsist on
more fibrous plant matter, if necessary. Unlike other perissodactyls, the African species of rhinoceros
lack teeth at the front of their mouths, relying instead on their powerful premolar and molar teeth to
grind up plant food. Both African species and the Sumatran Rhinoceros have two horns, while the
Indian and Javan Rhinoceros have a single horn. Rhinoceros was living 80,000 years ago.
Most known fossil remains of Rhinoceros unicornis appear to be of probably middle Pleisto-
cene (Fig. 4) . The direct precursor of the living Indian rhinoceros was Rhinoceros unicornis fossilis
(synonyms R.sivalensis and R. palaeindicus), from the upper Siwalik beds, within the known historic
range of the species. Rhinoceros namadicuss from the Narbada or Narmada beds is probably
synonymous with Rhinoceros unicornis fossilis. Rhinoceros kendengindicus Dubois from Java was
closely related to the present species and should probably be regarded as a subspecies of it.
Rhinoceros unicornis kendengindicus occurred in the Djetis and Trinil beds alongside Rhinoceros
sondaicus, but has not been found in the Upper Pleistocene Ngandong deposits where the latter is the
only rhinoceros. The various fossils of this genus from China can be referred to two species: the
Pleistocene Rhinoceros sinensis Owen, which though in many respects is intermediate between the
two living species, shows progressive characters linking it to Rhinoceros unicornis and the Upper
Pliocene species Rhinoceros oweni Rmgstrom, which was placed in a separate genus Sinorhinus
(Laurie et al., 1983).
3.5 Rhinoceros sinhaleyus, 1936 (extinct)
Rhinoceros is also known as rhino. The finding about rhinoceros indicated as two species by
Deraniyagala, the older, less developed one, the Rhinoceros sinhaleyus Deraniyagala (1936), which
has squarer and lower teeth that the more rectangular-toothed Rhinoceros kagavena in the Ratnapura
fauna of Sri Lanka. The former became extinct earlier, in Deraniyagala view (1958). Rhinoceros
fossils were found from Kuruwita gem pit, 6.0m beneath from the surface at Hiriliyadda, Talavitiya
(Kuruwita), which is undated but probably Middle Pleistocene (Deraniyagala 1958). This form shows
few characters to differentiate it from Rhinoceros
unicornis,
and like the Javanese fossil occurs
alongside a race of Rhinoceros
unicornis.
Rhinocerotidae of large heavyset herbivorous perissodactyl mammals of Africa
and Asia that have one or two upright keratinous horns on the snout and thick gray to
brown skin with little hair. The order
Perissodactyla
is only represented in Sri Lanka by
the superfamily Rhinocerotidae
.
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3.6 Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus, 1937 (extinct) Hippopotamus
The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), or hippo, from the ancient Greek for "river
horse", is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant
species in the family Hippopotamidae, the other is the Pygmy Hippopotamus. After the elephant, the
hippopotamus is the largest land mammal and the heaviest extant artiodactyls, despite being
considerably shorter than the giraffe. The hippopotamus is semi-aquatic, inhabiting rivers and lakes
where territorial bulls preside over a stretch of river and groups of 5 to 30 females and young. During
the day they remain cool by staying in the water or mud; reproduction and childbirth both occur in
water. They emerge at dusk to graze on grass. While hippopotam uses rest near each other in the
water, grazing is a solitary activity and hippos are not territorial on land.
In ‘the Pleistocene of Ceylon’ Deraniyagala (1936, 1939, 1944 and 1958) explains his
findings of Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus and Hexaprotodon sivalensis sinhaleyus based on gem pits in
the Ratnanapura area about seven kilometers away at Pahala Vela, Galadande Mandiya, Gonapitiiya,
and Kuruwita near the Kuru Ganga. The fossils were laid at a depth of 6.5m below the surface.
Accordingly, Deraniyagala revealed the fossilized remains of the lower jaws and teeth of a Sri
Lankan hippopotamus. The lower jawbone of the hippopotamus reveals six incisor teeth, whereas the
hippopotamus that survives in Africa has only four incisors. The extinct Ceylon hippopotamus has
been named the Hexaprotodon sinhaleyus. The change in climate from heavy rainfall that fed
numerous large rivers and lakes to a more moderate rainfall that reduced the island's waterbodies was
probably responsible for the extinction of the world's second heaviest land mammal in the island
(Deraniyagala 1958).
The earliest known hippopotamus fossils, belonging to the genus Kenyapotamus in Africa, date
to around. Hippopotamus and Rhinoceros was living 80,000 years ago. The extinction of this animal
might have occurred sometime shortly after the middle Pleistocene times, since its nearest a relative,
the extinct Indian hippopotamus from former lake beds which are now traversed by the Nerbudda
(Narmada) River, became extinct in middle Pleistocene times about 50,000 years ago.
4. CONCLUSIONS
End of Pleistocene the climate change resulted in the extinction of a number of animals and
fossilization in alluvial beds. The last ice age ended about 14,000 years ago (temporary), but we
cannot be certain that this was related to the Earth’s precession. The Earth's axis rotates (processes)
just as a spinning top does, the period of precession is about 26,000 years. Therefore, the North
Celestial Pole will not always be pointing towards the same star field, precession is caused by the
gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon on the Earth. However, earth’s precession was tend to
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stimulate the increase of temperature and patterns of extinction, distribution, evolution as a result of
changing geomagnetic field. This extinction wave did not stop at the end of the Pleistocene, but
continued due to the sea level fluctuations, especially on isolated islands in Holocene epoch. Among
the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists and sedimentologists are natural climate change and
overkilled by humans. With the technological and cultural development of the humans, who appeared
during the Middle Pleistocene and invaded many previously uninhabited regions of the world during
the Late Pleistocene and Holocene.
Eminent paleontologist, zoologist, and also an artist, Deraniyagala from Sri Lanka has been
specialized in fauna and human fossils of the Indian subcontinent. By Late Jurassic Period of Sri
Lanka was positioned within 67oS - 65oS and 32oE - 36o E in the southern hemisphere and by the end
of Miocene Period Sri Lanka located itself between 4oN - 8oN and 77oE - 79oE in northern hemisphere
(Katupotha, 2013). Jurassic and Miocene fossils from Sri Lanka are very significant to compare those
with other locations of the world and very useful to the study of evolutionary stages through the
climate changes of Sri Lanka. But, whole the country has subjected to Quaternary glacial cycles due
to the advancing and retreating continental glaciers; warmer, cooler and dry climatic conditions;
evolution of hominids and associated cultures, and also extinction the megafauna; deposition of
terrestrial and marine deposits, and the development of soil. Due to this evolutionary process some
ancestors of former geologic periods were extinct, some were adopted and others were newly evolved.
Fossils found in Sri Lanka from different eras. Though we have number of fossils yet there is
no law or an act has been made to protect and preserve these fossils. Therefore, palaeo Biodiversity
heritage in Sri Lanka is being gradually destroyed bydirect human activities. Today for gem industry
people using bacos to dig gem pits in Sabaragamuwa basin. Because of using bacos fossils that are in
Pleistocene era are getting destroyed. Therefore, Eco Astronomy Organization has started to preserve
the animal and plant fossils that have been found in Sabaragamu basin during 1990-2013. As a first
step of this the main information of Sabaragamu basin fossils has published as a research papers. The
Eco Astronomy Organization have planned to exhibit and preserve fossils through Project Batadomba
Cave Geo Tourism with help of provincial council and other government organization.
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doi:10.1515/avutgs-2016-0005
... Sea levels in Sri Lanka have not changed in the last 3 Ky (Cooray, 1984). During the Pleistocene epoch, Sri Lanka experienced heavy rainfall, stimulating the emergence of rain forest in the country and providing habitat for marsh loving animals (Sumanarathna, 2017). The mammal fauna of Sri Lanka was more varied in the Pleistocene than it is now. ...
... The majority of ancient taxa survived or adapted to substantial ecological pressures in an interconnected mosaic of fragmented habitats in the Asian tropics (Roberts et al., 2014). Notwithstanding, in Sri Lanka several megafauna, all of Indian origin, were lost (Sumanarathna, 2017). Why were they lost in Sri Lanka but not in India? ...
... Following the Pleistocene extinctions of megafaunal mammals in Sri Lanka, as evident in the fossil record (Sumanarathna, 2017), Sri Lanka was left with the contemporary suite of mammals. Sri Lanka is home to 108 unique taxa of mammals under the umbrella of 91 species and 53 genera (Dittus, 2013) among native land living forms. ...
Article
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All mammals originated on the supercontinent of Pangaea in the Mesozoic era during the “Age of Reptiles.” However, the crown ancestors of contemporary mammals did not flourish until major environmental and biotic changes had occurred. An asteroid collided with earth at the end of the Cretaceous Period (the K-Pg boundary event) wiping out non-flying dinosaurs and primitive mammals. It was followed by large-scale volcanism, a spike in atmospheric oxygen and the proliferation of flowering plants. New niches became available for the ancestors of today’s mammals to fill. Evidence suggesting whether the ancestors of the Sri Lankan and Indian mammals originated on the tectonically marooned Indian plate before crashing into Asia or on the Laurasian supercontinent is inconclusive. Modern Sri Lankan mammals show their greatest affinity with those of southern India, and were more diverse in the Pleistocene when rhinoceros, hippopotamus, wild dogs, gaur and lions enriched the island’s landscapes. Native Sri Lankan land-based mammals are diversified into about 108 unique taxa (among 91 species and 53 genera), differentiated as phenotypic adaptations to sharply contrasting environments among seven major phyto-climatic zones. Endemic subspecies are distributed fairly equally across different phyto-climatic zones (n=24 to 29), except in the highlands where they are fewer (n=14) having evolved rapidly to species and genera among the insectivores and rodents whose reproductive rates are high. Conversely, greater numbers of endemic species (n=13) and genera (n=3) occur in the highlands than in the other zones (2-6 endemic species, no endemic genera). The prevalence of endemism is inversely related to body size or vagility. This suggests a greater probability of genetic exchange among distant populations of large bodied mobile mammals within Sri Lanka, as well as with Indian fauna during periods of land bridges in the Pleistocene. Most (8 of 13) endangered and critically endangered endemic mammals occur in the wet montane regions that offer the least Protected Areas (PAs). More than 85% of PAs occur in the extensive dry zone about half of which is not suited for water dependent mammals whose distributions are restricted to alluvial forests (less than 1% of PAs). Historically, the national cost of conservation has been low and therefore politically palatable. Current conservation urgently requires a major change in management policy combined with realistic investment to prevent extinctions of many endemic mammals and other unique Sri Lankan biota.
... Keywords Squirrels · Conservation budgets · Mis-prioritization · Governmental failures in conservation · Human-nature interaction · U.N. sustainable development goals (SDG) · Data mining · Letter survey Ground sloths & Giant Ground Sloths (Megatherium americanum) (Bednekoff 2011;Turvey and Crees 2019), several Elephant species (Elephantidae) (Burney and Flannery 2005;Nogués-Bravo et al. 2008;Sumanarathna et al. 2017), subspecies of Wapiti (Gippoliti et al. 2018;Van Wieren 2012), Red Wolf (Canis lupus rufus/Canis rufus) (Agan et al. 2021;Agan et al. 2020), Eastern Cougar (Puma concolor couguar) (Cardoza and Langlois 2002;Goodman 2018), etc. With unsustainable and non-science-based management of these species and many more to come (of which many are probably unknown), more will likely become extinct. ...
... Keywords Squirrels · Conservation budgets · Mis-prioritization · Governmental failures in conservation · Human-nature interaction · U.N. sustainable development goals (SDG) · Data mining · Letter survey Ground sloths & Giant Ground Sloths (Megatherium americanum) (Bednekoff 2011;Turvey and Crees 2019), several Elephant species (Elephantidae) (Burney and Flannery 2005;Nogués-Bravo et al. 2008;Sumanarathna et al. 2017), subspecies of Wapiti (Gippoliti et al. 2018;Van Wieren 2012), Red Wolf (Canis lupus rufus/Canis rufus) (Agan et al. 2021;Agan et al. 2020), Eastern Cougar (Puma concolor couguar) (Cardoza and Langlois 2002;Goodman 2018), etc. With unsustainable and non-science-based management of these species and many more to come (of which many are probably unknown), more will likely become extinct. ...
Chapter
This study investigates and quantifies the preferred ecological and climatic niche for all extant global squirrel species with available data. That is done by using open-access GBIF.org point data, and 132 Geographic Information System (GIS) environmental predictor maps we compiled. We make it publicly available as a value-added open-access data set (including temperature, precipitation, and other factors e.g. altitude, slope, forest cover, soil characteristics, human influence index, proximity to roads, protected areas, etc.). These environmental layers link with the squirrels’ distribution across the globe. These best-available predicted squirrel distribution maps for 233 species are then used to identify possible current and future trends to which squirrels diverged during their evolution (= a more detailed outcome of Chapter two’s evolutionary dispersion). This has the primary aim to identify whether species tended to diverge to certain regions around the globe, e.g. whether hotspot regions exist where more species occur, in terms of population numbers and species diversity when compared to other areas. Additionally, it aims to identify “regions of high conservation risk” allowing us to see regions where the present species are threatened, due to habitat loss or/and human influence, even warfare, poor governance, and law enforcement. These “regions of/ under high risk” include cities, old-growth forests (primarily for tree squirrels), tropics, and islands. Cities have been considered as regions of/under risk since it has been identified that many squirrel hotspots are near or in cities with high human densities and impacts, which can possibly lead to disease transmission between humans and invasive mammal species (zoonosis – recent examples: Covid-19, rabies, and bubonic plague). Old-growth forests, islands, and the tropics have also been considered as regions of/under high risk since these are all habitats that are affected and threatened by climatic, geologic, or/and human influence. This work sets the baseline for upcoming chapters and includes studies assessing all these regions of/ under high risk in detail. This is done together with the associated specific problems of each habitat/region, trying to seek greater conservation success for the threatened species at stake, on a global scale.KeywordsSquirrelsSciuridaeHabitat identificationEcological nicheGISClimate modelRegions of/under high conservational risk
... Keywords Squirrels · Conservation budgets · Mis-prioritization · Governmental failures in conservation · Human-nature interaction · U.N. sustainable development goals (SDG) · Data mining · Letter survey Ground sloths & Giant Ground Sloths (Megatherium americanum) (Bednekoff 2011;Turvey and Crees 2019), several Elephant species (Elephantidae) (Burney and Flannery 2005;Nogués-Bravo et al. 2008;Sumanarathna et al. 2017), subspecies of Wapiti (Gippoliti et al. 2018;Van Wieren 2012), Red Wolf (Canis lupus rufus/Canis rufus) (Agan et al. 2021;Agan et al. 2020), Eastern Cougar (Puma concolor couguar) (Cardoza and Langlois 2002;Goodman 2018), etc. With unsustainable and non-science-based management of these species and many more to come (of which many are probably unknown), more will likely become extinct. ...
Chapter
As occurrences and even entire populations of squirrels in cities, and especially around them, become increasingly more frequent, addressing this from a conservation aspect is not trivial. With urbanization on the rise, it cannot be forgotten and left out in any serious elaboration of the world’s squirrels’ conservation and wilderness. Here we aim to identify how squirrels are managed in some megacities and their parks (e.g. New York City NYC Central Park and several others in Helsinki (Finland), Seattle, and Vancouver (Canada)), and even zoos. Additionally, we focus on anthropological aspects of the conservation attempts such as citizen science and “bird feeders”. Even though it appears only as an indirect, unintended action, we found that it greatly influences the squirrel’s presence in urban areas. Also, it is discussed how squirrels follow human activity, with data obtained from citizen science-based online archives such as “www.feederwatch.org” on a continental scale (for North America). Similar “urban” food sources for the squirrels are included here, such as trash bins, and public water sinks. However, besides sources, also the sinks and threats for squirrels to live in urban areas are important (e.g. being readily killed by cars on the streets, urban diseases, exotic predators, urban pollution/contamination, and more). To demonstrate this, a literature review has been performed for some specialized urban-environment inhibiting squirrel species. For those species, Species Distribution Models (SDMs) and Species Distribution Forecasts (SDFs) for the year 2100 have been created to visualize their current urban distribution trends and how it is predicted to change by 2100 (using three different Global Climate Models as scenarios). This approach aims for a model-based assessment for a better science-based outlook for squirrels. In addition, as the cities are part of the “regions of/under high risk”, we focus on the threats to humans originating from squirrel disease transmissions (zoonosis), when interactions are left unevaluated, as supported by another extended literature review. Last but not least, suggestions are made on how to perform sustainable conservation actions in and around cities, to create a safe environment for both parties (humans and squirrels). This includes suggestions such as a possible reallocation of high squirrel densities out of the cities to decrease disease contamination risks, and to seek greater conservation success (e.g. limiting the isolation of populations through extensions of human civilizations).KeywordsSquirrelsAnthropoceneManagementCitizen scienceSources and sinksCompanionshipDisease transmission (zoonosis wild animals to humans)Species distribution models (SDMs)Species distribution forecasts (SDFs)MaxentTreeNet
... Keywords Squirrels · Conservation budgets · Mis-prioritization · Governmental failures in conservation · Human-nature interaction · U.N. sustainable development goals (SDG) · Data mining · Letter survey Ground sloths & Giant Ground Sloths (Megatherium americanum) (Bednekoff 2011;Turvey and Crees 2019), several Elephant species (Elephantidae) (Burney and Flannery 2005;Nogués-Bravo et al. 2008;Sumanarathna et al. 2017), subspecies of Wapiti (Gippoliti et al. 2018;Van Wieren 2012), Red Wolf (Canis lupus rufus/Canis rufus) (Agan et al. 2021;Agan et al. 2020), Eastern Cougar (Puma concolor couguar) (Cardoza and Langlois 2002;Goodman 2018), etc. With unsustainable and non-science-based management of these species and many more to come (of which many are probably unknown), more will likely become extinct. ...
Chapter
Judged by all assessment data and modern governance options at hand, the conservation status of the world’s wild squirrels is arguably in an undesirable, marginalized state, with an even worse outlook for modernity and its trends predicted for 2100. Very few nations around the globe include squirrels in their conservation management, and if so, often with minuscule or even no assigned budgets. This study attempts to provide a real leap forward on this topic as it assesses, acknowledges, shows, and identifies this lack of conservation efforts with relevant conclusions. This is done by presenting contemporary GIS maps including the respective conservation status for every squirrel species with direct policy implications. These representations are mapped by nations of the world and include details about the available information regarding conservation budgets and squirrel protection policies. We also assess the sustainability of the global squirrel conservation management strategies by surveying the actual implementations of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in squirrel management. Here we aim to identify conservation status trends and data availabilities to present conservation efforts invested by each nation. For these latter investigations/ assessments, the necessary information has been compiled from the governmental official webpages and directly requested by official letters & emails to the corresponding departments to deliver a ‘state-of-the-art’ overview of the global conservation efforts for squirrels. Such data are otherwise impossible to compile for budget assignments for squirrel conservation and governance actions or even small mammals since data is simply not publicly available. So what is the governance based on? Because these data are widely absent and not transparently shared by the governments, scientists, and institutions with the public, it hinders conservation and sustainable land and resource stewardship nationally and across the borders, internationally. Here we emphasize the concept of transparent wildlife and environmental management and outline the importance of data-sharing for combined conservation success and effectiveness; good governance principles. Additionally, to eradicate this older culture and to set a good example, here we share all the obtained information.KeywordsSquirrelsConservation budgetsMis-prioritizationGovernmental failures in conservationHuman-nature interactionU.N. sustainable development goals (SDG)Data miningLetter survey
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The Pleistocene of Ceylon. Ceylon National Museums, Colombo
  • P E P Deraniyagala
 Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1958, The Pleistocene of Ceylon. Ceylon National Museums, Colombo. ix+164 pp., 58 pl.