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The Impact of Alcohol Consumption on Food Choice Among College Students

June 2015
American Journal of Health Studies 30(2)

DOI:10.47779/ajhs.2015.171

Authors:

Jessica Sloan Kruger

University at Buffalo, State University of New York

Daniel J Kruger

University of Michigan

Although the associations between the consumption of alcohol, unhealthy foods, and obesity are known, there is no consensus on the mechanisms involved. Previous research demonstrates that the type of foods available during the peak times for alcohol consumption differ from those available at other times. Advertisements targeting college students indicate an awareness of increased cravings for “junk foods” following alcohol consumption, however there is no previous research on how alcohol consumption affects actual dietary choices differentially by type of food, in comparison to non-alcohol related food consumption. The current study demonstrates that college students’ food cravings increase, consumption of fruits and vegetables is lower, and consumption of junk foods is higher with alcohol consumption than at other times. Respondents reported eating something that they were craving the majority (57%) of the time; however, on average they ate something healthier than what they were craving 27% of the time. These findings help to clarify the behavioral mechanisms underlying the relationship between alcohol consumption, unhealthy dietary behaviors, and obesity.

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Send correspondence to: Jessica Sloan Kruger, MSHE currently a Ph.D. Student in Health Education at the

University of Toledo, Phone +18104413881, Fax 419-530-4759 University of Toledo Mailstop 119, Oce

#1003K Toledo, Ohio 43606; Daniel J. Kruger, Ph.D. is a Research Assistant Professor in the School of

Public Health at the University of Michigan

1. INTRODUCTION

College students have a high preva-

lence of alcohol consumption (Ham & Hope,

2003; Jones, Chryssanthakis, & Groom,

2014). In 2008, 69% of college students re-

ported drinking alcohol in the past month

(Ilgen et al., 2011). Drinking alcohol can

reduce students’ inhibitions and lead them to

engage in behaviors that they may not engage in

when they are not drinking (Ilgen et al., 2011).

e “drunchies” is a portmanteau of

“drunken munchies,” a colloquial term for crav-

ings for food, especially those foods high in fat

and sodium, occurring due to alcohol consump-

tion. is term is currently used in the market-

ing of fast food to college students (Eatstreet.

com, 2014), though it has not been previously

documented in the scientic literature. Alcohol

consumption can have a signicant impact on col-

lege students’ dietary patterns, among other health

related behaviors. Eating more and/or consuming

less nutritious foods while drinking may impact

many negative health outcomes such as obesity.

College freshman who drank more alcoholic bev-

erages had a higher rst semester Body Mass Index

(BMI) (Lloyd-Richardson, Lucero, DiBello, Ja-

cobson, & Wing, 2008). Lloyd-Richardson et al.

(2008) found that students engaged in late-night

eating and experienced the “drunk munchies,”

which is considered to be a disinhibition leading

to eating large quantitates of high-fat foods. is

“late night eating” is common among college stu-

dents (Lloyd-Richardson, Bailey, Fava, & Wing,

2009) and students who drank alcohol consumed

lager quantities of food and made less healthy food

choices as a result of drinking.

College students’ alcohol consumption

typically occurs during the evening and week-

ends. e highest rates of drinking are seen on

ursday, Friday, and Saturday evenings, due to

many students not having Friday classes or classes

until Monday (Wood, Sher, & Rutledge, 2007).

Because alcohol drinking begins later in the day,

food options are scarcer when it occurs. Typically,

foods considered to be unhealthy are more read-

ily available during the time most college students

would be consuming alcohol compared to health-

ier foods. Most wait service dinner restaurants

close between 9:00 and 11:00 pm, yet the food

providers with high fat, high calorie options stay

open 24 hours a day or into the early morning

hours (Nelson, Kocos, Lytle, & Perry, 2009). e

lack of access to healthy foods could explain, in

whole or part, the higher intake of high-fat foods

among college students who drink alcohol.

e nutritional literature continually de-

bates the identity of the mechanism linking alco-

hol consumption and food consumption. Previ-

ous papers have concluded that there is no clear

explanation for the short term ability for alcohol

to enhance appetite (Yeomans, 2004; Yeomans,

2010). Some hold that alcohol enhances the

short-term rewarding eects of ingestion, most

The impact of alcohol consumption on food choices among

college students

Jessica Sloan Kruger, MSHE

Daniel J. Kruger, Ph.D

Abstract: Although the associations between the consumption of alcohol, unhealthy foods, and obesity are

known, there is no consensus on the mechanisms involved. Previous research demonstrates that the type of

foods available during the peak times for alcohol consumption dier from those available at other times.

Advertisements targeting college students indicate an awareness of increased cravings for “junk foods”

following alcohol consumption, however there is no previous research on how alcohol consumption aects

actual dietary choices dierentially by type of food, in comparison to non-alcohol related food consump-

tion. e current study demonstrates that college students’ food cravings increase, consumption of fruits

and vegetables is lower, and consumption of junk foods is higher with alcohol consumption than at other

times. Respondents reported eating something that they were craving the majority (57%) of the time;

however, on average they ate something healthier than what they were craving 27% of the time. ese

ndings help to clarify the behavioral mechanisms underlying the relationship between alcohol consump-

tion, unhealthy dietary behaviors, and obesity.

Keywords: Food choices, Alcohol consumption, Junk food, Drunchies

- 309 -

- 310 -

Kruger.J, Kruger D.

likely through pharmacological action (Yeomans,

2010). Others provide evidence that alcohol con-

sumption increases the inuence of implicit atti-

tudes while decreasing the inuence of reective

cognition towards food cues (Hofmann & Friese,

2008). Alcohol is a diuretic (Murray, 1932); de-

hydration associated with alcohol consumption

may induce cravings for salt in order to promote

water retention (Beauchamp, Bertino, Burke, &

Engelman, 1990). Rather than resolve the debate

on internal mechanisms, the current study focuses

on proving a better understanding of how alcohol

consumption may dierentially aect the con-

sumption of healthy and unhealthy foods among

college students. Little is known on how alcohol

consumption aects actual dietary choices, in

comparison to food consumption at other times.

We hypothesized that college students would be

more likely to consume fast foods and less likely to

consume fruits and vegetables after drinking alco-

hol, compared to at other times.

2. Materials

2.1 Participants

e University of Michigan’s Institutional

Review Board approved this study prior to data

collection. A sample of ethnically diverse under-

graduates at a large public university in the Mid-

western United States completed an anonymous

on-line survey at their convenience. Respondents

enrolled in the Introductory Psychology Partici-

pant Pool received course credit for completing

the survey, and the sample represents researcher

participant pool allocations for two academic

terms (Fall 2014 and Winter 2015). All partici-

pants completed the survey.

We retained participants who reported ever

using alcohol for the current study (N = 262; 51%

female, M age = 19, SD age = 1), we excluded

77 participants who reported not ever drinking

alcohol. ese participants reported that their

grandparents were Western European (51.1%),

Eastern European (42.7%), East Asian (9.9%),

Arab/Middle-Eastern (5.7%), African-American

(5.3%), South Asian (5.0%), Latino/a or Hispanic

(5.0%), Native American/Alaskan Native (1.1%),

Pacic Islander (1.1%), and Other (5.0%), inclu-

sively. is sample size enables statistical power (1

- B) of .89 for small eects (d = .20) and .99 for

medium (d = .50) and large (d = .80) eects in

two-tailed tests and .94, .99, and .99 respectively

for one-tailed tests of directional predictions (see

Cohen, 1988). We anticipated a medium eect

size, for comparison the average eect size in social

psychology is d = .43 (Richard, Bond, & Stokes-

Zoota, 2003). us, our analyses are adequately

powered.

2.2 Survey

e survey included the Behavioral Risk

Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) fruit and veg-

etable consumption items, and parallel items on

junk food consumption (including salted snack

foods, candy, sweet desserts, fried fast food, ham-

burgers, pizza, tacos, and soda/pop with sugar).

Participants indicated how many drinks they

consumed on average and answered an additional

set of items based on the BRFSS fruit and veg-

etable and junk food items, "Are you more or less

likely to eat or drink the following kinds of foods

when you drink alcohol" (1 = Much less likely...5

= Much more likely). Participants also answered:

"How frequent are your food cravings when you

drink alcohol, compared to other times?," "How

intense are your food cravings when you drink

alcohol, compared to other times?," "How many

alcoholic drinks does it usually take for you to get

food cravings?," "When you drink alcohol, what

percentage of the time do you:-Have food crav-

ings?/Eat something you are craving?/ Eat some-

thing healthier than what you are craving?" e

last three items were answered with a sliding scale

ranging from 0 to 100 and initially set at 50.

3. Results

Participants reported that their food crav-

ings were more frequent, t(261) = 13.21, p <

.001, d = .82, and more intense, t(261) = 13.18,

p < .001, d = .81, when they consumed alcohol

compared to other times. Participants were less

likely to consume nutritious foods and more like-

ly to consume junk foods when they consumed

alcohol compared to other times (See Table 1).

Participants reported having food cravings 58%

of the time when they were drinking (SD = 26),

eating something they were craving 57% of the

time (SD = 25), and eating something healthier

than what they were craving 27% of the time (SD

= 23). Tendencies to eat something healthier than

what participants were craving were associated

with higher overall fruit and vegetable consump-

tion, r(262) = .170, p = .007, and lower overall

junk food consumption, r(262) = -.161, p = .009.

Although we did not assess self-perceived

levels of intoxication, 48% of women and 50%

of men reported average alcohol consumption

consistent with binge drinking (4 and 5 alcoholic

drinks at one time, respectively; NIAAA, 2004).

e level of average alcohol consumption directly

predicted the increased frequency of food crav-

ings after consuming alcohol, r(301) = .316, p

< .001, the frequency of consuming something

being craved, r(301) = .405, p < .001, and the

increased overall likelihood of consuming junk

foods, r(259) = .157, p = .012. However, the re-

ported level of average alcohol consumption did

not predict increased intensity of food cravings,

eating something healthier than what they were

craving, or fruit and vegetable consumption after

consuming alcohol.

- 311 -

American Journal of Health Studies Vol 29 (4) 2014

4. Conclusion

Alcohol consumption is a risk factor for

unhealthy dietary behaviors and obesity. We dem-

onstrate that the foods students consume when

drinking alcohol are less healthy than what the

same individuals consume at other times. Con-

sumption of fruits and vegetables is lower and

consumption of junk foods is higher comparted

to dietary behaviors at other times. ese ndings

help clarify the behavioral mechanisms underlying

the relationship between alcohol consumption,

unhealthy dietary behaviors, and obesity. Another

contributing factor is the food landscape available

in the late evening (Nelson et al., 2009). Food

providers surrounding university campuses are

likely aware of the types of food students crave

when they are drinking alcohol and likely shape

their oerings to attract such individuals. ese

ndings are consistent with previous work on

by (Lloyd-Richardson et al., 2009) that students

who drank alcohol made less healthy food choic-

es as a result of drinking. is study builds on

those ndings demonstrating that students crave

unhealthy foods and act on those cravings more

often when drinking.

As with all research, this study has

strengths and limitations. Strengths include the

use of standard validated measures for diet re-

call, so that results can be compared to those of

many other studies. Additionally, testing this hy-

pothesis among college students is useful because

they are at most risk of engaging in unhealthy eat-

ing behaviors resulting in weigh gain termed the

“Freshman 15” (Mihalopoulos, Auinger, & Klein,

2008). e “Freshman 15” is the belief that stu-

Food Items M SD t p d

100% PURE fruit juices 2.60 1.07 -6.03 .001 -0.38

Fresh, frozen, or canned fruit 2.16 0.91 -14.90 .001 -0.92

Cooked or canned beans 2.14 0.95 -14.69 .001 -0.91

Dark green vegetables 1.97 0.92 -18.30 .001 -1.13

Orange-colored vegetables 1.99 0.95 -17.60 .001 -1.06

OTHER vegetables 2.08 0.99 -14.96 .001 -0.93

Salted snack foods 3.92 1.00 14.85 .001 0.92

Candy 3.52 1.05 8.04 .001 0.49

Sweet desserts 3.48 1.09 7.02 .001 0.44

Fried fast food 4.09 1.01 17.45 .001 1.08

Hamburgers 3.70 1.10 10.33 .001 0.64

Pizza 4.18 0.88 21.60 .001 1.34

Tacos 3.54 1.11 7.78 .001 0.48

Soda/pop with sugar 3.73 1.15 10.31 .001 0.64

Note: 1= Much less likely, 2 = Somewhat less likely, 3 = About the same, 4 = Somewhat more likely, 5 = Much more

likely

Table 1

Are you more or less likely to eat or drink the following kinds of foods when you drink alcohol?

- 312 -

Kruger.J, Kruger D.

dents gain 15 lbs. during their freshman year of

college. Although, most students do not gain 15

lbs., freshman weight gain was 5.5 times greater

than that experienced by the general population

(Mihalopoulos et al., 2008). In another study,

70% of students experienced weight gain in the

rst semester of their freshman year (Lloyd-Rich-

ardson et al., 2009).

Limitations are related to the self-report

cross-sectional survey design. Participants may

have answered the questions in a socially desirable

manner, though they were instructed to take the

on-line survey in private and were able to com-

plete it at their convenience. Self-report responses

are also subject to inaccurate recall. We also did

not determine the time of day for eating after alco-

hol consumption or at other times. Examination

of dietary patterns by time could assess the inu-

ence of dierential food environments.

Further research should include observa-

tional studies completed at various times of the

day, which document the true number of alco-

holic beverages students consume along with the

type and amount of food they tend to consume

while drinking. Some people are able to resist un-

healthy food cravings, thus interventions to help

reduce the impact of the "drunchies" may improve

student health behaviors and outcomes. Reducing

the amount of unhealthy foods that college stu-

dents consume while drinking alcohol may reduce

obesity and improve other health outcomes.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr. Jon Elhai at the Univer-

sity of Toledo for his guidance on this manuscript.

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Article

Jul 2009

Identify key factors underlying college weight gain, nutrition, and physical activity. Six focus groups and one-on-one interviews. Large, public Midwestern university. Fifty full-time freshman and sophomore students. Factors influencing weight and weight-related behaviors among undergraduates. Qualitative analysis using a specific thematic approach, identifying themes appearing consistently across transcripts from recorded sessions. Major themes that emerged in describing important influences on weight, dietary intake, and physical activity included: unhealthful food availability on campus, snacking, late-night eating, alcohol-related eating, eating because of stress/boredom, and food in student dorm rooms. Other factors related to physical activity included: negative experiences using campus recreation facilities; poor weather; and lack of time/time management, motivation, and social support for exercise. A wide range of factors may underlie weight gain and unhealthful diet and physical activity patterns during the college years. Young adulthood is an important and overlooked area for obesity prevention efforts. Universities need to take an active role in designing and evaluating weight-related health promotion intervention strategies focusing on a variety of targets, including individual-, social-, and environmental-level influences.

A Prospective Study of Weight Gain During the College Freshmen and Sophomore Years

Article

Mar 2009
PREV MED

To assess the prevalence of weight gain among male and female college freshmen. Study 1 examined weight change over freshman and sophomore years among 904 students attending a state university in Indiana, from 2002-2004. Study 2 examined weight and BMI change over the freshman year among 382 students attending a private university in Rhode Island, from 2004-2006. 77% of Study 1 participants and 70% of Study 2 participants gained weight during their freshman year, largely during the first semester. In Study 1, weight gain averaged 3.5 kg in females and males; in Study 2, weight gain averaged 1.6 kg for females and 2.5 kg for males. Students continued to gain weight their sophomore year, with females 4.2 kg and males 4.3 kg heavier than at start of college. Overweight/obesity rates increased from baseline to end of freshman year for Study 1 (21.6% to 36%) and Study 2 participants (14.7% to 17.8%). The first years of college may be a critical developmental window for establishing weight gain prevention efforts.

The Relationship Between Alcohol Use, Eating Habits and Weight Change in College Freshmen

Article

Jan 2009
Eat Behav

This study aims to improve understanding of how alcohol consumption in college freshmen affects eating patterns before, during, and after drinking, as well as its relation to body weight change. Two hundred eighty-two college freshmen (61% female; 59% Caucasian) completed measures of alcohol use, measured body mass index (BMI), and eating and activity habits before, during and following drinking episodes. Students were categorized by drinking status (non-drinker, low-risk, and moderate/high-risk) in order to explore group differences. Seventy-five percent of the sample reported past-month alcohol consumption, with 65% (N=134) of these categorized as "low-risk" drinkers and 35% (N=72) as "moderate-risk" drinkers. Moderate-risk drinkers were more likely than low-risk drinkers to report increases in appetite after drinking, with nearly half of students reporting overeating and making unhealthy food choices following drinking. Moderate-risk drinkers also demonstrated significant increases in 1st semester BMI change, relative to non-drinkers and low-risk drinkers. Eating patterns for a significant number of college students are altered before, during, and following drinking episodes, which related to change in freshman year BMI.

Experimental sodium depletion and salt taste in normal human volunteers

Article

Jun 1990

To examine the sensory effects of extreme sodium depletion in humans, 10 normal volunteers were fed a very-low-sodium diet and were treated with diuretics for 10 d. Urine samples were collected and blood was drawn for hormone analyses. Taste tests included threshold and intensity judgments of salt (NaCl) and sucrose and preferences for salt and sucrose in foods. Subjects also rated the pleasantness of 29 foods listed on a questionnaire. Substantial sodium depletion was induced in all subjects. Salt thresholds decreased in a majority of the subjects whereas preference judgments for salt in foods tended to be greater during the depletion period. The changes in pleasantness of the 29 foods revealed that saltier foods were substantially more attractive during the depletion period than during the pre- and postdepletion periods. These data indicate that experimental sodium depletion in humans is followed by moderate sensory changes and an increased preference for salty foods.