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The wisdom of the body
... Homeostasis denotes the ability of living systems to maintain internal stability under the influence of external factors [1]. The origin of this concept lies in the observation that key physiological variables, such as body temperature, blood pH, or blood glucose levels, remain within narrow ranges in a vast array of circumstances [1,2]. ...
... Homeostasis denotes the ability of living systems to maintain internal stability under the influence of external factors [1]. The origin of this concept lies in the observation that key physiological variables, such as body temperature, blood pH, or blood glucose levels, remain within narrow ranges in a vast array of circumstances [1,2]. However, in recent decades, the meaning of 'homeostasis' has broadened to encompass the physiological processes that allow biological systems to cope with unexpected changes in either internal or external conditions [3][4][5]. ...
... This view of regulation can be easily extrapolated to biological homeostasis. The concept of set point neatly captures the tendency of some biological variables to exhibit a relatively constant value [7], which is widely assumed as the hallmark of homeostasis [1]. Moreover, the view of changes in regulated variables as perturbations that disrupt the optimal state of the system was already explicit in Bernard's and Cannon's seminal works [15], and it is currently widespread in homeostasis studies [16][17][18][19]. ...
In this work, we present a novel modeling framework for understanding the dynamics of homeostatic regulation. Inspired by engineering control theory, this framework incorporates unique features of biological systems. First, biological variables often play physiological roles, and taking this functional context into consideration is essential to fully understand the goals and constraints of homeostatic regulation. Second, biological signals are not abstract variables, but rather material molecules that may undergo complex turnover processes of synthesis and degradation. We suggest that the particular nature of biological signals may condition the type of information they can convey, and their potential role in shaping the dynamics and the ultimate purpose of homeostatic systems. We show that the dynamic interplay between regulated variables and control signals is a key determinant of biological homeostasis, challenging the necessity and the convenience of strictly extrapolating concepts from engineering control theory in modeling the dynamics of homeostatic systems. This work provides a simple, unified framework for studying biological regulation and identifies general principles that transcend molecular details of particular homeostatic mechanisms. We show how this approach can be naturally applied to apparently different regulatory systems, contributing to a deeper understanding of homeostasis as a fundamental process in living systems.
... Two key neuroplasticity mechanisms co-exist and interact after a stroke to promote recovery of functions: feedback-based homeostatic plasticity (Fig. 1D) and associative Hebbian plasticity (Fig. 1E). Homeostatic plasticity mechanisms, or neural homeostasis, help the brain maintain stability despite external and internal disturbances (Billman, 2020;Cannon, 1932), relying on network architecture and brain reserve. Hebbian plasticity mechanisms (Caporale & Dan, 2008) are triggered when the transitional up or down regulation of resources is not sufficient to meet demands, thereby requiring the potentiation or reconfiguration of neural pathways. ...
... The term homeostasis is derived from the Ancient Greek words meaning "similar" and "steady/stable", and can be defined as the "selfregulating process by which biological systems maintain stability while adjusting to changing external conditions" (Billman, 2020). Also called "the wisdom of the body" (Cannon, 1932), it encompasses the dynamic and continuous internal adjustments organisms make to adapt to behavioral or environmental changes and ensure survival, from the cellular to the organ level. ...
... Claude Bernard was the first to propose in 1878 that life results in a continuous balance, for which "the fixity of the internal environment is the condition of free, independent life: the mechanism that allows it is the one that assures in the interior environment the maintenance of all the conditions necessary for the life of the elements" (Bernard, 1878). This notion of the internal environmentle milieu intérieurand its interaction with the external environment will later become the pillar of the notion of homeostasis later proposed by Walter Cannon (Cannon, 1929;Cannon, 1932). Based on this, Walter Cannon proposed in 1929 the fruitful notion of homeostasis defined as the following: "Homeo, the abbreviated form of homoio, is prefixed instead of homo, because the former indicates "like" or "similar" and admits some variation, whereas the latter, meaning the "same", indicates a fixed and rigid constancy. ...
... This homeostatic regulation is mainly based on two controls: negative feedback and anticipatory feedforward mechanisms (Goldstein and Kopin, 2017). Negative feedback regulation is the main mechanism to maintain physiological homeostasis, as proposed by Walter Cannon: "When a factor is known which can shift a homeostatic state in one direction it is reasonable to look for automatic control of that factor or for a factor or factors having an opposing effect" (Cannon, 1929;Cannon, 1932). Anticipatory feedforward mechanisms are based on mediation by anticipatory adjustments in physiological systems related to knowledge of a previously experienced or instinctively recognized signal. ...
Homeostatic regulation plays a fundamental role in maintenance of multicellular life. At different scales and in different biological systems, this principle allows a better understanding of biological organization. Consequently, a growing interest in studying cause-effect relations between physiological systems has emerged, such as in the fields of cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory regulations. For this, mathematical approaches such as Granger causality (GC) were applied to the field of cardiovascular physiology in the last 20 years, overcoming the limitations of previous approaches and offering new perspectives in understanding cardiac, vascular and respiratory homeostatic interactions. In clinical practice, continuous recording of clinical data of hospitalized patients or by telemetry has opened new applicability for these approaches with potential early diagnostic and prognostic information. In this review, we describe a theoretical background of approaches based on linear GC in time and frequency domains applied to detect couplings between time series of RR intervals, blood pressure and respiration. Interestingly, these tools help in understanding the contribution of homeostatic negative feedback and the anticipatory feedforward mechanisms in homeostatic cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory controls. We also describe experimental and clinical results based on these mathematical tools, consolidating previous experimental and clinical evidence on the coupling in cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory studies. Finally, we propose perspectives allowing to complete the understanding of these interactions between cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, as well as the interplay between brain and cardiac, and vascular and respiratory systems, offering a high integrative view of cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory homeostatic regulation.
... Two key neuroplasticity mechanisms co-exist and interact after a stroke to promote recovery of functions: feedback-based homeostatic plasticity (Fig. 1D) and associative Hebbian plasticity (Fig. 1E). Homeostatic plasticity mechanisms, or neural homeostasis, help the brain maintain stability despite external and internal disturbances (Billman, 2020;Cannon, 1932), relying on network architecture and brain reserve. Hebbian plasticity mechanisms (Caporale & Dan, 2008) are triggered when the transitional up or down regulation of resources is not sufficient to meet demands, thereby requiring the potentiation or reconfiguration of neural pathways. ...
... The term homeostasis is derived from the Ancient Greek words meaning "similar" and "steady/stable", and can be defined as the "selfregulating process by which biological systems maintain stability while adjusting to changing external conditions" (Billman, 2020). Also called "the wisdom of the body" (Cannon, 1932), it encompasses the dynamic and continuous internal adjustments organisms make to adapt to behavioral or environmental changes and ensure survival, from the cellular to the organ level. ...
... Physiological stress concepts involving the adrenal response to external and internal stimuli were developed by physiologists such as Claude Bernard, Walter Cannon (1929), and Selye (1950). These early pioneers referred to the principle of homoeostasis (Cannon, 1932), in which the body seeks to maintain stability to changing external and internal conditions. The disturbance of homoeostasis was described by the term stress as a non-specific response to aversive conditions named stressors (Selye, 1973). ...
... Therefore, HPA activity measurements are only meaningful in a clearly defined context situation, where the activation is related to a potentially stressful stimulus and preferably associated with behavioural/emotional reactions, considering individual variation and coping styles. These circumstances are usually only given in acute coping situations in response to a defined stressor as described by Selye with the 'Alarm Reaction' of the 'General Adaptation Syndrome', similar to the 'Fight and Flight Syndrome' proposed earlier by Cannon (1932), characterising a stage of resistance involving an immediate response of the ANS (sympathetic-adrenal-medullary axis; SAM) followed by a slightly delayed hormonal HPA activation with the release of corticosteroids ( Fig. 3.1). ...
... Even if in the current clinical practice this can be overlooked, the strong connection between mind and heart has been described for the first time in 1915 [2][3] and in 1950 it has been proposed that psychological factors, such as stress and emotional conflicts, could contribute to somatic diseases, including hypertension and cardiovascular diseases [4]. This is a key issue, which concerns not only CVD but also several somatic diseases, both medically explained and not, which are frequently shown to be strongly influenced by the psychological status, indeed, in daily clinical practice, i.e. irritable bowel syndrome, peptic ulcer, headache, somatic pains, or gastrointestinal syndromes, specifically in children and adolescents. ...
... Such phenomenology allows the mimicry of purposive behavior [36] and homeostasis, which is the power of living beings to maintain the values of certain essential physicochemical variables stationary despite the fluky properties of the surrounding environment. [37] Homeostasis, rooted in negative feedback loops, has been theorized and proved to confer purposive and stable adaptive behavior and a certain degree of autonomy to artificially intelligent machines, which become cybernetic, i.e., like a pilot steering a ship (in agreement with the etymology of cybernetics that derives from the ancient Greek word ός meaning steersman). [38] ...
Chemical Artificial Intelligence (CAI) is the burgeoning research field devising chemical systems in “wetware” (i.e., in liquid solutions) to mimic biological intelligence competencies. UV–visible radiation is valuable for maintaining those systems out‐of‐equilibrium, prompting them to respond to optical and other physicochemical signals and probing their evolution. As it occurs in all the kingdoms of life, photochromic compounds play a relevant role. Several living beings exploit photochromic switches for variegate responses to the features of the environmental light. This work proposes a plausible justification by evidencing how each photochrome can be conceived as a trivial form of Markov blanket and implement (i) forward, (ii) final, and (iii) circular causalities. Furthermore, photochromic materials are appropriate for processing Boolean and fuzzy logic, exploiting their chemical reactivity, chaos, and quantum computing. Finally, photochromic molecules and oscillatory chemical reactions are promising ingredients for developing neuromorphic engineering in wetware based on optical signals. CAI inspires the design of adaptive, active, and autonomous chemical systems, which help humanity to colonize the molecular world against diseases, pollution, and poverty.
... somatization is a specialistic term that was introduced in psychology and medicine by psychoanalyst Wilhelm steckl in the 1920s. in his understanding somatization stands for the 'tendency to experience, conceptualize, and/or communicate psychological states or meanings as corporeal sensations, functional changes, or somatic metaphors' [18]. ...
Introduction
Psychogenic hearing loss is often neglected in the differential diagnosis of hearing disorders. In a difficult diagnostic process and treatment of psychogenic hearing loss disorder, the close cooperation of the audiologist, psychologist, patient, and his family is required. The study aimed to improve the knowledge and understanding of psychogenic hearing loss, establish a differential diagnosis in audiological tests in children, determine diagnostic procedures and finally apply adequate therapeutic procedures. The professional knowledge presented in the study will enable adaptation of reliable information which can be transferred to young patients and their families to let them recognize their problems.
Material and methods
A group of 321 children, admitted to the Department of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, Phoniatrics and Audiology, The Children’s Hospital in Lublin, Poland, from January 2019 to December 2021, who complained of hearing loss were analysed in the study.
Results
Twenty-two patients (15 girls and 7 boys) met the audiological criteria of psychogenic hearing loss and were enrolled to the study. Seventeen children complained of bilateral hearing loss, and five patients presented with a unilateral hearing loss.
Conclusions
Family and personality problems cause unresolved difficulties in children and can lead to psychogenic deafness. Constant interest demonstrated by a guardian not only when the child is causing troubles or is complaining of disease is the key to avoiding developing psychosomatic disorders such as psychogenic hearing loss.
... Walter B. Cannon's seminal definition of homeostasis as the body's ability to maintain steady states through physiological regulation (Cannon, 1932), along with Linda S. Costanzo's dynamic characterisation of homeostasis as an intelligent, self-regulating process (Costanzo, 2018), underscores the importance of stability and balance in biological systems. This balance extends beyond the purely physiological, encompassing psychological dimensions where emotions and behaviours are similarly regulated to maintain equilibrium. ...
Objective: The integration of Dual-Process Theory and the 4E Cognition framework within Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) offers a novel and comprehensive approach to addressing the complexity of cognitive processes underlying psychological disorders. This study aims to explore how these theoretical perspectives can be synthesised to enhance the effectiveness of CBT by addressing both automatic (System 1) and deliberate (System 2) cognitive processes, alongside the embodied, embedded, extended, and enactive dimensions of human cognition. Method: A conceptual analysis was conducted, drawing on established literature related to Dual-Process Theory, 4E Cognition, and CBT. This analysis informed the development of an integrated CBT model that incorporates these cognitive principles. The model was then applied to clinical case examples and theoretical scenarios to illustrate its practical implications for therapeutic practice. Results: The analysis demonstrated that traditional CBT approaches often prioritise conscious, reflective processes (System 2) while underemphasising the role of automatic, intuitive processes (System 1). Integrating 4E Cognition principles into CBT provided a more robust framework for understanding how cognition is shaped by the body, environment, and interactions. This holistic approach enabled a deeper examination of client behaviours and emotional responses, suggesting that incorporating these principles could improve treatment outcomes, particularly in cases involving complex psychological conditions. Conclusions: Integrating Dual-Process Theory and 4E Cognition into CBT presents a promising pathway for advancing therapeutic interventions. By addressing both unconscious and conscious cognitive processes within an embodied and contextually grounded framework, this model has the potential to offer more nuanced and effective treatment strategies for psychological disorders. Further empirical research is needed to validate the clinical application of this integrative model.
... From the beginning of Freud's development of a psychoanalytic model of the mind, there was a premise that the mind seeks homeostasis --although Freud did not use the term (which was introduced by Cannon, 1932). As mentioned in the introduction, Freud's (1900) theory of perceptual identity portrays the mind as using past experiences as a prototype for fulfilling present needs. ...
The recent paradigm shift within cognitive neuroscience toward predictive processing appearsto align with many psychoanalytic conceptualizations of the mind. In this article, we arguethat several psychoanalytic concepts, such as projection, transference, wish-fulfillment, andperceptual identity, are particularly compatible with the current neuroscientific conception ofthe brain as a prediction machine. Specifically, we propose that the concept of projection asused in modern psychoanalysis to explore subjective experience and fantasies is closelyanalogous to the concept of prediction as it is used to explain the fundamental cognitivefunctions of the brain. We discuss the implications of this parallelism for understanding therole of homeostasis in psychoanalysis and cognitive neuroscience, and we also discuss theparallels between insight and surprise in these two fields of mental science. Limitations indrawing parallels between projection and prediction are also addressed. By integrating thesetwo fields, we envision the possibility of tackling subjectivity scientifically.
... This adaptive process is essential for maintaining stability and is a well-documented phenomenon known as homeostasis, which plays a critical role in maintaining an efficient functional state [1]. Canon [2] introduced the term to describe the feedback operation in physiological systems and the maintenance of equilibrium. It is now recognized as an inherent self-regulatory system within biological systems that is necessary for the state of normal functioning [3]. ...
Biological signals such as respiration (RSP) and heart rate (HR) are oscillatory and physiologically coupled, maintaining homeostasis through regulatory mechanisms. This report models the dynamic relationship between RSP and HR in 45 healthy volunteers at rest. Cross-correlation between RSP and HR was computed, along with regression analysis to predict HR from RSP and its first-order time derivative in continuous signals. A simulation model tested the possibility of replicating the RSP–HR relationship. Cross-correlation results showed a time lag in the sub-second range of these signals (849.21 ms ± SD 344.84). The possible modulation of HR by RSP was mediated by the RSP amplitude and its first-order time derivative (in 45 of 45 cases). A simulation of this process allowed us to replicate the physiological relationship between RSP and HR. These results provide support for understanding the dynamic interactions in cardiorespiratory coupling at rest, showing a short time lag between RSP and HR and a modulation of the HR signal by the first-order time derivative of the RSP. This dynamic would optionally be incorporated into dynamic models of resting cardiopulmonary coupling and suggests a mechanism for optimizing respiration in the alveolar system by promoting synchrony between the gases and hemoglobin in the alveolar pulmonary system.
... Here, we discuss the biological insights provided by this study along with its limitations. While early twentieth-century physiologists accentuated the homogeneous nature of sympathetic outflows 47 , a large body of research subsequently supported the notion of selective yet coordinated control within this system 4,7,8 . For instance, classical electrophysiological studies have suggested that reflex patterns exhibited by SPNs in response to stimulation from various afferents possess unique characteristics corresponding to distinct functional pathways 8,11,12 . ...
The sympathetic nervous system is crucial for responding to environmental changes. This regulation is coordinated by the spinal sympathetic preganglionic neurons (SPNs), innervating both postganglionic neurons and the adrenal gland. Despite decades of research supporting the concept of selective control within this system, the neural circuit organization responsible for the output specificity remains poorly understood. Here, by combining recent single-cell transcriptome data with viral-genetic toolkits in mice, we identify two subtypes of SPNs in the lower thoracic spinal cord, defined at the molecular level, exhibiting nonoverlapping patterns of innervation: one specifically projecting to the celiac/superior mesenteric ganglia, and the other targeting the adrenal grand. Chemogenetic manipulations on these distinct SPN subtypes revealed selective impacts on the motility of the gastrointestinal tracts or glucose metabolism mediated by the adrenal gland, respectively. This molecularly delineated parallel labeled-line organization in sympathetic outflows presents a potential avenue for selectively manipulating organ functions.
... The neurovisceral architecture accomplishing such feats depends on the hierarchical central processing of peripheral internal body signals and operates hierarchically and across heterogenous time scales , automatically returning the internal state to a setpoint (i.e. homeostasis) (Cannon, 1939) or shifting the internal state away from a setpoint in anticipation of future deviations (i.e. allostasis) (Sterling, 2012). ...
Interactions between top-down attention and bottom-up visceral inputs are assumed to produce conscious perceptions of interoceptive states, and while each process has been independently associated with aberrant interoceptive symptomatology in psychiatric disorders, the neural substrates of this interface are unknown. We conducted a preregistered functional neuroimaging study of 46 individuals with anxiety, depression, and/or eating disorders (ADE) and 46 propensity-matched healthy comparisons (HC), comparing their neural activity across two interoceptive tasks differentially recruiting top-down or bottom-up processing within the same scan session. During an interoceptive attention task, top-down attention was voluntarily directed towards cardiorespiratory or visual signals. In contrast, during an interoceptive perturbation task, intravenous infusions of isoproterenol (a peripherally-acting beta-adrenergic receptor agonist) were administered in a double-blinded and placebo-controlled fashion to drive bottom-up cardiorespiratory sensations. Across both tasks, neural activation converged upon the insular cortex, localizing within the granular and ventral dysgranular subregions bilaterally. However, contrasting hemispheric differences emerged, with the ADE group exhibiting (relative to HCs) an asymmetric pattern of overlap in the left insula, with increased or decreased proportions of co-activated voxels within the left or right dysgranular insula, respectively. The ADE group also showed less agranular anterior insula activation during periods of bodily uncertainty (i.e. when anticipating possible isoproterenol-induced changes that never arrived). Finally, post-task changes in insula functional connectivity were associated with anxiety and depression severity. These findings confirm the dysgranular mid-insula as a key cortical interface where attention and prediction meet real-time bodily inputs, especially during heightened awareness of interoceptive states. Furthermore, the dysgranular mid-insula may indeed be a ‘locus of disruption’ for psychiatric disorders.
... Job stress was initially proposed by American psychologist Cannon (1939) and has since been extensively studied by scholars. In the teaching career, this notion has been characterized as "the experience of unpleasant, negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration, and depression, resulting from some aspects of their work as a teacher" (Saleem & Muhammad, 2020). ...
This study delves into the status quo, variations based on demographic information, and the relationship between job stress, burnout, and Psychological Capital (PsyCap) among Chinese English as Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in higher institutions. The investigation utilized a questionnaire for data collection and analysis. 297 EFL teachers from various institutions in China were recruited between July and October 2023. The data underscores that Chinese EFL instructors in higher institutions experience moderately high levels of stress, burnout, and PsyCap. However, when compared to stress and burnout levels, PsyCap emerges as relatively lower. The statistical results revealed that male teachers report significantly higher stress levels than their female counterparts; no difference was identified in job burnout indicators; among four indicators in PsyCap, male teachers exhibit significantly higher self-efficacy compared to female teachers. Private school teachers face elevated levels of stress and increased burnout compared to their public school counterparts, alongside possessing lower levels of PsyCap than those in public schools. Positive correlations exist between job stress and burnout, and negative correlations with PsyCap. PsyCap partially mediates the stress-burnout relationship, with indicators like hope and resilience playing a mediating role. This research may offer some guidance for educators, institutions, policymakers, and researchers to enhance the well-being of Chinese EFL teachers in various educational settings.
... Their network of underground roots grew toward the region with the most water and nutrients. Walter Cannon, an American physiologist, coined the word "homeostasis" and the application of control theory (feedback and feedforward regulation) to explain how a constant internal environment is achieved [9]. This evolution was essential to the homeostasis concept. ...
... Stress encompasses physiological, psychological, and behavioral reactions to situations that individuals perceive as stressful (Cannon, 1932;. The experience of acute psychosocial stress is pervasive in diverse life circumstances and can affect basic cognitive processes such as perception, attention, and memory (Chu et al., 2023;DiMenichi et al., 2018;Lin et al., 2020;Maeda et al., 2019;Olver et al., 2015). ...
Stress is a crucial factor affecting social decision-making. However, its impacts on the behavioral and neural processes of females’ unfairness decision-making remain unclear. Combining computational modeling and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), this study attempted to illuminate the neurocomputational signature of unfairness decision-making in females. We also considered the effect of trait stress coping styles. Forty-four healthy young females (20.98 ± 2.89 years) were randomly assigned to the stress group (n = 21) and the control group (n = 23). Acute psychosocial stress was induced by the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), and participants then completed the one-shot ultimatum game (UG) as responders. The results showed that acute psychosocial stress reduced the adaptability to fairness and lead to more random decision-making responses. Moreover, in the stress group, a high level of negative coping style predicted more deterministic decision. fNIRS results showed that stress led to an increase of oxy-hemoglobin (HbO) peak in the right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ), while decreased the activation of left middle temporal gyrus (lMTG) when presented the moderately unfair (MU) offers. This signified more involvement of the mentalization and the inhibition of moral processing. Moreover, individuals with higher negative coping scores showed more deterministic decision behaviors under
stress. Taken together, our study emphasizes the role of acute psychosocial stress in affecting females’ unfairness decision-making mechanisms in social interactions, and provides evidences for the “tend and befriend” pattern based on a cognitive neuroscience perspective.
... Although the term equilibrium comes from the physical sciences, it has long been applied as an analogous concept in psychological theorizing-particularly in developmental psychology. Equilibrium is reached when a system achieves a state of balance between potentially counterbalancing, opposing forces (e.g., physiological homeostasis, Cannon, 1932; psychological equilibrium balancing competing drives and desires, Argyle, 1967;Erikson, 1974; selfactualization as an equilibrium between actual and ideal selfperceptions; Rogers, 1961). In child development, Piaget and Cook (1952) argued that the psychological system aims to achieve a steady state of equilibrium that allows children to accommodate new experiences using existing schemas, whereas disequilibrium forces children to change their cognitive structures to regain equilibrium. ...
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... The main purpose of living beings is to achieve homeostasis, which is defined as a self-regulating process by which physiological systems maintain stability while adapting to changing external conditions (42). Cannon suggested that homeostasis is the summit of countless years of evolution, by which the body reacts to changes in the environment with emotional and behavioral responses (43). In other words, living systems evolved to maintain a stable internal environment in order not to be destroyed by the forces surrounding them. ...
Several theories have been proposed to explain the complex diagnostic aspects related to addiction disorders and their development. Recent frameworks tend to focus on dimensional perspectives of symptoms rather than categorical systems, since substance use disorders are frequently comorbid with other psychiatric and especially personality disorders. However, useful transdiagnostic models that could integrate clinical evaluation derived from neuroscientific theories are lacking. In the present manuscript, the authors propose a model based on a new paradigm, in an attempt to better explain this complex, multifaceted phenomenon. The new paradigm presupposes that emotions and behavior are a response to risk prediction. Individuals make choices and engage in actions to manage potential risks/rewards in order to seek or maintain homeostasis in their internal and external environments – a mechanism that the authors call predostatic (predictive mechanism with homeostatic purpose). The model considers three main modes of the predostatic mind: (1) Alarm Mode, activated by high and/or imminent risk prediction; (2) Seek Mode, activated by long-term risk or reward prediction; and (3) Balance Mode, a self-regulating state of mind related to low risk prediction, a soothing system and a calm state. Addiction is seen as a chronic dysregulation of organism systems leading to internalizing or externalizing phenomena mainly related to the Seek and Alarm Modes, which are persistently activated by reward and risk prediction, respectively, thus hindering Balance. Addiction neuroscience research has shown that chronic drug use or engagement in addictive behaviors can lead to neuroadaptations in the brain reward circuitry, disrupting normal balance and the regulation of reward processes. This dysregulation can contribute to persistent drug-seeking/addictive behaviors despite negative consequences. This newly proposed dynamic and integrative model, named dysregulation based on externalizing and internalizing phenomena of the three main modes of the predostatic mind (DREXI3), proposes six dysregulation dimensions with basic emotional and behavioral symptoms, such as neurophysiological alterations, impulsivity, compulsion, cognitive impairment/psychosis, mood, and anxiety/anger. In this paper, the authors explain the rationale behind DREXI3 and present some hypothetical clinical examples to better illustrate the use of the model in clinical practice. The development of this innovative model could possibly guide tailored treatment interventions in the addiction field.
... Acute exercise is a physiological stressor that induces the sympathetic nervous system 559 activation, and fight-or-flight response is a sympathetic response aiming at promoting own 560 survival (Cannon, 1932 Values are mean ± standard deviation or median (interquartile range). * P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01; *** P < 0.001, vs. Pre, ## P < 0.01, ### P < 0.001, vs. ...
Acute cardiovascular physical exercise improves cognitive performance, as evidenced by a reduction in reaction time (RT). However, the mechanistic understanding of how this occurs is elusive and has not been rigorously investigated in humans. Here, using positron emission tomography (PET) with [¹¹C]raclopride, in a multi‐experiment study we investigated whether acute exercise releases endogenous dopamine (DA) in the brain. We hypothesized that acute exercise augments the brain DA system, and that RT improvement is correlated with this endogenous DA release. The PET study (Experiment 1: n = 16) demonstrated that acute physical exercise released endogenous DA, and that endogenous DA release was correlated with improvements in RT of the Go/No‐Go task. Thereafter, using two electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) studies (Experiments 2 and 3: n = 18 and 22 respectively), we investigated what triggers RT improvement. The EMS studies indicated that EMS with moderate arm cranking improved RT, but RT was not improved following EMS alone or EMS combined with no load arm cranking. The novel mechanistic findings from these experiments are: (1) endogenous DA appears to be an important neuromodulator for RT improvement and (2) RT is only altered when exercise is associated with central signals from higher brain centres. Our findings explain how humans rapidly alter their behaviour using neuromodulatory systems and have significant implications for promotion of cognitive health. image
Key points
Acute cardiovascular exercise improves cognitive performance, as evidenced by a reduction in reaction time (RT). However, the mechanistic understanding of how this occurs is elusive and has not been rigorously investigated in humans.
Using the neurochemical specificity of [¹¹C]raclopride positron emission tomography, we demonstrated that acute supine cycling released endogenous dopamine (DA), and that this release was correlated with improved RT.
Additional electrical muscle stimulation studies demonstrated that peripherally driven muscle contractions (i.e. exercise) were insufficient to improve RT.
The current study suggests that endogenous DA is an important neuromodulator for RT improvement, and that RT is only altered when exercise is associated with central signals from higher brain centres.
... Bernard did not describe the processes whereby such control was executed. This endeavor was taken up by Cannon (1929Cannon ( , 1932, who introduced the notion of homeostasis to characterize the processes through which organisms maintain themselves in similar conditions. In particular, he pays specific attention to the maintenance of some of the features of the "fluid matrix of the body" (citing Bernard's characterization of the internal environment as the "totality of the circulating fluids of the organism, " Cannon, 1932 p. 38). ...
According to new mechanists, mechanisms explain how specific biological phenomena are produced. New mechanists have had little to say about how mechanisms relate to the organism in which they reside. A key feature of organisms, emphasized by the autonomy tradition, is that organisms maintain themselves. To do this, they rely on mechanisms. But mechanisms must be controlled so that they produce the phenomena for which they are responsible when and in the manner needed by the organism. To account for how they are controlled, we characterize mechanisms as sets of constraints on the flow of free energy. Some constraints are flexible and can be acted on by other mechanisms, control mechanisms, that utilize information procured from the organism and its environment to alter the flexible constraints in other mechanisms so that they produce phenomena appropriate to the circumstances. We further show that control mechanisms in living organisms are organized heterarchically—control is carried out primarily by local controllers that integrate information they acquire as well as that which they procure from other control mechanisms. The result is not a hierarchy of control but an integrated network of control mechanisms that has been crafted over the course of evolution.
... This is a complicated task because thermodynamics was developed within the framework of thermodynamic equilibrium and deviation from it, while living systems operate in the far from equilibrium state and continuously maintain it. The fundamental understanding of this idea originates in the works of Claude Bernard (1865), who invented the term milieu intérieur and introduced the associated concept that later was defined as homeostasis by Walter Cannon (1932). The constancy of the internal environment implies the existence of control processes that support it. ...
Based on a condensed historical overview of management as an artifact, the article argues that management is still suffused by an implicit paradigm of value extraction that is ideologically and culturally tinted and that we need to find a new foothold in theory and practice, a more universally valid approach with an encompassing awareness of societal well-being and long-term impact. The radically new approach proposed is based on free energy minimization, a concept from computational neuroscience, as a universally valid principle derived from the biological imperative to survive that holds true for individuals and social systems alike. In order to reduce harmful free energy from entropy and stochastic adversity, an amplified way of perceiving and being aware of reality is required that needs to be cultivated. This is achieved through the guiding principle of Minding, an ongoing process of inner and outer awareness and caring consideration of oneself, others and the world around us, routed in a comprehensive consciousness including awareness of Body sensations, Emotions, Thoughts and Action impulses (BETA). This comprehensive, strategic awareness is proposed as a unifying, contextual framework for individual and collective well-being rather than a categorical imperative, and therefore may, when and where indispensable, include value extraction and value maximization if required for the overall objective of shared, long-term flourishing. The article also presents examples of implementation of the proposed approach for both individuals and organizations and briefly introduces MBSAT-Mindfulness-based Strategic Awareness Training, a training protocol designed specifically to enhance the competence of Minding, the guiding principle.
In recent years, (autonomy-centered) enactivism has been used to provide an integrative and relational account of mental conditions. A significant advancement lies in its naturalized and pluralistic treatment of normativity, which transcends traditional objectivist and normativist dichotomies. This article explores the varieties of normativity within this paradigm and their implications for understanding mental conditions. We address purported challenges associated with the integration of social normativity into the enactive naturalistic framework of cognition, particularly concerning mental conditions. Drawing upon the distinction between the constitution problem and the status problem, we conceptualize mental conditions as intersubjectively constituted with an intersubjectively negotiated status. Adopting a participatory sense-making perspective, we address three challenges posed by social movements: (1) Hermeneutical dilemmas related to the ontological openness of mental health categories. (2) The difficulties and urgency to mitigate epistemic injustices. (3) The complex attribution of (social) responsibility in psychological wellbeing. In conclusion, this perspective prompts a reevaluation of epistemological assumptions, advocating for a second-person and engaged perspective on mental conditions.
"Natural Medicine for Natural Defence" mengeksplorasi peran vital pengobatan alami dalam memperkuat sistem pertahanan kesehatan manusia. Buku ini menggabungkan kearifan tradisional dengan bukti ilmiah modern, menawarkan perspektif komprehensif tentang bagaimana pengobatan alami dapat diintegrasikan kedalam sistem kesehatan kontemporer.
Melalui sepuluh bab yang disusun secara sistematis, buku ini membahas sejarah pengobatan alami, dasar-dasar sistem pertahanan tubuh, potensi tanaman obat, peran nutrisi, dan praktik gaya hidup dalam meningkatkan kekebalan. Pembahasan dilanjutkan dengan analisis tantangan dalam penelitian dan pengembangan obat alami, serta visi masa depan integrasi pengobatan alami dalam sistem kesehatan global. Dilengkapi dengan studi kasus, data penelitian terkini, dan panduan praktis, buku ini menjadi sumber referensi berharga bagi praktisi kesehatan, peneliti, pembuat kebijakan, dan masyarakat umum yang tertarik pada pendekatan holistik dalam menjaga kesehatan.
Describing the outbreak of the conflict in eastern and southern Ukraine in 2014, the author puts forward a hypothesis that the social protests, which then turned into a severe phase of civil war secretly supported by the Russian Federation, were provoked by the Russian special services. According to the author, the so-called Korsun pogrom, repeal of the so-called language act and the threat of forceful pacification of the east by one of the leaders of the Right Sector were the logical links of a political provocation aimed at maximum social polarisation along political and linguistic lines. The social upheaval was then reinforced by the structures led by the Russian special services, which brought about losing Crimea and part of Donbas by Ukraine.
Stimolato dall'impegnativo articolo di Stefano Fissi (2024), che attinge agli ultimi lavori di Anil Seth e Mark Solms per affrontare argomenti molto discussi nella fase attuale del dibattito sulla possibilità di una validazione reciproca tra neuroscienze cognitive e psicoanalisi, vengono riattra-versate le tematiche fondamentali indicando problematicità epistemologiche e comprensibili debo-lezze argomentative.
Bistability is a fundamental phenomenon in nature. In biochemical systems, it creates digital, switch-like outputs from the constituent chemical concentrations and activities, and it is often associated with hysteresis in such systems. Here, we first introduce the regulation of bistable switches at different levels in natural life systems, then explain the current pioneering applications of bistable switches in synthetic biology, and finally introduce some design and tuning methodologies and principles that may be helpful for the future application of bistable switches in synthetic biology.
En este trabajo se analiza el Sistema Educativo Mexicano a través del microanálisis sintético (Auyang, 1999), enfoque que utiliza la descomposición sistémica para identificar los componentes del sistema y su interacción; lo cual facilita reconocer la estructura del sistema educativo y las propiedades emergentes producto de su interacción. El mismo análisis sintético, utiliza la composición sistémica para identificar la funcionalidad del sistema por medio de los objetivos y funciones de sus niveles jerárquicos mostrando las condiciones que se requieren para cumplirlas. Con el desarrollo de análisis de descomposición sistémica se logró identificar catorce componentes que forman el Sistema Educativo Nacional en los niveles estratégico, táctico y operativo. Con el desarrollo de la composición sistémica se identificaron los objetivos del sistema para cada nivel jerárquico. Con ambos análisis se observaron dos elementos sistémicos: los objetivos y funciones; cuyo logro define el estado actual del sistema y los resultados emergentes que aparecen en el sistema como sinergia de un conjunto de objetivos y funciones cumplidas en cada nivel jerárquico del sistema educativo. Esto ofrece una primera aproximación de un modelo del sistema educativo con estructura y funcionalidad, la cual pueda ser útil para su evaluación y toma de decisiones.
The COVID-19 pandemic brought about a period of marked adversity. In addition to widespread morbidity and mortality, the pandemic resulted in a rise in intimate partner violence (IPV), domestic violence (DV), and child maltreatment (CM), collectively referred to as sex and gender-based violence [SGBV] in this paper. Global and in-house government measures were implemented to tackle these problems associated with COVID-19. The pandemic created new challenges for providing health and social welfare services during times of crisis. The paper will use mechanisms, processes, and psychological pathways to explain the relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and SGBV. Government-induced COVID-19 control measures have exacerbated socioeconomic hardship and marginalisation, increasing SGBV rates due to insufficient response efforts. We use stress theory and the life course model to guide the development of a hypothetical conceptual foundation. The paper finally synthesises and anchors these perspectives to create a framework for future interventions.
Mental and physical health in ageing implies a harmonization of diverse human faculties, including physical, mental, social and environmental domains. This striving for harmonization has been prevalent in the history of ageing research. This work will survey some of the historical perceptions of harmonization that were envisioned as necessary for healthy longevity. These included theories of physiological mechanisms of ageing as well as of complex environmental influences, and the more “intangible” concepts of vitality and the revitalizing power of the mind.
This chapter uses cancel culture and the associated mobbing experiences of shame as a prototypical example of a context with which to apply shame-alleviating strategies as resources when experiencing shame. Examples are cited, and literature on gender differences in coping with stress, mobbing, bullying, and responses to shame is discussed. A pilot study on honor culture men is provided as representative of how masculine men respond to shame. Practical shame remediating strategies are suggested based on previous literature and the study provided.
The mononuclear phagocyte system includes monocytes, macrophages, some dendritic cells, and multinuclear giant cells. These cell populations display marked heterogeneity depending on their differentiation from embryonic and bone marrow hematopoietic progenitors, tissue location, and activation. They contribute to tissue homeostasis by interacting with local and systemic immune and non-immune cells through trophic, clearance, and cytocidal functions. During evolution, they contributed to the innate host defense before effector mechanisms of specific adaptive immunity emerged. Mouse macrophages appear at mid-gestation and are distributed throughout the embryo to facilitate organogenesis and clear cells undergoing programmed cell death. Yolk sac, AGM, and fetal liver-derived tissue-resident macrophages persist throughout postnatal and adult life, supplemented by bone marrow-derived blood monocytes, as required after injury and infection. Nobel awards to Elie Metchnikoff and Paul Ehrlich in 1908 drew attention to cellular phagocytic and humoral immunity, respectively. In 2011, prizes were awarded to Jules Hoffmann and Bruce Beutler for contributions to innate immunity and to Ralph Steinman for the discovery of dendritic cells and their role in antigen presentation to T lymphocytes. We trace milestones in the history of mononuclear phagocyte research from the perspective of Nobel awards bearing directly and indirectly on their role in cellular immunity.
The article highlighted the results of an empirical research of indicators of psychological adaptation of future psychologists to the educational process under the state of martial law. 68 students of specialty 053 Psychology took part in the study. According to the results of the data obtained during the research, it was established that difficulties with concentration, negative thoughts, increased distraction, chronic lack of time, low productivity, changes in eating behavior, anxiety, unease, irritability, suspiciousness, increased fatigue, pains in various parts of the body of an undefined nature, which indicate serious difficulties in concentrating on the educational process and demonstrate a high level of mental stress among the intellectual, behavioral, emotional and physiological symptoms of stress in future psychologists.The research of stress resistance and social adaptation of future psychologists emphasized the problematic nature of the situation, as more than a third of respondents had a low level of stress resistance. According to value orientations, changes in students’ priorities were more focused on increasing life values, new opportunities and relationships with others, which might indicate an increase in the importance of the environment. Regarding psychological well-being, it was found that a significant part of future psychologists showed a low level of it, which could affect the general quality of life and efficiency in education. The obtained data are important in the development of programs of psychological support of the educational process in higher education institutions under the state of martial law.
This narrative review summarizes the early life of the author, Khalin E. Nisbett, and highlights the factors that led to her career in research and her development of two novel research hypotheses: the Mu-opioid and OXytocin system Interaction (MOXI) hypothesis and Mu-Opioid receptor antagonist and OXytocin receptor Agonist In Combination (MOXAIC) treatment hypothesis. Notably, Nisbett's career began in the era after countless studies demonstrated that oxytocin is not just a female neurotransmitter and not just a female reproductive hormone, an era in which researchers are exploring the role of oxytocin in emotion regulation, social interaction, and cognitive processing across both sexes. As such, the previously held perspective that oxytocin is “just a female hormone” did not impede Nisbett's ideas. Intrigued by science, emotion regulation, and social interaction, she began to explore the role of oxytocin and opioids in emotion regulation. On the heels of earlier theories, such as the Tend-and-Befriend theory and Opioid Theory of Social Attachment, she began to develop the MOXI hypothesis, which postulates that the μ-opioid receptor and oxytocin systems interact to mediate social interaction and emotion regulation. In this narrative review, Nisbett summarizes two studies that explored (i) the role of oxytocin in anxiety- and depression-like behavior and (ii) the effect of opioid receptor blockade on the anxiolytic-like effect of oxytocin, which led to a revision of the MOXI hypothesis and postulation of the Mu−Opioid receptor antagonist and OXytocin receptor Agonist In Combination (MOXAIC) treatment hypothesis. Nisbett also discusses several limitations of these hypotheses and her current research interests and aspirations.
This paper explores the interplay of feedback principles in design and systems science. From their roots in engineering, biology, and economics, it investigates intersections between design, cybernetics and servomechanisms. The synthesis emphasizes the need for considering feedback in anticipating unintended consequences and proposes an integrative view reconciling fundamental assumptions from the different fields through simulation. This holistic approach underscores the pivotal role of feedback in understanding and addressing complex phenomena, such as rebound effects, in design science.
The review presents literature sources confirming the key aspects of the theory of allostasis and its relationship with the theory of homeostasis, as well as some neurophysiological aspects of allostatic systems, include autonomic regulation, which determine the relationship between the brain and the cardiovascular system. One of the aspects of allostatic regulation is heart rate variability, which reflects the state of the body’s plastic constants and their changes under space flight conditions.
Infants communicate physiological needs to caregivers and are sensitive to caregivers’ cues, with both dyadic partners integrating their brain and body functions. Though the autonomic functions that coordinate physiological dynamics during social interactions are emerging in infancy, they nonetheless support rich capacities for co-regulation even early in life. In this chapter, we elaborate on threat and safety communication in infant-caregiver interventions, demonstrate the role of autonomic function in integrating brain-body social coordination in caregiver and child, and describe how early experiences of co-regulation set the stage for psychosocial development through the life course.
Emotionally motivated behaviors rely on the coordinated activity of descending neural circuits involved in motor and autonomic functions. Using a pseudorabies (PRV) tract-tracing approach in typically behaving rats, our group previously identified descending premotor, presympathetic, and dual-labeled premotor-presympathetic populations throughout the central rostral-caudal axis. The premotor-presympathetic populations are thought to integrate somatomotor and sympathetic activity. To determine whether these circuits are dysregulated in subjects with altered emotional regulation, subsequent neuroanatomical analyses were performed in male subjects of two distinct genetic models relevant to clinical depression and anxiety: the Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rat and selectively bred Low Novelty Responder (bLR) rat. The present study explored alterations in premotor efferents from locus coeruleus (LC) and subdivisions of the periaqueductal grey (PAG), two areas involved in emotionally motivated behaviors. Compared to Sprague Dawley rats, WKY rats had significantly fewer premotor projections to hindlimb skeletal muscle from the LC and from the dorsomedial (DMPAG), lateral (LPAG), and ventrolateral (VLPAG) subdivisions of PAG. Relative to selectively bred High Novelty Responder (bHR) rats, bLR rats had significantly fewer premotor efferents from LC and dorsolateral PAG (DLPAG). Cumulatively, these results demonstrate that somatomotor circuitry in several brain areas involved in responses to stress and emotional stimuli are altered in rat models with depression-relevant phenotypes. These somatomotor circuit differences could be implicated in motor-related impairments in clinically depressed patients.
Cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction (CVAD) is a malfunction of the cardiovascular system caused by deranged autonomic control of circulatory homeostasis. CVAD is an important component of post-COVID-19 syndrome, also termed long COVID, and might affect one-third of highly symptomatic patients with COVID-19. The effects of CVAD can be seen at both the whole-body level, with impairment of heart rate and blood pressure control, and in specific body regions, typically manifesting as microvascular dysfunction. Many severely affected patients with long COVID meet the diagnostic criteria for two common presentations of CVAD: postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome and inappropriate sinus tachycardia. CVAD can also manifest as disorders associated with hypotension, such as orthostatic or postprandial hypotension, and recurrent reflex syncope. Advances in research, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, have identified new potential pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnostic methods and therapeutic targets in CVAD. For clinicians who daily see patients with CVAD, knowledge of its symptomatology, detection and appropriate management is more important than ever. In this Review, we define CVAD and its major forms that are encountered in post-COVID-19 syndrome, describe possible CVAD aetiologies, and discuss how CVAD, as a component of post-COVID-19 syndrome, can be diagnosed and managed. Moreover, we outline directions for future research to discover more efficient ways to cope with this prevalent and long-lasting condition.
Despite its vital importance for establishing proper cardiovascular function, the process through which the vasculature develops and matures postnatally remains poorly understood. From a clinical perspective, an ability to mechanistically model the developmental time course in arteries and veins, as well as to predict how various pathologies and therapeutic interventions alter the affected vessels, promises to improve treatment strategies and long-term clinical outcomes, particularly in pediatric patients suffering from congenital heart defects. In the present study, we conducted a multiscale investigation into the postnatal development of the murine thoracic aorta, examining key allometric relations as well as relationships between in vivo mechanical stresses, collagen and elastin expression, and the gradual accumulation of load-bearing constituents within the aortic wall. Our findings suggest that the production of fibrillar collagens in the developing aorta associates strongly with the ratio of circumferential stresses between systole and diastole, hence emphasizing the importance of a pulsatile mechanobiological stimulus. Moreover, rates of collagen turnover and elastic fiber compaction can be inferred directly by synthesizing transcriptional data and quantitative histological measurements of evolving collagen and elastin content. Consistent with previous studies, we also observed that wall shear stresses acting on the aorta are similar at birth and in maturity, supporting the hypothesis that at least some stress targets are established early in development and maintained thereafter, thus providing a possible homeostatic basis to guide future experiments and inform future predictive modeling.
Dendritic spine features in human neurons follow the up-to-date knowledge presented in the previous chapters of this book. Human dendrites are notable for their heterogeneity in branching patterns and spatial distribution. These data relate to circuits and specialized functions. Spines enhance neuronal connectivity, modulate and integrate synaptic inputs, and provide additional plastic functions to microcircuits and large-scale networks. Spines present a continuum of shapes and sizes, whose number and distribution along the dendritic length are diverse in neurons and different areas. Indeed, human neurons vary from aspiny or “relatively aspiny” cells to neurons covered with a high density of intermingled pleomorphic spines on very long dendrites. In this chapter, we discuss the phylogenetic and ontogenetic development of human spines and describe the heterogeneous features of human spiny neurons along the spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, thalamus, basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampal regions, and neocortical areas. Three-dimensional reconstructions of Golgi-impregnated dendritic spines and data from fluorescence microscopy are reviewed with ultrastructural findings to address the complex possibilities for synaptic processing and integration in humans. Pathological changes are also presented, for example, in Alzheimer’s disease and schizophrenia. Basic morphological data can be linked to current techniques, and perspectives in this research field include the characterization of spines in human neurons with specific transcriptome features, molecular classification of cellular diversity, and electrophysiological identification of coexisting subpopulations of cells. These data would enlighten how cellular attributes determine neuron type-specific connectivity and brain wiring for our diverse aptitudes and behavior.
Animals perform flexible goal-directed behaviours to satisfy their basic physiological needs1–12. However, little is known about how unitary behaviours are chosen under conflicting needs. Here we reveal principles by which the brain resolves such conflicts between needs across time. We developed an experimental paradigm in which a hungry and thirsty mouse is given free choices between equidistant food and water. We found that mice collect need-appropriate rewards by structuring their choices into persistent bouts with stochastic transitions. High-density electrophysiological recordings during this behaviour revealed distributed single neuron and neuronal population correlates of a persistent internal goal state guiding future choices of the mouse. We captured these phenomena with a mathematical model describing a global need state that noisily diffuses across a shifting energy landscape. Model simulations successfully predicted behavioural and neural data, including population neural dynamics before choice transitions and in response to optogenetic thirst stimulation. These results provide a general framework for resolving conflicts between needs across time, rooted in the emergent properties of need-dependent state persistence and noise-driven shifts between behavioural goals.
Effects of a specific factor on fear extinction or exposure therapy have revealed promising results, for example how sex or stress hormones exert the capability to critically change extinction learning and consolidation processes. However, we must acknowledge that in real life these factors do not operate in isolation, they go hand in hand. In this chapter, the available evidence regarding interactions of sex and stress hormones on extinction processes and exposure therapy will be integrated and discussed. First hints exist that these factors in combination critically target extinction learning and consolidation processes, calling for more detailed research on the exact underlying mechanisms. In addition to experiments with high sample sizes, we must aim for a collaborative effort of laboratories across the whole world to be able to identify critical combinations of factors associated with improved, but also impaired extinction processes and exposure therapy success. We expect that the revelation of further relevant factors will not only be limited to the interplay between sex and stress hormones but will include factors such as sleep and exercise as well. In the long run, uncovering the most important interaction effects will give us critical hints for differential treatment options to be realized in the sense of a personalized medicine approach.KeywordsCortisolExposure therapyFear conditioningMenstrual cycleOral contraceptives
The nature of biological autonomy and the choice of an appropriate framework for understanding it are subjects of ongoing debates in philosophy of biology and cognitive science. The enactivist view, originating with Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela, emphasizes the concepts of organizational or operational closure and structural coupling between the organism and its environment as central in the context of autonomy. The proponents of this view contrast it with the traditional cybernetic paradigm based on inputs, outputs, feedback, and internal representations. This essay takes a synoptic view of the relevant issues and situates them in the context of modern theory of systems and control, in particular the behavioral approach developed by Jan Willems. It is argued that the behavioral approach, which favors a fairly liberal notion of control as interconnection without any prefigured designation of inputs and outputs, provides a more fruitful background for understanding and modeling of biological autonomy.
Susceptibility generally refers to a person’s vulnerability to developing a disease. The physical factors involved are numerous, of a genetic nature, such as dopamine receptors and serotonin receptors, of an endophenotypic nature, such as skin conductance and cortisol response, and a phenotypic character, such as temperament. Biological predisposition factors are intertwined with psychological factors. Identifying stress factors is complicated because the attribution of meaning is subjective and is linked to the personality structure of the individual patient and his or her personal life history.KeywordsPsychological stressSusceptibilityBiological predispositionStress
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