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31
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2): 31–46, 2016
© Royal Society of Western Australia 2016
Archaeological assessment of coastal and marine development sites: case
study from James Price Point, Western Australia
I WARD 1*, P LARCOMBE 2, A CARSON 3 & A LANE 4
1 School of Social Sciences, University of Western Australia, WA 6009 Australia
2 RPS MetOcean Pty Ltd., Jolimont, WA 6008 and School of Earth and Environment,
University of Western Australia WA 6009, Australia
3 Western Australia Museum, Welshpool, WA 6106, Australia
4 C/- Piers Larcombe at RPS MetOcean Pty Ltd., Jolimont, WA 6008, Australia
* Corresponding author ingrid.ward@uwa.edu.au
Abstract
This paper examines the prehistoric marine archaeological potential of relict shorelines o
James Price Point, northern Western Australia. In addition to previously registered midden and
intertidal sh-trap sites, archaeological excavation at James Price Point has provided evidence of
coastal exploitation from at least 5 ky BP. In the adjacent marine environment are well-preserved
drowned shoreline sediments, that form at least two series of north - south trending linear features
with relief of up to 5 m of more above the surrounding seabed, at elevations of - 15 m and - 8 m
respectively, which may date to ~ 9 ky BP and ~ 6 ky BP respectively. The submerged shorelines
are associated with four main depositional environments, of which, ‘lagoon inll’ and ‘fossil
intertidal ats’ have the highest preservation potential and highest archaeological potential. This
palaeogeography has signicant geoheritage value and systematic investigation of these features
is likely to contribute to our understanding of early maritime adaptation and resource use in this
region.
KEYWORDS: submerged landscapes, palaeoshorelines, geoheritage, prehistoric marine cultural
heritage, James Price Point
INTRODUCTION
The Archaeological Potential of Submerged Areas
With the rapid expansion of marine industrial
developments in many regions of the globe, a key
challenge is to maximise the opportunities for research
to support collaborative monitoring and management
of known and potential archaeological sites (Evans et
al. 2009; Firth, 2015; Flemming 2004; Ward et al. 2014a).
In Australia there has been lile conceptual or practical
understanding of the potential impacts of marine
development activities (e.g. ports and harbours) upon the
largely unknown prehistoric marine resource. Further,
the limited statutory framework for marine prehistoric
cultural resources means the need for research is even
more acute (Kamoot 2014; Staniforth 2007). This major
knowledge gap in submerged cultural potential is
perhaps most apparent o Western Australia where some
of the biggest marine developments are occurring and
where we now have some of the oldest records of coastal
occupation, extending back some 50,000 years (Veth et al.
2014; Veth & O’Connor 2013).
Information from drowned sedimentary deposits can
provide valuable information about past environments,
past sea levels and associated past cultures (Bailey 2014;
Benjamin et al. 2011; Flemming 2004). Models designed
to examine the potential archaeology of submerged
landscapes include theoretical (Chapman & Lillie 2004;
Fischer 2004) and technological approaches (Gaffney
et al. 2007; 2009; Mahon et al. 2011; Webster 2008).
Geoarchaeological approaches use the associations
between different landforms and different types of
archaeological and/or environmental remains (e.g.
Howard and Macklin 1999; Rapp and Hill 1998) to
estimate of the potential presence of submerged
archaeological deposits (Gagliano et al. 1982; Ward and
Larcombe 2008). This in turn has lead to the development
of Indicative Maps of Archaeological Potential or Values
(IMAP; Deeben 2009). Such maps are used to indicate
those specific areas of the coastal and marine zone
interpreted as having relatively low, medium or high
potential for the presence of archaeological remains in
primary and secondary depositional contexts, i.e. in
situ or re-deposited (see also Cohen et al. 2014; Ward &
Larcombe 2008). Delineating boundaries within IMAPs
requires assessment of both the nature of the depositional
environments as likely sites of occupation and/or
concentrations of archaeological artefacts (Deeben 2009),
together with consideration of any post-depositional
modication processes (Rowland & Ulm 2012; Ward et al.
2015).
Embedded within the established regional
geoarchaeological understanding (Ward et al., 2013,
2014b, 2015), this paper applies a geomorphically-based
approach to assess the archaeological potential of a small
(15 km x 40 km) submerged area o northwest Australia,
namely the former gas hub development area of James
Price Point, near Broome, on the southern Kimberley
32
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
coast. This assessment is necessarily based on an
interpretation of (i) the available geological, bathymetric
and sedimentary data, including the past and present
sedimentary processes and (ii) existing archaeological
information, including the known and likely past human
use of terrestrial and coastal environments both of which
are outlined below. The aim of this assessment is to show
the considerable potential for prehistoric marine heritage
with the potential to address specic questions of early
maritime adaptation (Ward et al. 2014b; 2015), and where
to focus any future research eorts.
GEOLOGY, BATHYMETRY AND
SEDIMENTOLOGY
Regional seing
The continental shelf fringing northwestern Australia
forms an expansive shallow marine environment with
a tropical to sub-tropical oceanographic regime, rich
carbonate production and low terrestrial sediment
supply. In the region of James Price Point, the shelf
is broad (100 – 250 km), has relatively low relief and
grades gently into the upper slope at depths of 100 – 150
m (Picard et al. 2014). Throughout the Pleistocene, the
Leveque Shelf and adjacent North West Shelf (Figure 1)
have been subject to long periods of sub-aerial exposure
at low-stands of sea level. During the Last Glacial
Maximum (LGM), sea level in region was 100 – 130 m
lower than present, and most of the shelf would have
been emergent (Lewis et al. 2013; Yokoyama et al. 2000).
The prolonged low-stand conditions during the LGM
appear to have formed a shelf-wide terrace backed by
a 30 m high ridge, now located ~125 m below sea level
(James et al. 2004). Representing the ancient coastline,
this ridge is clearly evident on bathymetric surveys of the
North West Shelf (WAMSI 2008).
Figure 1. Map of Browse Basin and Leveque Shelf (© Commonwealth of Australia, Geoscience Australia 2015. This
product is released under the Creative Commons Aribution 3.0 Australia Licence. hp://creativecommons.org/licences/
by/3.0/au/deed.en).
33
Modern sedimentary processes on the continental
shelf include transport by fast tidal currents and episodic
cyclone-associated ows (Collins 2011). Coastal areas
bordering the Leveque Shelf host strong, semi-diurnal
tidal currents, and maximum tidal ranges over 10 m
(Picard et al. 2014). The Kimberley region experiences
frequent tropical lows, with an average of three per year
(Lough 1998) producing strong onshore winds, enhanced
wave energy and storm surges that inuence the coastal
geomorphology (Elliot & Elliot 2008). Despite this,
undisturbed archaeological material both on and behind
the cliff-top at Cape Leveque indicate long periods
of stability (> 800 years) at least on some parts of this
Kimberley coast (Barham & O’Connor 2007).
James Price Point (JPP)
The coastal geomorphology at James Price Point is
characterised by a mixture of narrow beaches and rocky
shores, with intertidal reef platforms of lithied coastal
sediments, small spits and coastal dunes driven by the
prevailing south-westerly winds, and adjacent Holocene
terrestrial dunes (Eliot & Eliot 2008). To the south, these
features give way to low-lying coastal dunes (Shoonta
Hill sand; Semeniuk 2008), whilst to the north lie eroding
clis of red sand (Mowanjum Sand; Semeniuk 1980),
locally termed ‘Pindan’ (Lowe 2003). There is lile uvial
sediment supply to James Price Point or the wider area,
but wet-season rain drains across the coastal ridges
and foredunes to the ocean through narrow ephemeral
channels (Eureka 2010; Kenneally et al. 1996) or as
subsurface seepage under the Mowanjum Sand (Mathews
et al. 2011).
At JPP, the intertidal zone is generally rocky
(predominantly coastal limestone) with patches of reef
and wide (< 1 km) areas of intertidal sand ats, with
weathered Broome Sandstone exposed in places at very
low tides. The subtidal zone is generally shallow, with a
complex conguration inuenced by a series of exposed
cemented relict shoreline features, scoured sub-tidal
channels and elds of large, albeit low mobile, south-
facing sand waves (Figures 2– 4). The seabed sediments
are generally sands of mixed terrigenous and biogenic
composition, with carbonate content increasing oshore.
Re-deposition occurs through regular transportation by
strong, shore-parallel tidal currents. Measured in 34 m
of water o JPP, spring tidal current speeds regularly
aain 0.55 m/s near the bed and 0.8 m at the surface
(RPS MetOcean 2012). Closer to shore, in 18 m of water,
near-bed currents are typically 0.5 – 0.55 m/s at spring
tides and able to mobilise the sandy sediments. During
cyclones, current speed can be greatly enhanced. During
Cyclone Laurence (December 2009), in 18 m of water,
peak ows aained >1.15 m/s at the surface and 0.92 m/s
near the bed, owing to the south and south-south east
along the shelf. Under these ow conditions, much of
the seabed would have been in transport, redistributing
much shell midden material and small stone artefacts,
whilst less mobile stone tools might be buried below
sand.
Seabed sedimentary features are key to understanding
the geological seing and features, and the Holocene
evolution of an area, and necessarily underpin
an assessment of archaeological potential. Recent
information on the North West Shelf (e.g. Hengesh et
al. 2011, 2012; Picard et al. 2014) contributes to regional
knowledge. High-resolution survey data, including Light
Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data (Figure 2) indicates
the presence of an array of submerged features (Figure 3).
Together with available information on the sedimentary
sequences and the coastal geology (DSD 2010a; 2010b;
Eliot & Eliot 2008; GSWA 2009; Semeniuk 2008), this helps
to delineate four main types of sedimentary deposits or
features as a useful basis for assessing prehistoric marine
archaeological potential. These are:
• Coastal Limestone – relict reef, probably dating
from the last interglacial (Marine Isotope Stage 5,
MIS 5). (Figure 2, and labelled as ‘nearshore rock’
in Figure 3).
• Palaeoshorelines – A series of coast-parallel
features, including cemented carbonate dune and
coastal deposits. The two main fossil shorelines
(Figure 2) are here referred to as the -8 m and -15
m shorelines, relating roughly to mean sea level
(MSL), to allow relatively easy comparison with
the bathymetric datasets and images (MIS 1/2).
• Fossil Intertidal Flats – smooth and low-gradient
areas landwards of the outer palaeoshoreline
(Figure 2).
• Lagoon Infill – an infilled shore-parallel basin
between the coastline and -15 m palaeoshoreline
(labelled ‘Marine Sands’ in Figure 4) containing
sediments up to 11 m thick (MIS 1/2).
EXISTING ARCHAEOLOGICAL
INFORMATION
Regional archaeological context
Early Aboriginal occupation on the west Kimberley
coast is documented at Widgingarri 1 (from c. 50 ky BP)
on the mainland (Veth & O’Connor 2013) and Koolan
Shelter 2 in the Bucaneer Archipelago (from 27.3 ky BP,
O’Connor 1999). The presence of shellsh remains and
shell artefacts dated to between 28 – 26 ky BP at these
sites indicates early exploitation and use of marine
resources by Aboriginal people (O’Connor 1999; Veth
& O’Connor 2013). Between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago,
as coastlines and islands formed following sea level
rise, previously abandoned rockshelter sites were re-
occupied and new coastal sites occupied for the rst time
(O’Connor 1999). This rapid selement of new coastlines
and islands indicates that people had been living along
the Pleistocene coast with well-developed maritime
economies and following the rising sea (O’Connor 1999).
A mid- to late Holocene sequence of dated middens
and cheniers from Cape Leveque to Roebuck Plains
indicates continuing Aboriginal occupation of the
coastal zone through 6,000 years of coastal progradation
(O’Connor & Sullivan 1994; Smith 1987; 1997). South of
Broome, shell middens yield dates between 3 and 1 ky BP
(O’Connor and Veth 1993). The presence of aked glass
and historical material at a number of sites indicates that
occupation of these places continued at least until the
contact period and beyond (O’Connor & Veth 1993).
Archaeological sites on the Dampier Peninsula are
concentrated on the resource-rich coastal margins,
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
34
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
Figure 2. Surface topography and nearshore bathymetric image o JPP, showing detail of: le – the series of parallel N-S
lineations of the -15 m shoreline; centre – the relatively at smooth sea bed of the ‘lagoon’, and; central right – the NW-
SSE shore-parallel lineations of the -8 m shoreline. The modern shoreline shows a rocky low intertidal zone, active upper
beach, active and vegetated dunes, and blowouts. The Mowanjum Sand or ‘Pindan’ plain is located immediately to its
landward (from DSD 2010a, Fig.1–8).
35
Figure 3. Main interpreted subtidal features in the James Price Point area, based on Figure 2 (sourced from DSD 2010a,
Fig. 1–9). Line A–B marks location of section of Figure 4.
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
36
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
Figure 4. Simplied conceptual vertical cross-section across the coastline developed from the bathymetric survey, four
geotechnical boreholes (three to ~20–22 m below seabed, one to 7 m) and some seismic reection survey results (not
to scale; DSD 2010, Fig. 1–6). Coastal limestone is also inferred to occur in places within the lagoon inll but is not
illustrated here. Boreholes indicated the Pindan comprised reworked ne and sometimes silty red brown sand. and the
basal Broome Formation was represented by weathered very weak sandstone.
with major campsites located within 2 km of the ocean
(Smith 1987:43). The vast majority of recorded coastal
sites are shell middens, which vary greatly in location,
size, density and the types of shell species exploited.
The middens tend to occur on both Holocene dunes and
low clis of ferruginous red sands and soils (Mowanjum
Sands), in deated sedimentary environments and in
stratied deposits.
Invariably they include shellfish remains such as
mangrove/mudat species Terebralia sp. and Anadara sp.,
and/or rocky intertidal species, such as snail (Nerita sp.,
Turbo sp.), murex (Hexaplex sp.), Trochus sp, clams (Barbatia
sp.), oyster (Saccostrea sp.) and baler shell (Melo amphora).
The remains of other marine species such as sh, turtle and
dugong also occur (Smith 1997; O’Connor & Veth 1993).
A number of well-known silcrete quarries occurs
along the west coast of Dampier Peninsula, and many of
the shell middens in the south west Kimberley contain
stone artefacts (Akerman 1975; Akerman & Bindon 1984).
Specialised tools found elsewhere in the Kimberley,
such as tula and burren adzes used for wood-working,
are largely absent on the Dampier Peninsula (Akerman
& Bindon 1984). These are replaced by specialised
tools made of shell, including shell adzes, spoons and
anvils used to process shellsh, as well as a variety of
exotic lithic materials sourced o the peninsula. Further
evidence of a exible coastal-economy is the presence
of 39 late-Holocene stonewall sh traps identied along
the Dampier coastline (Smith 1997). In the vicinity of
Bidyadanga (La Grange) and on the northern Dampier
Peninsula, these structures extend for hundreds of
metres, and are amongst the largest anthropogenic
intertidal structures in Australasia. More sh traps and
stone-wall structures may be found by further survey of
rocky headlands and intertidal rocky outcrops at low tide
(Smith 1997: 20). Clearly, similar structures might exist
below the present low tide mark.
Local coastal archaeology
In pre-European Australia, Aboriginal people made
extensive use of the James Price Point area, including
as a locally important resource area and water source
(Smith 1997:46). The area forms a part of an extensive
song-cycle, which stretches along the coast from Roebuck
Bay to Coulomb Point, 10 km north of James Price Point
(Bradshaw & Fry 1989; Roe & Muecke 1983). Notably, the
traditions of the local Jabirr Jabirr people – whose lands
encompass James Price Point – extend to the adjacent
waters and include oshore features that are visible
several kilometres away (Leo 2012). The 2015 Department
of Aboriginal Aairs (DAA) Register of Aboriginal Sites
indicated a number of multi-component archaeological
and ethnographic sites, within a 20 km (N-S) x 10 km
(E-W) area surrounding the development area. These
include mythological and ceremonial sites (12), midden/
artefact scaers (21), two quarries, two sh-trap sites and
a water source. The two sh traps, Kardilakan-Jajal (DAA
Site ID 13504) and Yaljarriny-Gardarlargun (DAA Site ID
13076, previously Waldamany) (Figure 5) constitute the
only known prehistoric cultural sites in the intertidal
parts of the development area. Three of the Aboriginal
shell midden sites, Yaljarriny-Gardarlargun (DAA Site
37
ID 13076), Kundandu (‘Gardarlagun-South’, DAA Site
ID 12902) and Inballal Karnbor (DAA Site ID 12864) are
located within the coastal dunes of the development area,
and other sites within 2 – 3 km of the development area
include Ngarrimarran Junu Quarry (‘Yaljarriny-Guumbar’,
DAA Site ID 12900) and Murrjal (DAA Site ID 12903)
(Table 1).
Midden sites range from small, discrete concentrations
of stone artefacts and shell material (dinner-time
camps), to large multi-component sites extending for
kilometres along the coast. Shell middens typically
contain a wide range of shellsh species that are found
in the adjacent rocky/intertidal environs. Most sites
are located in blowouts in the Holocene dunes (Table
3) where accumulations of stone artefacts and shell
material, probably representing repeated human visits,
are exposed by (episodic) deation of stratied deposits.
The middens’ stone artefacts are mostly manufactured
from locally available silcrete and are dominated by
unmodied akes, grinding material. Hammerstones,
anvils and hearth features are common. Quarry sites are
more common on the clis that cut into the Mowanjum
Sand, with outcrops of high-quality silcrete suitable for
Table 1. List of registered DIA sites (at 2012) and new unregistered sites (Eureka, 2012) at James Price Point. All are
terrestrial or coastal. As of 2015, only the Waldaman site remains a registered site.
DIA ID no. Site name Site aributes
12864 Inballal Karnbor Ceremonial, Mythological
12900 Ngarrimarran Junu Quarry Quarry, Artefacts /scaer
12902 Kundandu Mythological, Artefacts/scaer, Midden/scaer
12903 Murrjal Mythological, Artefacts/scaer, Midden/scaer
13076 Waldaman (Yaljarriny-Gardarlagun) Skeletal material/Burial, Fish Trap, Artefacts/ scaer, Midden/scaer
13504 Kardilakan - Jajal Ceremonial, Mythological, Fish Trap, Artefacts /scaer, Midden/scaer
Not registered Shell Scaer 1 Midden/scaer
Not registered Silcrete Quarry Site Low silcrete outcrop with artefacts
Not registered Baler Artefact Site (salvaged May 2011) Broken baler shell artefact and scaer
Table 2. Dated AMS measurements for shell material
from Waldaman Site (DIA Site ID 13076). Dates, sourced
from Eureka 2012, are calibrated at 2 standard deviations
(95%) using the Marine Calibration with a regional oset
(delta R) of 54 ± 30 based on Squire et al. (2013).
Material Lab code Depth Radio- Calibrated
dated (cm) carbon age (BP)
age
Muricadae sp. Wk-31557 4 1385 ± 25 BP 772 - 958
Muricadae sp. Wk-31558 5 1861 ± 25 BP 1271 - 1463
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31559 0 1396 ± 26 BP 778 - 971
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31560 18 1772 ± 27 BP 1180 - 1349
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31561 100 1876 ± 25 BP 1281 - 1477
Haliotis sp. Wk-31562 40 1757 ± 28 BP 1173 - 1334
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31563 100 2486 ± 25 BP 1941 - 2202
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31564 300 4537 ± 25 BP 4546 - 4803
Figure 5. Photo of Yaljarriny-Gardarlargun sh trap exposed at low tide (scale bar is 1 m).
tool stone. Lenses of shell and artefacts are also visible
in cli sections but dense grasses and scrub growing on
the cli tops typically obscure surface archaeological
material. Surveys also identified an additional shell
midden site, a silcrete quarry and a baler-shell artefact
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
38
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
Figure 6. Location of Waldaman excavation at James Price Point. The series of shell lenses in the cli face date from ~ 5 ky
BP,~ 2 ky BP and ~ 1 ky BP respectively up the prole.
site, located 1.6 km, 6 km and 9.6 km respectively inland
on the sand sheets (Eureka 2012).
A sample of Turbo sp. collected in 1988 from an in situ
lens of shell at 50–100 cm below the surface of Mowanjum
Sands immediately north of James Price Point yielded a
radiocarbon age of 989 – 1282 cal. BP (SUA 2826; Smith
1987). A 1 x 1 m excavation, undertaken in 2012 for the
Browse project and within the Yaljarriny-Gardarlagun site,
focused on the cli edge than 200 m south of this rst
dated shell lens (Figure 6). Although the basal occupation
layer was not reached, an oyster shell (Saccostrea sp.) from
~3 m below the surface yielded a radiocarbon age range
of 4.8 – 4.5 cal. ky BP (Wk-31564) (Table 2) and indicates
use of the site for around the last 5,000 years or more
(Eureka 2012). Radiocarbon dating of other shell material,
presumably representing food remains, including
oyster (Saccostrea sp.), abalone (Haliotis spp.) and murex
(Muricidae sp.) from shallower deposits ranged in age
from 1.0 – 0.8 ky BP (Wk-31557) to 2.3 –1.9 ky BP (Wk-
31563). These dates correspond well with other midden
scaers on the south west Kimberley coast (O’Connor &
Veth 1993; O’Connor & Sullivan 1994; Smith 1987), and
indicate the exploitation of the coastal zone around James
Price Point from at least the middle to late Holocene.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN IMAP FOR JAMES
PRICE POINT
The following describes the prehistoric marine
archaeological potential of the James Price Point area
(see also Figure 7; Table 3). In the absence of an absolute
chronology for the different landform units in the
development area, the assessment of relative age for any
associated potential archaeology is based on available
geological and stratigraphic information (DSD 2010a, b;
Eliot & Eliot 2008; Lessa & Masselink 2006).
Coastal Limestone (archaeological potential = low-
medium)
Here we use the term coastal limestone to describe
hard cemented features not obviously related to a
drowned bathymetric palaeoshoreline feature. Such
coastal limestones are sandy coastal sediments of mixed
composition but dominated by carbonate grains, which
have been cemented by groundwater carbonates, forming
beachrock in the case of the intertidal zone. Generally
around 1 m thick, tThe coastal limestone’s primary
location is near the modern shoreline (labelled the
‘nearshore rock’ of Figure 3), but also occurs in places
39
Figure 7. IMAP for shallow marine area oshore from James Price Point, showing areas of relatively low (coastal
limestone), medium (palaeoshoreline) and high (lagoon) archaeological potential. Refer text for detail.
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
40
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
Table 3. Inferred archaeological association within terrestrial, coastal and marine depositional environments at James Price Point (JPP).
Landform or Inferred Sediments Archaeological Known sites Preservation Archaeological Observed local archaeology and/or
sedimentary age association (DAA Site ID) potential potential related archaeological evidence
feature and/or isolated nds
Mowanjum Sand Quaternary Ferruginous quartz Primary Both High Medium Discrete stone artefacts and stone and
(‘Pindan’) sand Pleistocene sand with pisoliths, (Geotech Scaer shell scaers recorded in Pindan sand
sheets minor clay not registered) sheets, subsurface nds identied
through test-piing
Creeks Quaternary Mostly ferruginous Secondary Isolated nds Low Medium Discrete artefacts recorded in
Pleistocene quartz sand ephemeral creeks near Quondong Point
(Fig. 1)
Mowanjum Sand Quaternary Ferruginous quartz Primary Both Low-medium High Lenses of shell and artefacts observed
(‘Pindan’) clis Pleistocene sand, minor clay (e.g. ID12427, 12900, in Pindan clis at and to the north of
13076) JPP.
Aeolian dune Quaternary Carbonate and Primary, Both Medium High Numerous middens recorded in
system Holocene siliceous shelly sand Secondary (e.g. ID13076, 12901, deated and stratied deposits in
12902, 12903, 13504) dunes along many parts of the west
Kimberley coast.
Sandy beach Quaternary Carbonate and Secondary Isolated nds Low Low Isolated artefacts (from clis and dune
Holocene siliceous shelly sand middens) observed on the beach north
and south of JPP.
Intertidal ats Lower Cretaceous Cemented sandstone Primary and Sites (e.g. ID 13076, Medium Medium One registered sh trap at James Price
Broome Secondary 13504) Point, other known and registered sh
Sandstone traps along West Kimberley coast.
Coastal limestone Pleistocene Cemented carbonate Secondary Isolated nds in beach Variable Low-medium Cemented artefacts in beach rock
(Last rock north of JPP (e.g. Cawthra &Uken 2012).
Interglacial)
Palaeoshoreline Early Holocene Carbonate and Secondary Both Medium-high Low-medium Cemented artefacts in fossil dunes (e.g.
siliceous shelly sand Dortch &Hesp 1994; Cann et al 1991.)
Fossil intertidal Early Holocene Rock platform Secondary Both Medium-high High Known foraging area (e.g. O’Connor &
ats Veth 1993, Smith 1997).
Lagoon inll Early Holocene Carbonate and Primary and Isolated nds High High Natural ‘sink’ for eroded artefacts
siliceous shelly sand Secondary
41
as part of the drowned palaeoshorelines and within the
lagoon-inll sequence, the laer inferred from areas of
relatively strong seismic reections on the sub-boom
geophysical proles. Fluctuations in the position of the
coastline, and associated changes in the water table,
can produce an asynchronous beachrock deposit into
which archaeological material might become cemented
(e.g. Cawthra & Uken 2012; Dortch & Hesp 1994)
sometimes very rapidly (e.g. Friedman 1998). The overall
archaeological preservation potential depends very much
on cementation and post-drowning marine erosion, and
so such beachrock deposits are likely to contain discrete
low-density or isolated artefacts.
Palaeoshorelines (archaeological potential = low-
medium)
With changes in relative sea level, the location of
associated shorelines also changes. Over time, climatic
and sedimentological conditions, such as sub-aerial
exposure, may allow preservation of palaeoshorelines,
including possible combinations of (cemented) beach
deposits, beach ridges and coastal dunes. Drowned
palaeoshorelines o James Price Point form at least two
series of north - south trending linear features with relief
of up to 5 m of more above the surrounding seabed, at
elevations of - 15 m and - 8 m respectively (Figure 2).
Based on relative sea level curves (e.g. Lambeck et al.
2014) and ignoring the relatively minor changes in tidal
range over the late transgression (see Ward et al. 2013),
these fossil shorelines may date to ~ 9 ky BP and ~ 6
ky BP respectively. Thus, regardless of any associated
archaeology, this series of palaeoshorelines, with
excellent seabed expression, is itself of high geological,
palaeogeomorphological and sea-level signicance.
In parts, the linear palaeoshorelines at JPP and their
re-curved ends closely resemble modern barriers, tidal
inlets and marshy back-barrier areas (Figure 8). Close
to the modern shoreline, particularly north of James
Price Point and near Coulomb Point, complex lineations
occur which suggest a cuspate shoreline once extended
into a semi-protected lagoon or occurred behind a
barrier island. Both morphologies are typical of barrier
spits that occur where there is an abundant supply of
sediment and high rates of longshore transport (Davis &
Fitzgerald 2009). As evidenced by archaeological sites on
the contemporary coast, these shorelines might have been
places dinner-time camps occurred, with consumption
of food collected from the adjacent intertidal and
lagoon environments. On the landward side of the
coastal dune system, preservation of any midden, stone
artefact or other archaeological deposits would depend
on burial and/or cementation by aeolian processes
(e.g. Dortch & Hesp 1994), and on the seaward side by
beach accretion and cementation (e.g. Cann et al. 1991).
The long-term preservation potential of such shoreline
deposits (taken as a whole) is medium-high, with a low-
medium archaeological potential, mostly of material in a
secondary depositional context, i.e. redeposited.
Fossil intertidal ats (archaeological potential = high)
Just north of Coulomb Point and immediately landward
of the -15 m palaeoshoreline occur low-gradient relatively
smooth platforms (Figure 2). These platforms probably
represent a range of intertidal and back-barrier deposits,
including reef ats, inlled tidal creeks, salt-marshes and/
or salt-ats. Such resource-rich environments were once
(e.g. O’Connor & Veth 1993; Smith 1997) and continue
to be exploited by humans for a range of traditional
marine activities (Bradley 2010). This is an area where
sh-trap or stone weirs and midden deposits may be
found, as they are now in the contemporary intertidal
and adjacent coast around James Price Point. Such back-
barrier intertidal deposits typically represent relatively
Figure 8. Schematic diagram showing the typical development of a recurved spit, behind which exists a salt marsh, which
would have provided a focal area for procurement of intertidal and marine resources by past occupants.
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
42
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
low-energy environments and have probably been largely
undisturbed since their accumulation. Overall, these
deposits have both high archaeological potential and
medium-high preservation potential.
Lagoon inll (archaeological potential = high)
Between the -15 m and -8 m palaeoshorelines is a broad
area of bathymetrically relatively smooth sea bed,
with surface sediments of clean biogenic sands, rich in
foraminifers and, in places, formed into large sand waves
(Figure 2). Below much of this area lies between 0.25 m
and > 7 m of loose grey to light grey sands, quite uniform
in nature throughout the area, and probably of late
Holocene age (Figure 4). These sands represent the inll
of a fossil lagoon, which is a key unit in the inner-shelf
sedimentary succession because it may have changed
successively through time during the late parts of the
transgression (the last 7,000 years or so) from a brackish
or estuarine seing, to a fully marine seing, which
changes will have oered a wide range of exploitable
resources to past occupants.
There have been relatively few processes through
time which will have exported material in bulk from
this basin, so these sediments have a high preservation
potential for secondary artefacts transported by past and
present runo into the basin from the Pindan sand plain
into the zone to landward of the -15 m paleoshoreline
feature. Even today it is possible to see artefacts and
shell being eroded from the red dunes and transported
to the adjacent coast (Figure 9; see also Smith 1997:46).
Undisturbed archaeological material may also exist in
these complex lagoonal deposits, particularly if there
are any discrete patches of organic-rich sediments
in the sequence, because these would represent low
energy deposits, are least likely to be disturbed and may
preserve organic artefacts relatively well.
DISCUSSION
Preservation and signicance of relict landscapes
Awareness of submerged pre-European cultural potential
in Australia is slowly increasing (Staniforth 2007; Ward
et al. 2013; 2014b; 2015; Nutley 2014; Veth et al. 2014; see
also Gusick & Faught 2011), and is being aided by high-
quality marine data that makes drowned preserved relict
landscape features very apparent. Over the past decade,
palaeoshorelines have been mapped and identified
across a limited range of shelf seings, including the
outer Gulf of Mexico (Allee et al. 2012), Bermuda (Ilie
et al. 2011) and the Mediterranean (Passaro et al. 2011).
The interpretations made using the high-resolution
bathymetry at James Price Point clearly highlight the
presence of relict coastal landscapes here, in common
with their broader occurrence on the northwestern
continental shelf of Australia (see also Picard et al. 2014).
At a broad scale, a complex network of valleys, banks,
and terraces indicates a drowned terrestrial and coastal
landscape that allows for analogies to be made with
known archaeological sites on the contemporary coast.
Morphologically, the drowned valley systems strongly
resemble the modern estuarine complexes present along
Figure 9. Photo showing erosion and runo of material from the Mowanjum Sands into the intertidal zone at James Price
Point. Artefacts, possibly derived from within the Mowanjum Sands, were observed on these eroding surfaces.
43
the modern Kimberley coastline and, further, some of
the submarine bathymetric ridges are morphologically
similar to the beach-ridge coastal plains of northeastern
Australia (Semeniuk 2011; Short 2011). The stable
tectonic seing means that these submerged features
remain at depths that closely match the global sea-level
record (Brooke et al. 2010; 2014; Nichol & Brooke 2011).
Therefore, the area not only provides a unique record of
past sea-level change but also potentially of early human
coastal resource use in this northern corridor of Australia
(see Veth et al. 2014; Ward et al. 2013; 2014b; 2015).
The wide range of submerged sedimentary deposits
in the James Price Point region, each with relatively
unambiguous interpretation, represents a suite of
environments with the clear potential to contain
archaeological sites and artefacts, including those
pertaining to early coastal occupation. Specically, the
available submarine geological and bathymetric data
clearly indicate that a series of cemented palaeoshoreline
deposits are preserved on the seabed, potentially dating
(based on sea-level curves) between 9 ky and 6 ky BP
(Figure 2), which may also contain lithic or midden
deposits. Behind these are intertidal deposits and an
inlled lagoon, which are likely to have provided a rich
resource for past occupants when this area was exposed
and may now preserve archaeological material in either
primary or secondary depositional contexts.
The clear bathymetric expression of the fossil dunes
is partly a result of the low Holocene rates of sediment
accumulation on the shelf, both regionally (Collins
2011) and more locally, which has prevented their burial
beneath younger sediments. However, given the cyclone-
prone nature of the region, which can readily mobilise
sediments across northern Australia’s continental shelves
(Carter et al. 2009; Larcombe & Carter 2004; Larcombe
et al. 2014), their cemented nature is the key factor in
boosting archaeological potential because it will have
greatly increased the preservation and archaeological
potential not only of the palaeoshoreline deposits
themselves but also of those deposits (both primary and
secondary) to landward. Further, the clarity of resolution
of these submerged past environments, and their likely
archaeological potential means that, theoretically at least,
there might be the potential to compare artefacts from
equivalent deposits of dierent ages that might indicate
early maritime adaptions.
The geoheritage signicance of the Kimberley coast is
well-documented (Bronx and Semeniuk 2011), and the
fossil shorelines of James Price Point are by no means
unique – they merely form part of an extensive series
of palaeoshorelines of regional scale (Fairbridge 1964 in
Wyrwoll 1979:134; James et al. 2004; Semeniuk & Searle
1987). However, they are particularly well preserved
along the coastline around James Price Point, probably
in part due to the lack of supply and accumulation of
terrigenous sediments here throughout the Holocene.
This palaeogeography is sufficient to warrant the
area to be considered of signicant geoheritage value
(Bruno et al. 2014) and worthy of dedicated marine
archaeological investigation. High-resolution LIDAR
and 3D geophysical survey imagery is continuing to
reveal drowned fossil dune ridges and palaeoshoreline
sequences along much of the WA continental shelf,
including near Perth (Brooke et al. 2010; Semeniuk &
Searle 1987; Stul et al. 2015), at Ningaloo Reef (Collins
et al. 2003; Nichol et al. 2012; WAMSI 2008) and o Port
Hedland (BHP Billiton 2008). The clear implication is
that there is the potential for pre-European landscapes
and marine archaeological sites to be preserved over
many hundreds and possibly thousands of kilometres
of the WA continental shelf. Some of these may have an
archaeological (and palaeoenvireonmental) potential
equal or beer than JPP because they exist in a relatively
protected seing (e.g. within an archipelago) or have a
past or present riverine and oodplain around which
past occupants may have focused (e.g. Fortescue River)
and will have a similarly rich and early (> 10,000 yr old)
archaeological context.
Worldwide expansion of marine developments
(e.g. ports, harbours, windfarms) introduces a key
challenge to research our understanding of the potential
impacts of marine development activities on known
and potential prehistoric cultural resources (Evans et
al. 2009; Flemming 2004; Kamoot 2014; Staniforth 2007;
Ward et al. 2014a). This requires an eective exploration
of the key regional issues, including research to support
geoarchaeological assessments of marine sustainability
and marine cultural heritage management at the State,
Territory and National scales, recognising the dierences
in the cultural (McNiven 2003), physical (see Ward et al.
2015) and legislative (e.g. Buerley 2012; 2013) factors
relevant to dierent parts of the Australian coastline. Our
work indicates that there is much to be gained in terms of
‘pure’ and applied research by examining the preserved
drowned shorelines, and that effort might focus on
lagoon inll and fossil intertidal ats.
CONCLUSIONS
At James Price Point, northern Western Australia,
middens, intertidal fish-traps and archaeological
excavation at James Price Point provide evidence of
coastal exploitation from at least 5 ky BP. In the adjacent
marine environment are well-preserved drowned
shoreline sediments, which form at least two series
of north - south trending linear features with relief of
up to 5 m of more above the surrounding seabed, at
elevations of - 15 m and - 8 m respectively, which may
date to ~ 9 ky BP and ~ 6 ky BP respectively. Along
with lagoon and fossil intertidal landscapes, the well-
preserved drowned palaeoshoreline are of signicant
geoheritage value and also have very high archaeological
potential. The excellent preservation of relict shoreline
features along this and other parts of the northwest
Australian continental shelf and coastline highlights the
need for greater formal consideration of the submerged
prehistoric cultural heritage in marine and coastal
developments that is current lacking in the marine
statutory framework.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Kimberley Land Council and the State
Government for permission to use and publish, and
Geoscience Australia 2015 for Figure 1. Thanks also
to Ken Mulvaney and Joe Flatman for their helpful
comments on the paper, and David Haig for his review.
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
44
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
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