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Archaeological assessment of coastal and marine development sites: case study from James Price Point, Western Australia

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This paper examines the prehistoric marine archaeological potential of relict shorelines off James Price Point, northern Western Australia. In addition to previously registered midden and intertidal fish-trap sites, archaeological excavation at James Price Point has provided evidence of coastal exploitation from at least 5 ky BP. In the adjacent marine environment are well-preserved drowned shoreline sediments, that form at least two series of north - south trending linear features with relief of up to 5 m of more above the surrounding seabed, at elevations of - 15 m and - 8 m respectively, which may date to ~ 9 ky BP and ~ 6 ky BP respectively. The submerged shorelines are associated with four main depositional environments, of which, ‘lagoon infill’ and ‘fossil intertidal flats’ have the highest preservation potential and highest archaeological potential. This palaeogeography has significant geoheritage value and systematic investigation of these features is likely to contribute to our understanding of early maritime adaptation and resource use in this region.
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Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2): 31–46, 2016
© Royal Society of Western Australia 2016
Archaeological assessment of coastal and marine development sites: case
study from James Price Point, Western Australia
I WARD 1*, P LARCOMBE 2, A CARSON 3 & A LANE 4
1 School of Social Sciences, University of Western Australia, WA 6009 Australia
2 RPS MetOcean Pty Ltd., Jolimont, WA 6008 and School of Earth and Environment,
 University of Western Australia WA 6009, Australia
3 Western Australia Museum, Welshpool, WA 6106, Australia
4 C/- Piers Larcombe at RPS MetOcean Pty Ltd., Jolimont, WA 6008, Australia
* Corresponding author ingrid.ward@uwa.edu.au
Abstract
This paper examines the prehistoric marine archaeological potential of relict shorelines o
James Price Point, northern Western Australia. In addition to previously registered midden and
intertidal sh-trap sites, archaeological excavation at James Price Point has provided evidence of
coastal exploitation from at least 5 ky BP. In the adjacent marine environment are well-preserved
drowned shoreline sediments, that form at least two series of north - south trending linear features
with relief of up to 5 m of more above the surrounding seabed, at elevations of - 15 m and - 8 m
respectively, which may date to ~ 9 ky BP and ~ 6 ky BP respectively. The submerged shorelines
are associated with four main depositional environments, of which, ‘lagoon inll’ and ‘fossil
intertidal ats’ have the highest preservation potential and highest archaeological potential. This
palaeogeography has signicant geoheritage value and systematic investigation of these features
is likely to contribute to our understanding of early maritime adaptation and resource use in this
region.
KEYWORDS: submerged landscapes, palaeoshorelines, geoheritage, prehistoric marine cultural
heritage, James Price Point
INTRODUCTION
The Archaeological Potential of Submerged Areas
With the rapid expansion of marine industrial
developments in many regions of the globe, a key
challenge is to maximise the opportunities for research
to support collaborative monitoring and management
of known and potential archaeological sites (Evans et
al. 2009; Firth, 2015; Flemming 2004; Ward et al. 2014a).
In Australia there has been lile conceptual or practical
understanding of the potential impacts of marine
development activities (e.g. ports and harbours) upon the
largely unknown prehistoric marine resource. Further,
the limited statutory framework for marine prehistoric
cultural resources means the need for research is even
more acute (Kamoot 2014; Staniforth 2007). This major
knowledge gap in submerged cultural potential is
perhaps most apparent o Western Australia where some
of the biggest marine developments are occurring and
where we now have some of the oldest records of coastal
occupation, extending back some 50,000 years (Veth et al.
2014; Veth & O’Connor 2013).
Information from drowned sedimentary deposits can
provide valuable information about past environments,
past sea levels and associated past cultures (Bailey 2014;
Benjamin et al. 2011; Flemming 2004). Models designed
to examine the potential archaeology of submerged
landscapes include theoretical (Chapman & Lillie 2004;
Fischer 2004) and technological approaches (Gaffney
et al. 2007; 2009; Mahon et al. 2011; Webster 2008).
Geoarchaeological approaches use the associations
between different landforms and different types of
archaeological and/or environmental remains (e.g.
Howard and Macklin 1999; Rapp and Hill 1998) to
estimate of the potential presence of submerged
archaeological deposits (Gagliano et al. 1982; Ward and
Larcombe 2008). This in turn has lead to the development
of Indicative Maps of Archaeological Potential or Values
(IMAP; Deeben 2009). Such maps are used to indicate
those specific areas of the coastal and marine zone
interpreted as having relatively low, medium or high
potential for the presence of archaeological remains in
primary and secondary depositional contexts, i.e. in
situ or re-deposited (see also Cohen et al. 2014; Ward &
Larcombe 2008). Delineating boundaries within IMAPs
requires assessment of both the nature of the depositional
environments as likely sites of occupation and/or
concentrations of archaeological artefacts (Deeben 2009),
together with consideration of any post-depositional
modication processes (Rowland & Ulm 2012; Ward et al.
2015).
Embedded within the established regional
geoarchaeological understanding (Ward et al., 2013,
2014b, 2015), this paper applies a geomorphically-based
approach to assess the archaeological potential of a small
(15 km x 40 km) submerged area o northwest Australia,
namely the former gas hub development area of James
Price Point, near Broome, on the southern Kimberley
32
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
coast. This assessment is necessarily based on an
interpretation of (i) the available geological, bathymetric
and sedimentary data, including the past and present
sedimentary processes and (ii) existing archaeological
information, including the known and likely past human
use of terrestrial and coastal environments both of which
are outlined below. The aim of this assessment is to show
the considerable potential for prehistoric marine heritage
with the potential to address specic questions of early
maritime adaptation (Ward et al. 2014b; 2015), and where
to focus any future research eorts.
GEOLOGY, BATHYMETRY AND
SEDIMENTOLOGY
Regional seing
The continental shelf fringing northwestern Australia
forms an expansive shallow marine environment with
a tropical to sub-tropical oceanographic regime, rich
carbonate production and low terrestrial sediment
supply. In the region of James Price Point, the shelf
is broad (100 – 250 km), has relatively low relief and
grades gently into the upper slope at depths of 100 – 150
m (Picard et al. 2014). Throughout the Pleistocene, the
Leveque Shelf and adjacent North West Shelf (Figure 1)
have been subject to long periods of sub-aerial exposure
at low-stands of sea level. During the Last Glacial
Maximum (LGM), sea level in region was 100 – 130 m
lower than present, and most of the shelf would have
been emergent (Lewis et al. 2013; Yokoyama et al. 2000).
The prolonged low-stand conditions during the LGM
appear to have formed a shelf-wide terrace backed by
a 30 m high ridge, now located ~125 m below sea level
(James et al. 2004). Representing the ancient coastline,
this ridge is clearly evident on bathymetric surveys of the
North West Shelf (WAMSI 2008).
Figure 1. Map of Browse Basin and Leveque Shelf (© Commonwealth of Australia, Geoscience Australia 2015. This
product is released under the Creative Commons Aribution 3.0 Australia Licence. hp://creativecommons.org/licences/
by/3.0/au/deed.en).
33
Modern sedimentary processes on the continental
shelf include transport by fast tidal currents and episodic
cyclone-associated ows (Collins 2011). Coastal areas
bordering the Leveque Shelf host strong, semi-diurnal
tidal currents, and maximum tidal ranges over 10 m
(Picard et al. 2014). The Kimberley region experiences
frequent tropical lows, with an average of three per year
(Lough 1998) producing strong onshore winds, enhanced
wave energy and storm surges that inuence the coastal
geomorphology (Elliot & Elliot 2008). Despite this,
undisturbed archaeological material both on and behind
the cliff-top at Cape Leveque indicate long periods
of stability (> 800 years) at least on some parts of this
Kimberley coast (Barham & O’Connor 2007).
James Price Point (JPP)
The coastal geomorphology at James Price Point is
characterised by a mixture of narrow beaches and rocky
shores, with intertidal reef platforms of lithied coastal
sediments, small spits and coastal dunes driven by the
prevailing south-westerly winds, and adjacent Holocene
terrestrial dunes (Eliot & Eliot 2008). To the south, these
features give way to low-lying coastal dunes (Shoonta
Hill sand; Semeniuk 2008), whilst to the north lie eroding
clis of red sand (Mowanjum Sand; Semeniuk 1980),
locally termed ‘Pindan’ (Lowe 2003). There is lile uvial
sediment supply to James Price Point or the wider area,
but wet-season rain drains across the coastal ridges
and foredunes to the ocean through narrow ephemeral
channels (Eureka 2010; Kenneally et al. 1996) or as
subsurface seepage under the Mowanjum Sand (Mathews
et al. 2011).
At JPP, the intertidal zone is generally rocky
(predominantly coastal limestone) with patches of reef
and wide (< 1 km) areas of intertidal sand ats, with
weathered Broome Sandstone exposed in places at very
low tides. The subtidal zone is generally shallow, with a
complex conguration inuenced by a series of exposed
cemented relict shoreline features, scoured sub-tidal
channels and elds of large, albeit low mobile, south-
facing sand waves (Figures 2– 4). The seabed sediments
are generally sands of mixed terrigenous and biogenic
composition, with carbonate content increasing oshore.
Re-deposition occurs through regular transportation by
strong, shore-parallel tidal currents. Measured in 34 m
of water o JPP, spring tidal current speeds regularly
aain 0.55 m/s near the bed and 0.8 m at the surface
(RPS MetOcean 2012). Closer to shore, in 18 m of water,
near-bed currents are typically 0.5 – 0.55 m/s at spring
tides and able to mobilise the sandy sediments. During
cyclones, current speed can be greatly enhanced. During
Cyclone Laurence (December 2009), in 18 m of water,
peak ows aained >1.15 m/s at the surface and 0.92 m/s
near the bed, owing to the south and south-south east
along the shelf. Under these ow conditions, much of
the seabed would have been in transport, redistributing
much shell midden material and small stone artefacts,
whilst less mobile stone tools might be buried below
sand.
Seabed sedimentary features are key to understanding
the geological seing and features, and the Holocene
evolution of an area, and necessarily underpin
an assessment of archaeological potential. Recent
information on the North West Shelf (e.g. Hengesh et
al. 2011, 2012; Picard et al. 2014) contributes to regional
knowledge. High-resolution survey data, including Light
Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data (Figure 2) indicates
the presence of an array of submerged features (Figure 3).
Together with available information on the sedimentary
sequences and the coastal geology (DSD 2010a; 2010b;
Eliot & Eliot 2008; GSWA 2009; Semeniuk 2008), this helps
to delineate four main types of sedimentary deposits or
features as a useful basis for assessing prehistoric marine
archaeological potential. These are:
Coastal Limestone – relict reef, probably dating
from the last interglacial (Marine Isotope Stage 5,
MIS 5). (Figure 2, and labelled as ‘nearshore rock’
in Figure 3).
Palaeoshorelines – A series of coast-parallel
features, including cemented carbonate dune and
coastal deposits. The two main fossil shorelines
(Figure 2) are here referred to as the -8 m and -15
m shorelines, relating roughly to mean sea level
(MSL), to allow relatively easy comparison with
the bathymetric datasets and images (MIS 1/2).
Fossil Intertidal Flats – smooth and low-gradient
areas landwards of the outer palaeoshoreline
(Figure 2).
Lagoon Infill – an infilled shore-parallel basin
between the coastline and -15 m palaeoshoreline
(labelled ‘Marine Sands’ in Figure 4) containing
sediments up to 11 m thick (MIS 1/2).
EXISTING ARCHAEOLOGICAL
INFORMATION
Regional archaeological context
Early Aboriginal occupation on the west Kimberley
coast is documented at Widgingarri 1 (from c. 50 ky BP)
on the mainland (Veth & O’Connor 2013) and Koolan
Shelter 2 in the Bucaneer Archipelago (from 27.3 ky BP,
O’Connor 1999). The presence of shellsh remains and
shell artefacts dated to between 28 – 26 ky BP at these
sites indicates early exploitation and use of marine
resources by Aboriginal people (O’Connor 1999; Veth
& O’Connor 2013). Between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago,
as coastlines and islands formed following sea level
rise, previously abandoned rockshelter sites were re-
occupied and new coastal sites occupied for the rst time
(O’Connor 1999). This rapid selement of new coastlines
and islands indicates that people had been living along
the Pleistocene coast with well-developed maritime
economies and following the rising sea (O’Connor 1999).
A mid- to late Holocene sequence of dated middens
and cheniers from Cape Leveque to Roebuck Plains
indicates continuing Aboriginal occupation of the
coastal zone through 6,000 years of coastal progradation
(O’Connor & Sullivan 1994; Smith 1987; 1997). South of
Broome, shell middens yield dates between 3 and 1 ky BP
(O’Connor and Veth 1993). The presence of aked glass
and historical material at a number of sites indicates that
occupation of these places continued at least until the
contact period and beyond (O’Connor & Veth 1993).
Archaeological sites on the Dampier Peninsula are
concentrated on the resource-rich coastal margins,
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
34
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
Figure 2. Surface topography and nearshore bathymetric image o JPP, showing detail of: le – the series of parallel N-S
lineations of the -15 m shoreline; centre – the relatively at smooth sea bed of the ‘lagoon’, and; central right – the NW-
SSE shore-parallel lineations of the -8 m shoreline. The modern shoreline shows a rocky low intertidal zone, active upper
beach, active and vegetated dunes, and blowouts. The Mowanjum Sand or ‘Pindan’ plain is located immediately to its
landward (from DSD 2010a, Fig.1–8).
35
Figure 3. Main interpreted subtidal features in the James Price Point area, based on Figure 2 (sourced from DSD 2010a,
Fig. 1–9). Line A–B marks location of section of Figure 4.
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
36
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
Figure 4. Simplied conceptual vertical cross-section across the coastline developed from the bathymetric survey, four
geotechnical boreholes (three to ~20–22 m below seabed, one to 7 m) and some seismic reection survey results (not
to scale; DSD 2010, Fig. 1–6). Coastal limestone is also inferred to occur in places within the lagoon inll but is not
illustrated here. Boreholes indicated the Pindan comprised reworked ne and sometimes silty red brown sand. and the
basal Broome Formation was represented by weathered very weak sandstone.
with major campsites located within 2 km of the ocean
(Smith 1987:43). The vast majority of recorded coastal
sites are shell middens, which vary greatly in location,
size, density and the types of shell species exploited.
The middens tend to occur on both Holocene dunes and
low clis of ferruginous red sands and soils (Mowanjum
Sands), in deated sedimentary environments and in
stratied deposits.
Invariably they include shellfish remains such as
mangrove/mudat species Terebralia sp. and Anadara sp.,
and/or rocky intertidal species, such as snail (Nerita sp.,
Turbo sp.), murex (Hexaplex sp.), Trochus sp, clams (Barbatia
sp.), oyster (Saccostrea sp.) and baler shell (Melo amphora).
The remains of other marine species such as sh, turtle and
dugong also occur (Smith 1997; O’Connor & Veth 1993).
A number of well-known silcrete quarries occurs
along the west coast of Dampier Peninsula, and many of
the shell middens in the south west Kimberley contain
stone artefacts (Akerman 1975; Akerman & Bindon 1984).
Specialised tools found elsewhere in the Kimberley,
such as tula and burren adzes used for wood-working,
are largely absent on the Dampier Peninsula (Akerman
& Bindon 1984). These are replaced by specialised
tools made of shell, including shell adzes, spoons and
anvils used to process shellsh, as well as a variety of
exotic lithic materials sourced o the peninsula. Further
evidence of a exible coastal-economy is the presence
of 39 late-Holocene stonewall sh traps identied along
the Dampier coastline (Smith 1997). In the vicinity of
Bidyadanga (La Grange) and on the northern Dampier
Peninsula, these structures extend for hundreds of
metres, and are amongst the largest anthropogenic
intertidal structures in Australasia. More sh traps and
stone-wall structures may be found by further survey of
rocky headlands and intertidal rocky outcrops at low tide
(Smith 1997: 20). Clearly, similar structures might exist
below the present low tide mark.
Local coastal archaeology
In pre-European Australia, Aboriginal people made
extensive use of the James Price Point area, including
as a locally important resource area and water source
(Smith 1997:46). The area forms a part of an extensive
song-cycle, which stretches along the coast from Roebuck
Bay to Coulomb Point, 10 km north of James Price Point
(Bradshaw & Fry 1989; Roe & Muecke 1983). Notably, the
traditions of the local Jabirr Jabirr people – whose lands
encompass James Price Point – extend to the adjacent
waters and include oshore features that are visible
several kilometres away (Leo 2012). The 2015 Department
of Aboriginal Aairs (DAA) Register of Aboriginal Sites
indicated a number of multi-component archaeological
and ethnographic sites, within a 20 km (N-S) x 10 km
(E-W) area surrounding the development area. These
include mythological and ceremonial sites (12), midden/
artefact scaers (21), two quarries, two sh-trap sites and
a water source. The two sh traps, Kardilakan-Jajal (DAA
Site ID 13504) and Yaljarriny-Gardarlargun (DAA Site ID
13076, previously Waldamany) (Figure 5) constitute the
only known prehistoric cultural sites in the intertidal
parts of the development area. Three of the Aboriginal
shell midden sites, Yaljarriny-Gardarlargun (DAA Site
37
ID 13076), Kundandu (‘Gardarlagun-South’, DAA Site
ID 12902) and Inballal Karnbor (DAA Site ID 12864) are
located within the coastal dunes of the development area,
and other sites within 2 – 3 km of the development area
include Ngarrimarran Junu Quarry (‘Yaljarriny-Guumbar’,
DAA Site ID 12900) and Murrjal (DAA Site ID 12903)
(Table 1).
Midden sites range from small, discrete concentrations
of stone artefacts and shell material (dinner-time
camps), to large multi-component sites extending for
kilometres along the coast. Shell middens typically
contain a wide range of shellsh species that are found
in the adjacent rocky/intertidal environs. Most sites
are located in blowouts in the Holocene dunes (Table
3) where accumulations of stone artefacts and shell
material, probably representing repeated human visits,
are exposed by (episodic) deation of stratied deposits.
The middens’ stone artefacts are mostly manufactured
from locally available silcrete and are dominated by
unmodied akes, grinding material. Hammerstones,
anvils and hearth features are common. Quarry sites are
more common on the clis that cut into the Mowanjum
Sand, with outcrops of high-quality silcrete suitable for
Table 1. List of registered DIA sites (at 2012) and new unregistered sites (Eureka, 2012) at James Price Point. All are
terrestrial or coastal. As of 2015, only the Waldaman site remains a registered site.
DIA ID no. Site name Site aributes
12864 Inballal Karnbor Ceremonial, Mythological
12900 Ngarrimarran Junu Quarry Quarry, Artefacts /scaer
12902 Kundandu Mythological, Artefacts/scaer, Midden/scaer
12903 Murrjal Mythological, Artefacts/scaer, Midden/scaer
13076 Waldaman (Yaljarriny-Gardarlagun) Skeletal material/Burial, Fish Trap, Artefacts/ scaer, Midden/scaer
13504 Kardilakan - Jajal Ceremonial, Mythological, Fish Trap, Artefacts /scaer, Midden/scaer
Not registered Shell Scaer 1 Midden/scaer
Not registered Silcrete Quarry Site Low silcrete outcrop with artefacts
Not registered Baler Artefact Site (salvaged May 2011) Broken baler shell artefact and scaer
Table 2. Dated AMS measurements for shell material
from Waldaman Site (DIA Site ID 13076). Dates, sourced
from Eureka 2012, are calibrated at 2 standard deviations
(95%) using the Marine Calibration with a regional oset
(delta R) of 54 ± 30 based on Squire et al. (2013).
Material Lab code Depth Radio- Calibrated
dated (cm) carbon age (BP)
age
Muricadae sp. Wk-31557 4 1385 ± 25 BP  772 - 958
Muricadae sp. Wk-31558 5 1861 ± 25 BP 1271 - 1463
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31559 0 1396 ± 26 BP  778 - 971
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31560 18 1772 ± 27 BP 1180 - 1349
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31561 100 1876 ± 25 BP 1281 - 1477
Haliotis sp. Wk-31562 40 1757 ± 28 BP 1173 - 1334
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31563 100 2486 ± 25 BP 1941 - 2202
Saccostrea sp. Wk-31564 300 4537 ± 25 BP 4546 - 4803
Figure 5. Photo of Yaljarriny-Gardarlargun sh trap exposed at low tide (scale bar is 1 m).
tool stone. Lenses of shell and artefacts are also visible
in cli sections but dense grasses and scrub growing on
the cli tops typically obscure surface archaeological
material. Surveys also identified an additional shell
midden site, a silcrete quarry and a baler-shell artefact
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
38
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
Figure 6. Location of Waldaman excavation at James Price Point. The series of shell lenses in the cli face date from ~ 5 ky
BP,~ 2 ky BP and ~ 1 ky BP respectively up the prole.
site, located 1.6 km, 6 km and 9.6 km respectively inland
on the sand sheets (Eureka 2012).
A sample of Turbo sp. collected in 1988 from an in situ
lens of shell at 50–100 cm below the surface of Mowanjum
Sands immediately north of James Price Point yielded a
radiocarbon age of 989 – 1282 cal. BP (SUA 2826; Smith
1987). A 1 x 1 m excavation, undertaken in 2012 for the
Browse project and within the Yaljarriny-Gardarlagun site,
focused on the cli edge than 200 m south of this rst
dated shell lens (Figure 6). Although the basal occupation
layer was not reached, an oyster shell (Saccostrea sp.) from
~3 m below the surface yielded a radiocarbon age range
of 4.8 4.5 cal. ky BP (Wk-31564) (Table 2) and indicates
use of the site for around the last 5,000 years or more
(Eureka 2012). Radiocarbon dating of other shell material,
presumably representing food remains, including
oyster (Saccostrea sp.), abalone (Haliotis spp.) and murex
(Muricidae sp.) from shallower deposits ranged in age
from 1.0 – 0.8 ky BP (Wk-31557) to 2.3 –1.9 ky BP (Wk-
31563). These dates correspond well with other midden
scaers on the south west Kimberley coast (O’Connor &
Veth 1993; O’Connor & Sullivan 1994; Smith 1987), and
indicate the exploitation of the coastal zone around James
Price Point from at least the middle to late Holocene.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN IMAP FOR JAMES
PRICE POINT
The following describes the prehistoric marine
archaeological potential of the James Price Point area
(see also Figure 7; Table 3). In the absence of an absolute
chronology for the different landform units in the
development area, the assessment of relative age for any
associated potential archaeology is based on available
geological and stratigraphic information (DSD 2010a, b;
Eliot & Eliot 2008; Lessa & Masselink 2006).
Coastal Limestone (archaeological potential = low-
medium)
Here we use the term coastal limestone to describe
hard cemented features not obviously related to a
drowned bathymetric palaeoshoreline feature. Such
coastal limestones are sandy coastal sediments of mixed
composition but dominated by carbonate grains, which
have been cemented by groundwater carbonates, forming
beachrock in the case of the intertidal zone. Generally
around 1 m thick, tThe coastal limestone’s primary
location is near the modern shoreline (labelled the
‘nearshore rock’ of Figure 3), but also occurs in places
39
Figure 7. IMAP for shallow marine area oshore from James Price Point, showing areas of relatively low (coastal
limestone), medium (palaeoshoreline) and high (lagoon) archaeological potential. Refer text for detail.
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
40
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
Table 3. Inferred archaeological association within terrestrial, coastal and marine depositional environments at James Price Point (JPP).
Landform or Inferred Sediments Archaeological Known sites Preservation Archaeological Observed local archaeology and/or
sedimentary age association (DAA Site ID) potential potential related archaeological evidence
feature and/or isolated nds
Mowanjum Sand Quaternary Ferruginous quartz Primary Both High Medium Discrete stone artefacts and stone and
(‘Pindan’) sand Pleistocene sand with pisoliths, (Geotech Scaer shell scaers recorded in Pindan sand
sheets minor clay not registered) sheets, subsurface nds identied
through test-piing
Creeks Quaternary Mostly ferruginous Secondary Isolated nds Low Medium Discrete artefacts recorded in
Pleistocene quartz sand ephemeral creeks near Quondong Point
(Fig. 1)
Mowanjum Sand Quaternary Ferruginous quartz Primary Both Low-medium High Lenses of shell and artefacts observed
(‘Pindan’) clis Pleistocene sand, minor clay (e.g. ID12427, 12900, in Pindan clis at and to the north of
13076) JPP.
Aeolian dune Quaternary Carbonate and Primary, Both Medium High Numerous middens recorded in
system Holocene siliceous shelly sand Secondary (e.g. ID13076, 12901, deated and stratied deposits in
12902, 12903, 13504) dunes along many parts of the west
Kimberley coast.
Sandy beach Quaternary Carbonate and Secondary Isolated nds Low Low Isolated artefacts (from clis and dune
Holocene siliceous shelly sand middens) observed on the beach north
and south of JPP.
Intertidal ats Lower Cretaceous Cemented sandstone Primary and Sites (e.g. ID 13076, Medium Medium One registered sh trap at James Price
Broome Secondary 13504) Point, other known and registered sh
Sandstone traps along West Kimberley coast.
Coastal limestone Pleistocene Cemented carbonate Secondary Isolated nds in beach Variable Low-medium Cemented artefacts in beach rock
(Last rock north of JPP (e.g. Cawthra &Uken 2012).
Interglacial)
Palaeoshoreline Early Holocene Carbonate and Secondary Both Medium-high Low-medium Cemented artefacts in fossil dunes (e.g.
siliceous shelly sand Dortch &Hesp 1994; Cann et al 1991.)
Fossil intertidal Early Holocene Rock platform Secondary Both Medium-high High Known foraging area (e.g. O’Connor &
ats Veth 1993, Smith 1997).
Lagoon inll Early Holocene Carbonate and Primary and Isolated nds High High Natural ‘sink’ for eroded artefacts
siliceous shelly sand Secondary
41
as part of the drowned palaeoshorelines and within the
lagoon-inll sequence, the laer inferred from areas of
relatively strong seismic reections on the sub-boom
geophysical proles. Fluctuations in the position of the
coastline, and associated changes in the water table,
can produce an asynchronous beachrock deposit into
which archaeological material might become cemented
(e.g. Cawthra & Uken 2012; Dortch & Hesp 1994)
sometimes very rapidly (e.g. Friedman 1998). The overall
archaeological preservation potential depends very much
on cementation and post-drowning marine erosion, and
so such beachrock deposits are likely to contain discrete
low-density or isolated artefacts.
Palaeoshorelines (archaeological potential = low-
medium)
With changes in relative sea level, the location of
associated shorelines also changes. Over time, climatic
and sedimentological conditions, such as sub-aerial
exposure, may allow preservation of palaeoshorelines,
including possible combinations of (cemented) beach
deposits, beach ridges and coastal dunes. Drowned
palaeoshorelines o James Price Point form at least two
series of north - south trending linear features with relief
of up to 5 m of more above the surrounding seabed, at
elevations of - 15 m and - 8 m respectively (Figure 2).
Based on relative sea level curves (e.g. Lambeck et al.
2014) and ignoring the relatively minor changes in tidal
range over the late transgression (see Ward et al. 2013),
these fossil shorelines may date to ~ 9 ky BP and ~ 6
ky BP respectively. Thus, regardless of any associated
archaeology, this series of palaeoshorelines, with
excellent seabed expression, is itself of high geological,
palaeogeomorphological and sea-level signicance.
In parts, the linear palaeoshorelines at JPP and their
re-curved ends closely resemble modern barriers, tidal
inlets and marshy back-barrier areas (Figure 8). Close
to the modern shoreline, particularly north of James
Price Point and near Coulomb Point, complex lineations
occur which suggest a cuspate shoreline once extended
into a semi-protected lagoon or occurred behind a
barrier island. Both morphologies are typical of barrier
spits that occur where there is an abundant supply of
sediment and high rates of longshore transport (Davis &
Fitzgerald 2009). As evidenced by archaeological sites on
the contemporary coast, these shorelines might have been
places dinner-time camps occurred, with consumption
of food collected from the adjacent intertidal and
lagoon environments. On the landward side of the
coastal dune system, preservation of any midden, stone
artefact or other archaeological deposits would depend
on burial and/or cementation by aeolian processes
(e.g. Dortch & Hesp 1994), and on the seaward side by
beach accretion and cementation (e.g. Cann et al. 1991).
The long-term preservation potential of such shoreline
deposits (taken as a whole) is medium-high, with a low-
medium archaeological potential, mostly of material in a
secondary depositional context, i.e. redeposited.
Fossil intertidal ats (archaeological potential = high)
Just north of Coulomb Point and immediately landward
of the -15 m palaeoshoreline occur low-gradient relatively
smooth platforms (Figure 2). These platforms probably
represent a range of intertidal and back-barrier deposits,
including reef ats, inlled tidal creeks, salt-marshes and/
or salt-ats. Such resource-rich environments were once
(e.g. O’Connor & Veth 1993; Smith 1997) and continue
to be exploited by humans for a range of traditional
marine activities (Bradley 2010). This is an area where
sh-trap or stone weirs and midden deposits may be
found, as they are now in the contemporary intertidal
and adjacent coast around James Price Point. Such back-
barrier intertidal deposits typically represent relatively
Figure 8. Schematic diagram showing the typical development of a recurved spit, behind which exists a salt marsh, which
would have provided a focal area for procurement of intertidal and marine resources by past occupants.
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
42
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
low-energy environments and have probably been largely
undisturbed since their accumulation. Overall, these
deposits have both high archaeological potential and
medium-high preservation potential.
Lagoon inll (archaeological potential = high)
Between the -15 m and -8 m palaeoshorelines is a broad
area of bathymetrically relatively smooth sea bed,
with surface sediments of clean biogenic sands, rich in
foraminifers and, in places, formed into large sand waves
(Figure 2). Below much of this area lies between 0.25 m
and > 7 m of loose grey to light grey sands, quite uniform
in nature throughout the area, and probably of late
Holocene age (Figure 4). These sands represent the inll
of a fossil lagoon, which is a key unit in the inner-shelf
sedimentary succession because it may have changed
successively through time during the late parts of the
transgression (the last 7,000 years or so) from a brackish
or estuarine seing, to a fully marine seing, which
changes will have oered a wide range of exploitable
resources to past occupants.
There have been relatively few processes through
time which will have exported material in bulk from
this basin, so these sediments have a high preservation
potential for secondary artefacts transported by past and
present runo into the basin from the Pindan sand plain
into the zone to landward of the -15 m paleoshoreline
feature. Even today it is possible to see artefacts and
shell being eroded from the red dunes and transported
to the adjacent coast (Figure 9; see also Smith 1997:46).
Undisturbed archaeological material may also exist in
these complex lagoonal deposits, particularly if there
are any discrete patches of organic-rich sediments
in the sequence, because these would represent low
energy deposits, are least likely to be disturbed and may
preserve organic artefacts relatively well.
DISCUSSION
Preservation and signicance of relict landscapes
Awareness of submerged pre-European cultural potential
in Australia is slowly increasing (Staniforth 2007; Ward
et al. 2013; 2014b; 2015; Nutley 2014; Veth et al. 2014; see
also Gusick & Faught 2011), and is being aided by high-
quality marine data that makes drowned preserved relict
landscape features very apparent. Over the past decade,
palaeoshorelines have been mapped and identified
across a limited range of shelf seings, including the
outer Gulf of Mexico (Allee et al. 2012), Bermuda (Ilie
et al. 2011) and the Mediterranean (Passaro et al. 2011).
The interpretations made using the high-resolution
bathymetry at James Price Point clearly highlight the
presence of relict coastal landscapes here, in common
with their broader occurrence on the northwestern
continental shelf of Australia (see also Picard et al. 2014).
At a broad scale, a complex network of valleys, banks,
and terraces indicates a drowned terrestrial and coastal
landscape that allows for analogies to be made with
known archaeological sites on the contemporary coast.
Morphologically, the drowned valley systems strongly
resemble the modern estuarine complexes present along
Figure 9. Photo showing erosion and runo of material from the Mowanjum Sands into the intertidal zone at James Price
Point. Artefacts, possibly derived from within the Mowanjum Sands, were observed on these eroding surfaces.
43
the modern Kimberley coastline and, further, some of
the submarine bathymetric ridges are morphologically
similar to the beach-ridge coastal plains of northeastern
Australia (Semeniuk 2011; Short 2011). The stable
tectonic seing means that these submerged features
remain at depths that closely match the global sea-level
record (Brooke et al. 2010; 2014; Nichol & Brooke 2011).
Therefore, the area not only provides a unique record of
past sea-level change but also potentially of early human
coastal resource use in this northern corridor of Australia
(see Veth et al. 2014; Ward et al. 2013; 2014b; 2015).
The wide range of submerged sedimentary deposits
in the James Price Point region, each with relatively
unambiguous interpretation, represents a suite of
environments with the clear potential to contain
archaeological sites and artefacts, including those
pertaining to early coastal occupation. Specically, the
available submarine geological and bathymetric data
clearly indicate that a series of cemented palaeoshoreline
deposits are preserved on the seabed, potentially dating
(based on sea-level curves) between 9 ky and 6 ky BP
(Figure 2), which may also contain lithic or midden
deposits. Behind these are intertidal deposits and an
inlled lagoon, which are likely to have provided a rich
resource for past occupants when this area was exposed
and may now preserve archaeological material in either
primary or secondary depositional contexts.
The clear bathymetric expression of the fossil dunes
is partly a result of the low Holocene rates of sediment
accumulation on the shelf, both regionally (Collins
2011) and more locally, which has prevented their burial
beneath younger sediments. However, given the cyclone-
prone nature of the region, which can readily mobilise
sediments across northern Australia’s continental shelves
(Carter et al. 2009; Larcombe & Carter 2004; Larcombe
et al. 2014), their cemented nature is the key factor in
boosting archaeological potential because it will have
greatly increased the preservation and archaeological
potential not only of the palaeoshoreline deposits
themselves but also of those deposits (both primary and
secondary) to landward. Further, the clarity of resolution
of these submerged past environments, and their likely
archaeological potential means that, theoretically at least,
there might be the potential to compare artefacts from
equivalent deposits of dierent ages that might indicate
early maritime adaptions.
The geoheritage signicance of the Kimberley coast is
well-documented (Bronx and Semeniuk 2011), and the
fossil shorelines of James Price Point are by no means
unique – they merely form part of an extensive series
of palaeoshorelines of regional scale (Fairbridge 1964 in
Wyrwoll 1979:134; James et al. 2004; Semeniuk & Searle
1987). However, they are particularly well preserved
along the coastline around James Price Point, probably
in part due to the lack of supply and accumulation of
terrigenous sediments here throughout the Holocene.
This palaeogeography is sufficient to warrant the
area to be considered of signicant geoheritage value
(Bruno et al. 2014) and worthy of dedicated marine
archaeological investigation. High-resolution LIDAR
and 3D geophysical survey imagery is continuing to
reveal drowned fossil dune ridges and palaeoshoreline
sequences along much of the WA continental shelf,
including near Perth (Brooke et al. 2010; Semeniuk &
Searle 1987; Stul et al. 2015), at Ningaloo Reef (Collins
et al. 2003; Nichol et al. 2012; WAMSI 2008) and o Port
Hedland (BHP Billiton 2008). The clear implication is
that there is the potential for pre-European landscapes
and marine archaeological sites to be preserved over
many hundreds and possibly thousands of kilometres
of the WA continental shelf. Some of these may have an
archaeological (and palaeoenvireonmental) potential
equal or beer than JPP because they exist in a relatively
protected seing (e.g. within an archipelago) or have a
past or present riverine and oodplain around which
past occupants may have focused (e.g. Fortescue River)
and will have a similarly rich and early (> 10,000 yr old)
archaeological context.
Worldwide expansion of marine developments
(e.g. ports, harbours, windfarms) introduces a key
challenge to research our understanding of the potential
impacts of marine development activities on known
and potential prehistoric cultural resources (Evans et
al. 2009; Flemming 2004; Kamoot 2014; Staniforth 2007;
Ward et al. 2014a). This requires an eective exploration
of the key regional issues, including research to support
geoarchaeological assessments of marine sustainability
and marine cultural heritage management at the State,
Territory and National scales, recognising the dierences
in the cultural (McNiven 2003), physical (see Ward et al.
2015) and legislative (e.g. Buerley 2012; 2013) factors
relevant to dierent parts of the Australian coastline. Our
work indicates that there is much to be gained in terms of
‘pure’ and applied research by examining the preserved
drowned shorelines, and that effort might focus on
lagoon inll and fossil intertidal ats.
CONCLUSIONS
At James Price Point, northern Western Australia,
middens, intertidal fish-traps and archaeological
excavation at James Price Point provide evidence of
coastal exploitation from at least 5 ky BP. In the adjacent
marine environment are well-preserved drowned
shoreline sediments, which form at least two series
of north - south trending linear features with relief of
up to 5 m of more above the surrounding seabed, at
elevations of - 15 m and - 8 m respectively, which may
date to ~ 9 ky BP and ~ 6 ky BP respectively. Along
with lagoon and fossil intertidal landscapes, the well-
preserved drowned palaeoshoreline are of signicant
geoheritage value and also have very high archaeological
potential. The excellent preservation of relict shoreline
features along this and other parts of the northwest
Australian continental shelf and coastline highlights the
need for greater formal consideration of the submerged
prehistoric cultural heritage in marine and coastal
developments that is current lacking in the marine
statutory framework.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Kimberley Land Council and the State
Government for permission to use and publish, and
Geoscience Australia 2015 for Figure 1. Thanks also
to Ken Mulvaney and Joe Flatman for their helpful
comments on the paper, and David Haig for his review.
I. Ward et al.: Archaeological assessment of a coastal site at James Price Point
44
Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 99(2), 2016
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... Those areas designated as low potential, and with no visible or known archaeology may still yield archaeological remains. Similarly, areas marked as having the potential for containing artefacts in primary context may also contain artefacts in secondary context, including those eroded from the modern cliff-face (Ward et al. 2016). These then become part of the complex coastal history, linking onshore and offshore, and part of the geoheritage story (Clifford and Semeniuk 2019). ...
... TheIMAPdevelopedfortheinnershelfoff JamesPricePoint,northofBroome (Ward et al. 2016). ...
Article
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There is growing awareness of the need for greater acknowledgement of underwater prehistoric cultural resources as part of management and regulation of the seabed around many maritime countries, especially those with large indigenous populations and history such as Australia. Prehistoric cultural places and landscapes inundated by Post-glacial sea-level rise on Australia’s continental shelf remain largely out-of-sight and out-of-mind, hence awareness and hence legal protection of this resource is lacking. There is a clear need for greater integration of archaeology and cultural heritage management within the marine sciences as well as a greater awareness of this resource as part of a common heritage more generally. This paper explores some of the dichotomies between Western and Indigenous cultures in valuing and managing the seabed. We argue that in developing science-policy, an attempt at least needs to be made to bridge both the gap between the nature and culture perspectives, and the jurisdictional divide between land and sea. Part of the answer lies in a convergence of Indigenous knowledge with Western science approaches, focused around our understanding of physical processes impacting past and present coastal landscapes and on the seabed itself. We explore several case studies from northern and Western Australia that are trying to do this, and which are helping to provide a greater appreciation of the inundated landscapes of the inner shelf as part of a common heritage.
... Late Holocene middens characterise the archaeology of the Dampier Peninsula and illustrate a long-term reliance on rocky intertidal and mangrove mudflat zones in the region (Akerman 1975b;Akerman and Bindon 1984;Bindon 1978;Church 1986;Eureka 2010;O'Connor and Sullivan 1994;Smith 1997;Ward et al. 2016). The oldest record of occupation on the Dampier Peninsula derives from the Waldaman site at James Price Point, dating to 4,803-4,546 cal BP (95.4%, Wk-31564; Ward et al. 2016; Figure 1 and Table 1). ...
... Late Holocene middens characterise the archaeology of the Dampier Peninsula and illustrate a long-term reliance on rocky intertidal and mangrove mudflat zones in the region (Akerman 1975b;Akerman and Bindon 1984;Bindon 1978;Church 1986;Eureka 2010;O'Connor and Sullivan 1994;Smith 1997;Ward et al. 2016). The oldest record of occupation on the Dampier Peninsula derives from the Waldaman site at James Price Point, dating to 4,803-4,546 cal BP (95.4%, Wk-31564; Ward et al. 2016; Figure 1 and Table 1). Archaeological research in the northern area, today within the Bardi Jawi Native Title Area, has focused on the ethnoarchaeology of Bardi camp sites (Smith 1987), stone fish traps (Akerman 1976a;Smith 1983Smith , 1997 and Melo sp. ...
Article
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This paper introduces primary data on site contents, chronology and stratigraphy for four subsurface middens, which formed through the late Holocene on the Dampier Peninsula. Data from one surface midden collection are also presented. In this monsoonal coastal locality, variations in dune stability and sand flux are critical to archaeological site formation and preservation. Site specific factors determining sand sequestration into topsoils interact with geomorphological processes and past human discard to determine the stratigraphy and chronology of individual sites. Taphonomic modes during the Anthropocene have shifted, such that middens are rapidly transformed by wind when exposed in back-beach areas. Processes of sand sequestration present management issues at midden sites, and their chances of survival into the future. The cultural assemblages from the middens are also discussed, with reference to the rich ethnoarchaeology of Bardi land-use and subsistence.
... While destructive cyclonic winds bear from the east in North West Australia and storm surges would have accompanied these events, the complex morphology of the volcanic islands likely provided localized opportunities for site preservation. Indeed, much of the Dampier Archipelago and wider North West Shelf region provides precisely these characteristics, with high-resolution bathymetric mapping showing widespread evidence of extensive well-preserved drowned shorelines and other relict coastal landscape features in the shallow waters (<40 m depth) of the inner shelf (Brooke et al. 2017;Ward et al. 2013Ward et al. , 2016. ...
... Within the Dampier Archipelago, lithified dune, beach, and offshore bar deposits rim the outer islands at about 20 m depth ( Figure 11). Other remnant or relict coastal landforms may have been modified through erosion or possibly even preserved by burial during Holocene sea-level transgression, although again there are examples where Holocene paleoshoreline features do survive in shallow waters (e.g., Ward et al. 2016). ...
Article
Over the last 20,000 years, one third of the continental land mass of Australia, or 2.12 million km 2 , has been drowned by postglacial sea-level rise. Much of this drowned territory is thought to have been occupied by humans. Where archaeological remains have survived inundation, they can be investigated by underwater and airborne remote sensing, survey, and ground-truthing. This study of the Dampier Archipelago of North West Australia is contextualized by a review of the current state of the art of underwater prehistory. In the absence of known sites, we propose terrestrial analogy as a pre-dictive tool for targeting submerged archaeological sites. Geological and topographic contexts are important for assessing preservation potential as is identifying landforms and features around which people may have focused occupation. Analysis of more than 2,500 known archaeological sites from the extraordinarily rich Dampier Archipelago reveals that the vast majority are rock art sites, but these are interspersed by a significant number of artifact scatters, myriad stone structures, shell middens, and quarry and reduction areas. The majority of these sites are focused on coastal and interior valleys, associated uplands, and coastal embayments. While over two thirds of sites occur on granophyre and basalt substrates, the others are located on Quaternary sediments. Regional research on nearby continental islands shows that use of these environments can be expected to pre-date sea-level rise. The most likely submerged sites include: 1) compacted middens associated with rock pools and estuarine features; 2) stone structures with associated middens on limestone pavements or with granophyre and basalt boulder fields; 3) buried midden and other occupation deposits on protected sand sheets; 4) quarry outcrops, extraction pits, and associated reduction debris in areas of fine-grained granophyre and basalt; and 5) mid-dens in consolidated calcarenite shoreline contexts to the north and west of the volcanic suites of the Dampier Archipelago.
... Coastal shell middens are accumulations of abundant zooarchaeological remains that derive from collection and consumption in situ by former inhabitants. They have a worldwide distribution, ranging from tropical regions to circumpolar zones (Herrera and Solis, 2011;Lewis, 2011;Hood and Grovdal, 2016;Ward et al., 2016;Astrup et al., 2021). Research carried out in them has identified the species present and numerous additional interesting results, such as: i) the potential uses of the main species (food, ornament, currency) in different historical periods; ii) diet, technology and seasons of site occupation; iii) population distributions, individuals sizes and species presence or absence; iv) past overexploitation of selected species; v) the spatial and temporal distribution of extinct species; or vi) paleoenvironmental changes in the adjacent coastal areas (Bailey, 1977;Attenbrown, 1992;Á lvarez et al., 2011;Bailey et al., 2013;Holdaway et al., 2017;Bailey and Hardy, 2021). ...
Article
The malacological analysis of the Cañada Honda shell midden (Tinto-Odiel estuary, SW Spain) has allowed an approximation of the palaeo biodiversity of this sector during the Mesolithic. During this period, the progressive marine transgression caused the flooding of this estuary, coinciding with an initial intensive capture of the bivalves Lutraria and Ruditapes decussatus in the northern and southern sector of this site, respectively. In a second phase, Ruditapes decussatus was the main collected species in all sectors. This last period coincided with some diversification in catches, still dominated by Ruditapes decussatus but with significant proportions of Cerastoderma edule. This stage witnessed a progressive sedimentary filling of the estuary and the creation of marshes and barrier islands. The almost total fragmentation of the specimens would imply that the surface of this shell midden was exposed for a long time while in use. In addition, an occasional charring of some molluscs has been detected. The main molluscs of this site are also the most abundant in other later shell middens (~cal 5.2–4 kyr BP), indicating an important perpetuation of the collecting and/or eating habits in this environment. All the species determined in them are also currently found in this estuary and its surroundings, where they are also captured
... Several studies have outlined the potential for preservation and discovery of submerged prehistoric cultural sites in Australia (e.g., Flemming, 1983;Nutley, 2014;Ward et al., 2013, 2015, Ward, Larcombe et al., 2016Ward, Veth et al., 2016), and these helped achieve the first dedicated Commonwealth-funded project, called 'Deep History of Sea Country' (DHSC) (Benjamin et al., 2018). The DHSC project included focus on the World Heritage site of the Dampier Archipelago (known as Murujuga to Aboriginal people) (Figure 1), where the dense terrestrial archaeological record includes petroglyphs or engravings that, in part, document how the people, Ngurra-ra Ngarli, adapted to the changing environments associated with postglacial sealevel rise (McDonald, 2018;McDonald & Berry, 2016). ...
Article
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The absence of known prehistoric underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites on the Australian inner shelf stands in stark contrast to the thousands of sites revealed elsewhere in the world. Two recent claims—Dortch et al. (D2019) and Benjamin et al. (B2020)—put forward the first in situ (i.e., primary context) UCH sites in the shallow waters of the Dampier Archipelago, North West Australia, each arguing that the stone artefact scatters are at least 7000 years old and are now submerged because of postglacial sea‐level rise. We present new hydrodynamic modelling and data on coastal erosion and bathymetry, and reassess each site's sedimentary setting and archaeological site‐formation history. D2019 and B2020 clearly present lithic cultural artefacts, but the arguments for their sites being of primary context and reflecting early Holocene land surfaces are mistaken. Rather, these sites occur in the intertidal zone, and many or all artefacts are likely to have been reworked. Sites of secondary context, if treated appropriately, can inform our understanding of site‐formation process and change, and may support more powerful contributions to submerged archaeology than attempts to seek the first or the oldest.
... New investigations are now under way in many parts of the world to explore the role of the coastal zone in population dispersal, to reconstruct these submerged landscapes and their palaeocoastlines and palaeoenvironments, and to test their archaeological potential [1,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. However, systematic recovery and investigation of underwater archaeological sites, which is crucial to the evaluation of new hypotheses, is inhibited by powerful and ongoing constraints. ...
Article
Full-text available
This article reports Australia’s first confirmed ancient underwater archaeological sites from the continental shelf, located off the Murujuga coastline in north-western Australia. Details on two underwater sites are reported: Cape Bruguieres, comprising > 260 recorded lithic artefacts at depths down to −2.4 m below sea level, and Flying Foam Passage where the find spot is associated with a submerged freshwater spring at −14 m. The sites were discovered through a purposeful research strategy designed to identify underwater targets, using an iterative process incorporating a variety of aerial and underwater remote sensing techniques and diver investigation within a predictive framework to map the submerged landscape within a depth range of 0–20 m. The condition and context of the lithic artefacts are analysed in order to unravel their depositional and taphonomic history and to corroborate their in situ position on a pre-inundation land surface, taking account of known geomorphological and climatic processes including cyclone activity that could have caused displacement and transportation from adjacent coasts. Geomorphological data and radiometric dates establish the chronological limits of the sites and demonstrate that they cannot be later than 7000 cal BP and 8500 cal BP respectively, based on the dates when they were finally submerged by sea-level rise. Comparison of underwater and onshore lithic assemblages shows differences that are consistent with this chronological interpretation. This article sets a foundation for the research strategies and technologies needed to identify archaeological targets at greater depth on the Australian continental shelf and elsewhere, building on the results presented. Emphasis is also placed on the need for legislation to better protect and manage underwater cultural heritage on the 2 million square kilometres of drowned landscapes that were once available for occupation in Australia, and where a major part of its human history must lie waiting to be discovered.
... The locations of coastal archaeological sites are relevant to coastal landscapes (Ward et al., 2016) and sea-level changes (Letham et al., 2018). There is a strong linkage between environmental dynamics and the timing, spatial allocation, and subsistence strategies of prehistoric inhabitants (Inda et al., 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
The chronologies of few Neolithic sites in the lower reaches of the Min River of China have been well investigated for the middle to late Holocene. In this study, the Hengyu Neolithic site in Fujian Province, South China, which has significant archaeological remains, was dated using blue‐stimulated optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon (AMS14C) techniques. The results, comprising nine OSL and three AMS 14C ages through the Neolithic sequence, provide new evidence towards understanding the relationship between environmental evolution and human activities in the middle to late Holocene in the Fuzhou Basin and coastal areas of South China. The ages of the site deposits vary from 6.83 to 1.67 ka and can be divided into two main phases: the Keqiutou–Tanshishan culture period and the Bronze culture period. In contrast, the persistent periods of ancient human activities at the Hengyu site seem to correspond to regional sea‐level changes and the East Asian winter monsoon as a secondary factor, which can affect human activities through sea‐level impacts. The warm and high sea level conditions provided a liveable environment for the ancient humans of Fujian and even South China. The ages of two building column bases are linked to the early stage of the Han dynasty, suggesting a potentially favourable habitation environment; that is, ancient humans occupied and settled this area for the long term within this time period, which is consistent with sea‐level changes and palynology records.
... • cyclone-associated features on the seabed (cf. Belde et al., 2015;Belde, Reuning, & Back, 2017;Larcombe et al., 2014;Ward et al., 2016) (score 4). ...
Article
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Advances in digital spatial analysis and 3D photorealistic modeling offer the potential to create virtual interpretations of the now inundated landscapes of NW Australia. While this provides a useful template for potential late Pleistocene and early Holocene coastal occupation on the shelf, we stress the importance of understanding sediment dynamics as a primary control for terrain modelling, particularly at the scale of human ecosystem dynamics. We briefly review six major drivers of change upon tropical and semi‐tropical continental shelves and coastlines, and some of the typical coastal geomorphologies associated with each. We then hypothesize how these drivers might have varied on the NW Shelf of Australia since 65 ka, and then apply the logic to the Barrow Island region, to form some “end‐member” visualizations of coastal change in the early Holocene. The visualizations indicate a high degree of variability in coastal morphology, particularly through the post‐glacial period, which is likely to have radically changed the capacity of the coastline to provide resources for human use during that period. Hence, rather than considering any single visualization as being absolute, end‐member visualizations should be used to generate testable hypotheses that are reviewed repeatedly in the light of new physical, environmental, and archaeological information.
Article
The analysis of shell deposits eroded by a ebb-tide channel on Saltés Island (Tinto-Odiel estuary, SW Spain) resulted in the identification of a new shell midden, associated with the activity of a nearby Roman factory over the 4th-5th centuries CE. This midden differs from other old shell deposits (sandy tidal flats, cheniers, washover fans) in several features: a) its malacological content, dominated by edible species (mainly the bivalve Glycymeris nummaria) and differentiated by statistical analysis; b) a partial selection and better conservation of Glycymeris nummaria (Linnaeus), its most abundant species; c) the absence of microfauna, which implies a previous washing to its final deposit; and d) an age concordant with the one deduced from the Roman amphoraic remains found in this area and subsequent to the washover fans on whom it was deposited. All these features, together with the absence of bothanthropic fractures or cooking, would indicate that this Roman shell midden was the end result of a trawling on subtidal Glycymeris-rich sandy bottoms with adjacent grasslands, where the gastropod Bittium reticulatum (da Costa) was the most abundant mollusc. This gastropod is the dominant species in the remaining Shell deposits.
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The prehistoric record of Rottnest Island 19 km offshore the Swan Region, Western Australia, consists solely of three stone artifacts. Two are Eocene fossiliferous chert flakes probably deriving from palaeosols in the Tamala Limestone cliffs at Fish Hook Bay and Little Armstrong Bay. A third is a calcrete flake from a siliceous dune blow-out near Fish Hook Bay. A feldspar pebble in situ in a palaeosol intercalated between aeolian calcarenite units at City of York Bay is probably a manuport. The age of the Little Armstrong Bay and City of York Bay palaeosols is estimated to be 15 000 to 50 000 years old. Similarities in pedology and in stratigraphic position suggest that these two palaeosols belong to a single palaeosol unit extending along Rottnest Island's northern shore, a possibility that could give scope to further prehistoric investigations on the island. Prehistoric remains could also be in situ in palaeosols and sandy sediments infilling solution pipes and other Tamala Limestone features on the island's littoral and submerged offshore. Palaeoenvironmental and archaeological site distribution data from the emergent continental shelf are used in the appraisal of pre-transgression terrestrial environments and prehistoric occupation in the Rottnest locality and elsehwere in the Greater Swan Region. -from Authors
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3D exploration seismic data were interpreted to investigate the locations and characteristics of submarine slope failures along the continental slope in the offshore Carnarvon Basin on Australia’s North West Shelf. Seisnetics™, a patented genetic algorithm was used to process the 3D seismic data to extract virtually all trough and peak surfaces in an unbiased and automated manner. The extracted surfaces were combined in the 3D visual database to develop a seafloor digital terrain model that extends from the continental slope to the Exmouth Plateau. The 3D data were used to map the subsurface extent and geometry of landslide failure planes, as well as to estimate the thickness and volumes of slide deposits. This paper describes the geomorphic characteristics of five of the survey areas. Geomorphic mapping shows the presence of slope failures ranging from small (20 km across) mass transport complexes (MTC). The features are associated with debris flow chutes, turbidity flow channels, and debris fields. Analysis of failure planes show prominent grooves or striations related to the mobilisation of slide material down both the continental slope and Exmouth Plateau and into the Kangaroo Syncline. Submarine slope failures can occur at the continental shelf break in about 200–300 m of water and run out to the Exmouth Plateau surface in about 1,100–1,400 m water depths. The largest individual slides in the survey areas have widths of 30 km and minimum run-out lengths of 75 km, though associated turbidity flow deposits likely extend much further. The subsurface expression of the large MTCs illustrates a history of sediment accumulation along the mid-slope followed by repeated slope failure and debris run-out. Sediment accumulation and slope failure processes are actively occurring along the continental slope and submarine landslides thus are a major driver of hazard to subsea infrastructure development. Smaller more frequent slides may pose a greater hazard than large infrequent MTCs.
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Controlled by the stratigraphic relationships along the shore of the western Dampier Peninsula, there are several mechanisms that deliver freshwater of the hinterland to the shore zone. These include seepage along the edge of the red sand dunes, rivulets discharging into tidal embayments, impounding of rivulets and streams by dunes, and freshwater discharges onto the low tidal zone from the subsurface. These freshwater sources, known as springs, jila (permanent water source) or soaks, are of great cultural value to the Yawuru and other indigenous groups of the Dampier Peninsula. Two of the most interesting are those that illustrate seepage of freshwater into the muddy upper shore zone and the interaction of hinterland groundwater and tidal flat carbonate mud, viz., the seepage lines at the edge of the "pindan" terrain where it borders the mud of tidal flats resulting in linear Melaleuca thickets fringing the "pindan", and the headwaters of scalloped embayments where rivulets discharge surface and groundwater onto/into the tidal flat forming a complex of wetland vegetation. Areas of marked freshwater seepage along the interface of the hinterland and the carbonate mud tidal flats can also be zone of dissolution, resulting in solutional-excavation of the muds and the development of wetland basins.
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The Kimberley Coast in north-western Australia is of global geoheritage significance. It is a large-scale ria coast, with a well developed intricate indented rocky shoreline, with local nearshore islands (archipelago), and a distinct suite of coastal sediments. In addition to its intrinsic geoheritage values, its unique geological and geomorphological features are found in an unspoiled wilderness setting in which the ensemble of natural processes are still operating. The Kimberley Coast is cut into Precambrian rocks: the sandstones and basalts of the Kimberley Basin and, in the southern areas, into folded sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks of the King Leopold Orogen. The rocks of the region are well exposed along the shore to providing a global classroom by which to study the region's stratigraphy, structure, and lithology. The coastal forms in the Kimberley region have been determined by the structure and lithology of regional geology, interfaces between major geological units, by marine inundation of onshore landforms, and by the sizes, shapes and configuration of rivers, creeks, their tributaries, and other valley tracts in the region. The coast, however, is not just a continuous rocky shore composed of cliffs, and cliffs with benches, as it also has local sediment-filled gulfs and embayments, cliff shores fringed by mangroves, cliff shores with bouldery ribbons in the tidal zone, and stretches of beaches, and in the embayments, muddy tidal flats, spits, cheniers, tidal creeks cut into the tidal flats, and (embayment-head) alluvial fans. Locally, the coast is composed of algal reefs and coral reefs, beach rock, and various types of tempestites. The Kimberley Coast presents several features of geoheritage significance: 1. with ~ 700 km of (simplified) coastal length, it presents the best and most extensive expression of ria morphology in Australia, and also one of the best developed globally; 2. the occurrence of the shore in a monsoonal subhumid/humid tropical macrotidal setting, with processes distinct to this setting; as a tropical-climate ria, in terms of size and morphology, it is globally unique; 3. the morphology of the shores, variable in form in response to the grain of the country (viz., the Kimberley Basin versus the King Leopold Orogen) and lithology; 4. variation of rocky shores along its length in terms of mesoscale shore types; 5. the sedimentary packages that occur in the region; 6. mangrove-lined rocky shores and embayed shores, with the latter also related to freshwater seepage; and 7. biogenic and diagenetic coasts.
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The 4340 km long Kimberley coast is dominated by usually steep rocky shores, which occupy over 80% of the open coast. It also contains extensive areas of mangroves particularly in embayments and 1360 generally sandy beaches, which occupy 713 km (16%) of the more exposed open coast. Because of the high tide ranges (3-11 m) and generally low short waves (H b = 0.1 m, T = 3-5 sec) most beaches have a relative tide range > 10 and consequently are predominately tide-dominated (71%), with 25% fronted by coral and rock flats, 3% tide-modified and only 1% wave-dominated. Beach location and length is controlled by the geology, with most bounded by rock headlands and backed by rocky slopes and with an average length of only 0.5 km. Only 31% of the beaches are backed by some form of barrier development. In these low regressive barriers dominate with 264 consisting of beach ridges, 35 backed by usually low stable foredunes, while usually minor dune transgression backs only 70 beaches.
Chapter
Research on the archaeology of the continental shelf has made slow and intermittent progress over the past 40 years amidst an ongoing mood of scepticism in the wider scientific and archaeological community, but with a marked acceleration of interest and investment of new resources during the past decade. The chapters in this volume demonstrate that relevant evidence is now being retrieved and systematically examined across the world in all the major continents and in deeper as well as shallower water, and that new ideas and new data are now providing the momentum for future development. This chapter draws on examples from the other chapters in the volume to reflect on the history of developments in this field and the shifts in the climate of opinion that have led to increasing acceptance of its importance; the research questions that are now coming more clearly into focus and the directions they suggest for the future; and the challenges of developing purposeful strategies of exploration and discovery of new material.
Article
The Madison-Swanson Marine Protected Area (MPA) and Pulley Ridge Habitat Area of Particular Concern (HAPC), two protected areas off the Florida shelf in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, were established by the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council and the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to protect benthos-associated organisms. However, the types of organisms and the reasons for the protection are quite different. Madison- Swanson is used by an economically valuable reef fish species, the gag grouper, as a spawning ground. Pulley Ridge contains the deepest hermatypic scleractinian coral colonies in the continental USA. Biological assessments of these protected areas were carried out in generally similar fashion: initial mapping with multibeam sonar followed by targeted observations with remote still and video cameras. The formation of the Florida carbonate platform began when North America and Africa rifted apart during the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The principal biological interest in Madison-Swanson was a large and mobile apex predator, while in Pulley Ridge it was a sessile invertebrate. The mobility, or lack thereof, of these biological targets shaped the biological assessment strategies. In Madison-Swanson, the initial effort was complete multibeam bathymetric and backscatter mapping. These maps were used to stratify the entire reserve into seven regions. The bathymetry was used to segregate the high-relief areas, while the backscatter data were used to differentiate low-relief areas with different sediment types. Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) video transects were surveyed to confirm the habitat types within each strata.
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The offshore sedimentary basins of the Kimberley region are becoming established as a major hydrocarbon province, but the region is also known for its marine wilderness values. Its position close to a plate boundary is reflected in significant rates of continental margin subsidence. In addition to the "normal" continental margin geomorphic units of shelf, slope and rise the offshore Kimberley region has well developed plateaux (e.g. Scott Plateau), terraces (e.g. Rowley Terrace), and banks (e.g. Sahul rise, Sahul bank) which interrupt the otherwise gentle seaward slopes present, and provide foundations for the offshore reefs, including the Sahul shoals, Ashmore, Seringapatam, and Scott Reef and the Rowley Shoals. The continental shelf is a vast low gradient ramp with sandy bioclastic sediments reflecting both the modern biota and a history of past sea level and oceanographic changes, so that sediments are a mixture of modern bioclasts, particles stranded by sea level rise, and precipitated carbonate grains (ooids and peloids) which were dominant prior to Leeuwin Current onset some 12,000 years ago. Whilst little is known about the nearshore fringing reefs, in areas of macro-tides and significant sediment input, the morphology, internal architecture and growth history of reefs and shoals of the Oceanic Shoals Bioregion indicates that these are long-lived features which have survived despite relatively high rates of continental margin subsidence and oscillating sea levels of the Pleistocene glaciations. However, drowning by sea level rise was the fate of some of the reefs and shoals of the Sahul Shelf, situated at the leading edge of the downturning Australian Plate, in contrast to continuing reef growth at Scott Reef and the Rowley Shoals to the south. In the morphological series provided by the three Rowley Shoals, differential subsidence is the primary control on rates of lagoon infill controlling platform morphology. This study demonstrates the resilience of reefs on the subsiding margin whilst linking reef morphology to the relative amount of pre-Holocene subsidence.