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Viticulture and wine production
... Although several studies and researches were undertaken to resume and catalogue the scenes of viticulture and winemaking in the Egyptian tombs (Wegner, 1933;Lerstrup, 1992;Lesko, 1996;James, 1996;Tallet, 1998;Murray, 2000;Guasch-Jané, 2008), it has not been compiled and analysed in depth until now. The reliefs and paintings in the ancient Egyptian private tombs depict the different steps of viticulture and winemaking including grape harvest, treading, pressing, fermentation, closing the jars, stamping and labelling the jars, and finally storing the jars in the cellar (Murray, 2000;Guasch-Jané, 2008). ...
... Although several studies and researches were undertaken to resume and catalogue the scenes of viticulture and winemaking in the Egyptian tombs (Wegner, 1933;Lerstrup, 1992;Lesko, 1996;James, 1996;Tallet, 1998;Murray, 2000;Guasch-Jané, 2008), it has not been compiled and analysed in depth until now. The reliefs and paintings in the ancient Egyptian private tombs depict the different steps of viticulture and winemaking including grape harvest, treading, pressing, fermentation, closing the jars, stamping and labelling the jars, and finally storing the jars in the cellar (Murray, 2000;Guasch-Jané, 2008). In the scene from Nakht's tomb ( Figure 1) at Thebes, dating to the Eighteenth Dynasty (1539-1292 BC), the grape harvest and winemaking are represented. ...
... Regarding the presence of white grapes in the iconography, it is still under discussion. It has been suggested that a tomb of from Deir El-Bersheh of the Middle Kingdom Period (1975-1640 BC) may show the production of white wine, since the pressing scene directly follows the harvesting scene where greenishcoloured grapes could be represented (Montet, 1913;Murray, 2000). The elaboration of the shedeh represented in the scenes is also doubtful, and there is a unique reference from the tomb of Baqet III (no. ...
Presented are the research objectives of the project "Irep en Kemet", Wine of Ancient Egypt, and the content of the project's website.
This research aims at documenting the complete corpus of wine in ancient Egypt and analysing the data (iconography, textual
sources and artefacts) to unveil the importance of the ancient Egyptian wine culture legacy in the Mediterranean region. At this stage,
a bibliographical researchable database relevant to wine, viticulture and winemaking in the ancient Egypt has been completed, with
197 entries including articles, books, chapters in book, academic thesis (PhD and MA), essay, abstracts, on-line articles and websites.
Moreover, a scene-detail database for the viticulture and winemaking scenes in the Egyptian private tombs has been recorded with 97
entries, some of them unpublished, and the collected data is under study. The titles of the tombs' owners and the texts related to the
scenes will be also recorded. A photographic survey of the graves containing images related with viticulture and winemaking will be
carried out in order to have the most accurate information on the location and stage of conservation of those images. Our main goal is
to provide scholars with a complete, comprehensive archaeological and bibliographical database for the scenes of viticulture and
winemaking depicted in the Egyptian private tombs throughout the ancient Egyptian history. The project's website
(http://www.wineofancientegypt.com) will include all the collected data, the study and analysis, the project's history and team members,
publications as well as the results of our research.
... The symbolism of wine and its relationship with the funerary world was first documented in the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3000 BC) with large quantities of jars found in royal tombs at Abydos and Saqqara (Meyer Ch 1986;Murray 2000). These reports provide evidence that wine production in Egypt was highly sophisticated by the beginning of this period. ...
... Nevertheless, in an archaeological context there is a lack of wine presses or wine deposits for study. The earliest grapes found in Egypt come from the Predynastic Period (4000-3100 BC) from archaeological sites in Tell Ibrahim Awad and Tell el-Farain in the Nile Delta and from the Tomb U-j at Umm el-Qa'ab at Abydos (Murray 2000). During the First and Second Dynasties (c. ...
The cultivation and domestication of the grape appear to have occurred between 7000 and 4000 BC. The archaeological and historical evidences suggest that the domestication of the grapevine took place in the Near East. Nevertheless, whether a single origin or secondary independent grapevine domestications occurred and where they happened remains so far unanswered. Wine has had an important role in religious rituals since antiquity. In mythology and theology, wine was symbolic of the power to revitalize and rebirth. In ancient Egypt, wine was daily served to the gods by the Pharaoh and the priests in ritual ceremonies in the Egyptian temples. In daily life, wine was an enjoyable drink consumed by the elite in festivals, banquets and funerals. Further, the grape was one of the most important fruits in the classical Mediterranean civilizations and grapevines and the wine were widely spread through trade sea routes. This chapter presents an overview of the archaeological evidence for wine culture in the ancient Near East, Egypt and the Mediterranean region. It also presents a discussion of the chemical and morphological research methods and paleogenomic analyses that have been applied to ancient grape and plant material.
... She commented on the 'athletic feat' achieved by an Egyptian worker shown braced full-length between two crushing poles, although this is likely to be artistic exaggeration. 42 Similarly, her discussion of the wine production shown in the Greek vase painting does not engage with the fact that it is carried out by satyrs, and is therefore embedded in complex Dionysiac symbolism, which must at least call into question its function as an accurate representation of ancient wine-making practices. 43 Some of her lines of inquiry concerning ancient objects were arguably insufficiently informed by their nature as artefacts made for reasons that may not have included, or may not have been limited to, accurate representation. ...
Professor Irene Manton (1904–1988) was in the vanguard of technical advances in botany through the use of electron microscopy. As well as new techniques and discoveries communicated through a considerable body of scientific publications, she left behind a collection of antiquities spanning a broad range of cultures and dates. Through these objects, Manton investigated intellectual problems in the history of science and communicated her findings with a highly original and idiosyncratic approach. At first sight a disparate group of unprovenanced antiquities, through the lens of Manton’s archives this collection can be understood as a rich repository of material evidence. This critical examination of Manton’s collecting practices and the uses she made of her ancient objects provides new evidence for the variety of approaches to collecting and interpreting antiquities, spanning disciplinary boundaries, over the course of the twentieth century.
... Perhaps the simplest response to drought is to increase the use of irrigation. Indeed, this has been a response of growers to a lack of adequate rainfall for more than 7000 years (Helbaek, 1969) and irrigation has likely been used in viticulture for at least 4000 years (Bard, 2005;Murray, Boulton, & Heron, 2009). Although irrigation in viticulture is common in the new world, having been a key driver of the expansion of winegrape growing in North and South America, Australia, and South Africa, rainfed viticulture has largely remained the traditional ideal, particularly in Europe where it is legislated against in many regions. ...
Climate change has been occurring for the past several decades because of changing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, and alteration of the earth’s surface through deforestation, desertification, and urbanization. The role of climate change is substantial across all agricultural crops and is particularly noticeable for specialty crops such as winegrapes. Specific climatic effects have included increased heavy rainfall across many regions globally, more frequent heatwaves, and less frequent extreme cold temperatures and cold waves. Additional impacts have been seen in the incidence of large fires in western United States, Australia, and Portugal, which have affected grape growing and wine production in some regions. An example of this impact is an increased frequency in smoke-tainted wines in western United States and Canada as well as Australia. Many mountainous regions have experienced annual trends toward earlier spring melt and reduced snowpack, which affect water resources for agriculture, and consequently, increased frequencies in droughts have been observed. A significant physiological result of climate change is also the decoupling of grape maturity based on soluble solids and maturity based upon secondary metabolites such as anthocyanins, phenols, and aroma constituents. Specific cultural practices may need to be implemented to delay fruit maturity or otherwise mitigate this uncoupling phenomenon. Positive implications of global climate change include the emergence and development of new wine industries in northern Europe (e.g., England, Sweden, Denmark, Poland).
... By contrast McGovern (1997: 90-91), who conducted INAA on other Egyptian Jars ('Marl D group'), suggested an origin far upriver, in the vicinity of Thebes. If the Nile Delta and Fayyum regions, near Memphis, were indeed the principal vine-growing areas of ancient Egypt (James 1996;Murray 2000), it makes more economic sense to assume these vessels were produced in the Memphite region, rather than around Thebes. Nineteen Egyptian vessels identified amongst 88 samples of possible transport containers found at Kommos on Crete were analysed by thin-section petrography and INAA (Day et al. 2011: 518-519). ...
Mediterranean Connections focuses on the origin and development of Maritime Transport Containers from the Early Bronze through early Iron Age periods (c. 3200-700 bc). Analysis of this category of objects broadens our understanding of ancient Mediterranean interregional connections, including the role that shipwrecks, seafaring, and coastal communities played in interaction and exchange. These containers have often been the subject of specific and detailed pottery studies, but have seldom been examined in the context of connectivity and trade in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean. This broad study: • considers the likely origins of these types of vessels; • traces their development and spread throughout the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean as archetypal organic bulk cargo containers; • discusses the wider impact on Mediterranean connections, transport and trade over a period of 2,500 years covering the Bronze and early Iron Ages. Classical and Near Eastern archaeologists and historians, as well as maritime archaeologists, will find this extensively researched volume an important addition to their library.
... Fermented beverages appeared in 5000 bc in Babylon, 3150 bc in Ancient Egypt, 2000 bc in Mexico and 1500 bc in Sudan (www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c06/e6-34-09-09.pdf ). The earliest evidence of the grape in Egypt is seeds in jars imported from the Levant, dating to about 3150 bc indicating that wine was possibly produced in Egypt itself by 3000 bc (Murray 2000). Archaeological findings and chemical analyses of residues recovered from the Neolithic (6th millennium bc) Hajji Firuz Tepe, and the Early Bronze Age (4th millennium bc) Godin Tepe, both in western Iran, is commonly reported to represent the earliest evidence of wine making (Renfrew 1999, Wilson 1999). ...
... He dreams three clusters of grapes on a grapevine, from which he squeezes wine into a cup and presents it to Pharaoh. Similar viticulture scenarios are also commonly found depicting in some Egyptian wall paintings (see Poo, 1995;Murray, 2000). Joseph interprets the dream, of course, as an omen that the chief cupbearer would be released from prison and reinstated to his former official position three days later (Gen. ...
The intriguing study of dreams in the Bible has cut across not only some traditional fields such as biblical textual criticisms, comparative religions, philosophy, and genre writing analyses, but also psychoanalyses. However, psychological interpretation is still not underscored in Christian tradition. In this paper, first, hermeneutical exegeses on the biblical dreams and especially Pharaoh's chief cupbearer's (or butler's) and chief bakers' dream narratives (Gen. 40: 5-13, 16-18) are investigated. Second, the general meanings of dreams are defined and explained from some ancient Hellenistic philosophers', i.e. Aristotle, Cicero, Eusebius, Heraclitus, Herodotus, Philo of Alexandria, and Plato, understandings. Furthermore, special attention is given to Philo of Alexandria's hermeneutics on the two dream narratives. Third, it is the thesis of this paper that the two dream narratives are exceptions and can be also interpreted in the light of modern dream interpretation, especially Freudian, Jungian, and other psychoanalysis, as well as a cognitive judgment approach called the equate-to-differentiate model. Seeing them through the lens of psychology and for the first time through the baker's cognitive perspective can aid us in our understanding of human nature while enhancing the study of both traditional theology and psychology.
Currently, more than 5000 different fermented foods are consumed by mankind worldwide; many of them are ethnic and produced in a particular region. In this chapter, the archeological and anthropological evidence of the origins of various fermented foods, their diversifications, biogeography, and microorganisms associated with fermentation have been discussed. Furthermore, a brief account of global fermented foods such as cereals (i.e. bread, injera, dosa, and idli,), legumes (i.e., miso, nato, soy sauce), vegetables (i.e., kimchi, sauerkraut, kocho, etc), roots and tubers (i.e., gari, fufu, lafun, etc), fermented fish sauce and pastes, sausage, milk (i.e., yogurt, curd, kefir and koumiss, levan, etc), fermented beverages and their nutritional benefits (i.e., food preservation, production of aroma, flavor and bioactive compounds), cultural and social significance, are discussed.
Abstract: Grape growing, wine production, local consumption and export were important agricultural and commercial activities in ancient Israel. For this reason, vines, grapes, and wine populate the imagery of ancient Israeli documents, especially the Hebrew Bible, in a variety of ways. The aim of this article is to map the material cultural evidence in order to understand the cultivation of vines and the production of wine in Palestine from the Bronze Age to the 6th century BC. The conditions and techniques of viticulture and winemaking in the main production centres of ancient Israel are presented, and a brief summary is given of the images and representations of grapes and wine in the Hebrew Bible.
Keywords: Wine, Ancient Israel, Viticulture, Viniculture, Food History.
Resumo: O cultivo das uvas, a produção do vinho, o consumo local da bebida e sua exportação foram importantes atividades agrícolas e comerciais do Antigo Israel. Por essa razão, as videiras, uvas e vinho povoam o imaginário de documentos do Antigo Israel, especialmente a Bíblia Hebraica, em múltiplas representações. Este artigo visa mapear as evidências da cultura material, com vistas a compreender o cultivo das uvas e a produção de vinho na Palestina desde a Idade do Bronze até o século VI a.C. São apresentadas neste artigo as condições e técnicas para a viticultura e vinicultura nos principais centros produtores do Antigo Israel, e é feito um breve sumário das imagens e representações das uvas e do vinho na Bíblia Hebraica.
Palavras-chave: Vinho, Antigo Israel, Viticultura, Vinicultura, História da
Alimentação.
In the 4th century BCE, the Mareotis region developed as a crucial connection between Egypt and the Mediterranean, supplying Alexandria with all sorts of agricultural or artisanal goods; it was renowned above all for its wine. Yet despite ideal geologic conditions for growing grapes, a remarkable concentration of Roman and Byzantine wineries in the area, and ample evidence for widespread wine cultivation by ancient Egyptians, up until now no Pharaonic installation of wine-making had been discovered in the region. However, for the first time, concrete examples of vine-growing remains, from the New Kingdom to the Ptolemaic period, have been uncovered at the site of Plinthine/Kom el-Nugus. Relying on our archaeological and geomorphological research, this chapter concentrates on the early development of wine-making in Mareotis, showing how it developed alongside the growing interest of the state in these western margins. It shows how wine-making evolved from the New Kingdom to the Late Period, and assesses what kind of impact (if any) the coming of the Greeks had on local viticulture. It confirms that viticulture did not take off after the Macedonian conquest; rather, there exists strong continuity irrespective of political changes.
This article presents results of an archaeobotanical study of food remains found by the Hearst Expedition’s excavations (1900–1901) at the site of Deir el‑Ballas, Upper Egypt, currently held at the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology (PAHMA), University of California Berkeley. The plant remains were discovered in a non-elite cemetery, Cemetery 1‑200, that dates from the late 17th Dynasty to the early 19th Dynasty, with the most usage occurring in the early 18th Dynasty. To contextualise the archaeobotanical remains found in the cemetery, we looked at archival information from the original early 20th‑century excavation regarding the burial situations and associated material culture assemblages. Detailed information on 12 tomb contexts that contained food offerings is presented in this article to explain the botanical assemblage in relation to the material culture with which it is associated. Of significant interest is the presence of fruits such as dom [Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart], date (Phoenix dactylifera L.), persea (Mimusops
laurifolia L.), desert date [Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile, 1812], Christ’s thorn[Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd], grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), pomegranate (Punica granatum L.), sycamore figs (Ficus sycomorus L.), watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai], tiger nut rhizome (Cyperus esculentus L.), and juniper berries (Juniperus phoenicea L.). This article explores the meanings of these funerary offerings in a non-elite cemetery of the early 18th Dynasty at Deir el‑Ballas
This paper deals with the texts on a collection of hieratic wine jar dockets written in black ink. These dockets are now in the National Museum for Egyptian Civilization at Cairo, and they were excavated by E. Bresciani in the 1970s at Tuthmosis's IV temple in Gurna –Thebes. According to the paleography, formulae and content, the dockets date to the 18th dynasty, and the beginning of 19th dynasty, and they are comparable with similar dockets from Malkata.
This book takes a multi-disciplinary view of amphorae with a distinct carinated-shoulder feature which are found especially in archeological contexts in the Near East dating to the Achaemenid period. It uses mainly petrographic analysis to determine where they were made; the diferent formal types that were made, what their distribution was at sites along the coast of Lebanon, Israel and Gaza; and the implications of its production and distribution on our understanding of Phoenician commerce.
Many early states were deeply invested in alcoholic beverages. In focusing on the political instrumentality of these beverages, however, archaeologists have often lost sight of what makes them such an effective tool of statecraft. People seek out alcoholic beverages because of their inebriating potential, their ability to transform people, places, atmospheres, and events. In this article, I consider the politics of affect and the enduring connection between alcohol and the state-making project. I argue that alcohol has long served as an affective technology, a means of intervening in the affective domain. As a case study, I explore the evidence for beer in early Mesopotamia. A fundamental element in the state-making arsenal, beer was recognized to produce distinctive effects on imbibers, but this affective dimension has often been sidestepped in the archaeological literature. I approach the topic from two angles: (1) Mesopotamian perspectives on the effects of beer consumption and (2) key parameters that need to be clarified if we are to assess the role of beer as affective technology. I hope that the roadmap laid out here will help to spark deeper archaeological engagement with the affective dimensions of alcohol consumption and the politics of affect in Mesopotamia and beyond.
In the archaeological literature, the term “four-part set” has been introduced for the first time in the preliminary reports of the excavations at Abu Salabikh in Central Iraq to refer to groups of vessels, apparently connected in terms of function, found among the grave goods of some intramural graves of the Main Mound buildings. The set is composed by a large bowl or vat, a perforated cylindrical stand, a strainer and a small beaker, each vessel usually placed one in the other, and it is thought to be used in the production of beverages between the end of the Early Dynastic and the Akkadian period.
This paper presents a thorough examination of these sets, retrieved among grave goods at different sites in Central Southern Mesopotamia up to Tell Hariri, ancient Mari, where they appear in the pottery assemblage of the “maquettes architecturales”, in apparently non-funerary contexts. The analysis of the sets and their archaeological context will be conducted from a functional perspective in order to reconstruct the supposed use of these sets and their connection with the preparation of beer.
The internal layout of Aghram Nadharif was the focus of two different digital surveys. While the first (1999) was fairly interpretative, the second (2001) recorded waste and rubble as well, and attempted to analyse the topography of the site using simple GIS techniques. Features were surveyed and coded from 1 to 5 according to their state of preservation and readability. The next step was the creation of a plan in the ESRI ArcGIS environment, assigning a different weight to the structures according to their code. This allowed us to recognize rooms and streets, clustering the first according to their orientation in different sectors. The interpretative process is described in the text, allowing readers to verify each reconstruction and propose different hypotheses. The final picture of the site suggests four gateways, three on the wadi side (the northern and the central having been excavated) and one on the oasis side, buildings oriented according to the city wall and streets following its internal perimeter and reaching the central part of the citadel.
The discovery, excavation, function, typology, and probable date of an ancient winery excavated by the present Jezreel Expedition in 2013 are the focus of this article. Its method of construction and its function are discussed, and a comparison is made with other simple treading installations. The demand for wine is discussed with reference to the military nature of Jezreel during the period of Assyrian hegemony, and a probable date for the winery's initial use is proposed. The Jezreel winery continued in use until at least the first century CE, when new grape-pressing installations appear in the Byzantine-period village of Jezreel.
The intoxication tekhet is, in several contexts, positively perceived. This papers focuses on the sensuous experience of intoxication in ancient Egyptian texts. Intoxication-tekhet seems to be especially characterized by a form of polysensoriality. By contrast, the work of the scribe requires the specific attention of the mind for the perception of the sight and the hearing.
The tomb of Petosiris at Tuna el-Gebel was discovered in late 1919 and was immediately and methodically excavated until March 8, 1920 by Gustave Lefebvre. Since then, it has been recognised as having exceptional value for the history of art of the fourth century BC, when indigenous schools produced their last copies and when the first manifestations of Greek art appeared in Egypt. The internal decoration of the pronaos of this tomb displays the strong Greek influence on the style and on the art of coloured reliefs. At the same time, it portrays themes and scenes similar to the decor of the Memphite tombs from the Old Kingdom and the Theban tombs from the New Kingdom. The depicted topics denote, therefore, a remarkable historical continuity that will be dealt with this paper, within a framework of intrinsic similarities and originalities.
La tumba de Petosiris en Tuna el-Gebel fue descubierta a fines de 1919 y excavada inmediata y metódicamente hasta el 8 de marzo de 1920 por Gustave Lefebve. Desde ese momento se reconocieron sus valores excepcionales para el arte del siglo IV a.C., cuando las escuelas indígenas producían sus últimas obras y hacían su aparición las primeras manifestaciones del arte griego en Egipto. La decoración interior del pronaos de esta tumba evidencia la fuerte influencia griega en el estilo de sus coloridos relieves. Al mismo tiempo, representan temas y escenas similares a la decoración de las tumbas menfitas del Reino Antiguo y las tebanas del Reino Nuevo. Los temas presentan, por tanto, una significativa continuidad histórica que deseamos tratar en este artículo, en el marco de sus similitudes y originalidades intrínsecas.
Keywords: Ptolemaic Period, funerary art, decorative grammar.
Palabras clave: Periodo Ptolemaico, arte funerario, gramática decorativa.
Gypsum was widely employed in Egypt for plaster and mortar from late Predynastic times onward with the most extensive and varied use of this mineral occurring at Amarna (ancient Akhetaten) during the New Kingdom's Eighteenth Dynasty. It is traditionally thought the gypsum was obtained from the Faiyum Depression, but a new and larger source has been discovered on top of the limestone plateau to the north and east of Amarna. Here there are nearly three square kilometres of quarries dating mainly from the Old to New Kingdoms. The gypsum occurs in a thin soil on the limestone, forming a calcite-rich deposit known as gypsite. The total calcium sulfate content of gypsite samples (gypsum + bassanite + anhydrite) ranges from 24 to 74% with calcite comprising nearly all the remainder.
When one generally thinks of wine, it is usually wine produced from the grape that comes to mind, although as previously discussed, other wines most likely predated the traditional grape wine. Grape wine was thought to be originally produced from the wild ancestor of the Eurasian grape, Vitis vinifera sylvestris (Fig. 4.1), which was generally limited to the higher elevations of the north [2–5]. Small isolated populations of these wild grapevines can still be found along riverbank forests from the Atlantic coast of Europe to Tajikistan and the western Himalayas. The collection and use of these wild grapes as a food source by Paleolithic hunter-gatherer populations has been well documented at many prehistoric sites across Europe [3].
Alcohol had a profound influence on the art of the apothecary or pharmaceutical chemist [1], as well as changing the way that many artisans and alchemists carried out some types of reactions in the process of chemical pursuits. In this final chapter, the use of alcohol in early chemical and medical applications will be discussed, first as a simple component of fermented beverages and later in its purified form. In the process, the lasting effects of the availability of alcohol on the practice of both medicine and the chemical arts will be addressed.
This book evaluates the influence of common temple rituals not only on the day to day lives of ancient Egyptians, but also on their special events, economics, and politics. Author Katherine Eaton argues that a study of these daily rites ought to be the first step in analyzing the structure of more complex societal processes.
Comprehensive and detailed, this is the first ever study of ancient beer and its distilling, consumption and characteristics Examining evidence from Greek and Latin authors from 700 BC to AD 900, the book demonstrates the important technological as well as ideological contributions the Europeans made to beer throughout the ages. The study is supported by textual and archaeological evidence and gives a fresh and fascinating insight into an aspect of ancient life that has fed through to modern society and which stands today as one of the world's most popular beverages. Students of ancient history, classical studies and the history of food and drink will find this an useful and enjoyable read.
This companion provides the very latest accounts of the major and current aspects of Egyptology by leading scholars. It is delivered in a highly readable style and extensively illustrated; published in two volumes, it offers unprecedented breadth and depth of coverage, giving full scope to the discussion of this incredible civilization. Provides the very latest and, where relevant, well-illustrated accounts of the major aspects of Egypt's ancient history and culture. Covers a broad scope of topics including physical context, history, economic and social mechanisms, language, literature, and the visual arts. Delivered in a highly readable style with students and scholars of both Egyptology and Graeco-Roman studies in mind. Provides a chronological table at the start of each volume to help readers orient chapters within the wider historical context.
The Eastern Mediterranean in the Age of Ramesses II offers a transnational perspective on the age of King Ramesses II of Egypt during the centuries of 1500 to 1200 BC. Shows how powerful states - stretching from western Iran to Greece and from Turkey to Sudan - jointly shaped the history, society, and culture of this region through both peaceful and military means. Offers a straightforward narrative, current research, and rich illustrations. Utilizes historical data from ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Hittites, Mycenaeans, Canaanites, and others. Considers all members of these ancient societies, from commoners to royalty - exploring everything from people's eating habits to royal negotiations over diplomatic marriages.
The paper is a presentation and discussion of the pottery found in relation with two early First Dynasty royal funerary enclosures at Abydos. It sets out to do three things. In the first part, the formal aspects of the corpus are discussed. In the second part, the spatial distribution of the pottery is investigated in more detail. In the final part, a number of different axis of interpretation are discussed which are argued to be imperative for understanding how enclosures were actually used. This latter aspect, it is argued, has far too seldom been the departure point for speculation concerning the function of the Abydos enclosures.
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