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The Determinants of Salesperson Performance: A Meta-Analysis

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Abstract

The authors use meta-analysis techniques to investigate the evidence that has been gathered on the determinants of salespeople's performance. A search of the published and unpublished literature uncovered 116 articles (the list of which is available upon request) that yielded 1653 reported associations between performance and determinants of that performance. The results indicate the determinants can be ordered in the following way in terms of the average size of their association with performance: (1) role variables, (2) skill, (3) motivation, (4) personal factors, (5) aptitude, and (6) organizational/environmental factors. When ordered according to the amount of the observed variation in correlations across studies that is real variation (i.e., not attributable to sampling error), the determinants rank as follows: (1) personal factors, (2) skill, (3) role variables, (4) aptitude, (5) motivation, and (6) organizational/environmental factors. To investigate whether the associations between each of the categories of predictors and performance could be partially accounted for by the presence of moderator variables, the results were broken out by customer type, product type, and type of dependent measure used. The results indicate that the strength of the relationship between the major determinants and salespeople's performance is affected by the type of products salespeople sell. The authors discuss the implications of these findings for sales managers and researchers.

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... Em relação ao modo mais adequado para se obter as informações necessárias para medir e avaliar o desempenho de um vendedor , Churchill Jr. et al. (1985) afirmam que o principal ponto de discordância na literatura está na utilização de medidas objetivas ou subjetivas como forma de medir e mensurar o desempenho de um vendedor. Iniciativas de autoajuda e autoeducação, por serem egocêntricas, são falhas, pois podem carregar um viés de autoestima inflado. ...
... Iniciativas de autoajuda e autoeducação, por serem egocêntricas, são falhas, pois podem carregar um viés de autoestima inflado. Alguns estudos consideram, no entanto, que essas medidas são úteis, pois esse possível viés não tem o poder de influenciar de forma que prejudique a análise (Churchill Jr. et al., 1985). Então, entende-se que a confiança e os dados numéricos não são significativamente diferentes quando usados como fonte de avaliação do desempenho de vendas (Churchill Jr. et al., 1985). ...
... Alguns estudos consideram, no entanto, que essas medidas são úteis, pois esse possível viés não tem o poder de influenciar de forma que prejudique a análise (Churchill Jr. et al., 1985). Então, entende-se que a confiança e os dados numéricos não são significativamente diferentes quando usados como fonte de avaliação do desempenho de vendas (Churchill Jr. et al., 1985). Krishnan, Netemeyer e Boles (2002) argumentam que a avaliação está relacionada à percepção do desempenho de suas vendas em termos de valor, a qualidade de seu relacionamento com os clientes e o conhecimento que o vendedor tem sobre os produtos, o mercado, os concorrentes e as necessidades de seus clientes. ...
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Objetivo: O estudo busca destacar a complementariedade dos perfis Hunter e Farmer para o profissional de vendas, com foco na obtenção de resultados alinhados a uma estratégia que maximize o desempenho em vendas. A pesquisa responde à seguinte pergunta: Como desenvolver habilidades complementares no profissional de vendas de modo a obter resultados que equilibrem qualidade e retenção de clientes? Método: Classificado como descritivo e quantitativo, o estudo utilizou levantamento de dados primários por meio de questionário estruturado com perguntas fechadas, aplicado via Google Forms. Para a análise dos dados, foi utilizada a técnica de modelagem de equações estruturais. Resultados: Os achados indicam que o foco no cliente é essencial para o desempenho em vendas, tanto para o perfil Hunter quanto Farmer. À medida que as organizações amadurecem, as habilidades desses perfis tornam-se complementares, formando vendedores mais qualificados, capazes de atender tanto necessidades básicas quanto avançadas dos clientes. Conclusão e Implicações Práticas: O estudo conclui que as empresas devem adotar uma abordagem estratégica no desenvolvimento de vendedores, integrando as habilidades dos perfis Hunter e Farmer. Isso permite maximizar o desempenho e melhorar a qualidade do atendimento ao cliente. O processo de contratação deve considerar essa complementariedade, especialmente em estratégias voltadas para retenção e qualidade.
... The literature defines sales per formance as the outcome of salesperson behaviour that is measured regarding their contribution to the goals of the company and established by the elements that the salesperson controls over (Churchill et al., 1985;Küster and Canales. 2011). ...
... Therefore, productive sales performance requires not only fulfilling sales targets but also showing abilities in customer engagement and relationship management. Churchill et al. (1985) conducted an in-depth review of 116 published articles on sales performance from 1920 to 1984. The study has identified that six factors influence the improvement of sales performance. ...
... Another research was conducted by Verbeke et al. (2011), which studied 268 published articles from 1982 to 2008. Based on the findings of Churchill et al. (1985), it can be argued that the six hypothesized factors of sales performance are still valid and relevant in 2011. However, the study of Herjanto and Franklin (2019) shows that a variety of factors, including personal attributes, organizational aspects, co-worker dynamics, buyer characteristics, and situational elements, had a substantial impact on salesperson efficiency. ...
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A skilled salesperson can build strong relationships with clients, which fosters loyalty and repeat business. They provide valuable insights into customer preferences and competitive landscapes as well as creating value for their customers, manage customer relationships, and gather information for their firms. Hence, this paper explores how self-efficacy functions as a mediator in the correlation between improvisational behaviour, adaptive selling, and sales performance of salespersons. This study investigates the direct and indirect relationship of self-efficacy with sales performance. This study used a survey research approach using clustered random sampling. Data are collected from 315 salespersons employed by Malaysian commercial banks in Klang Valley via survey questionnaires. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to analyse the data. The findings indicate that self-efficacy serves as a partial mediator in the relationship between improvisational behaviour and adaptive selling with sales performance. Additionally, the results also showed that improvisational behaviour and adaptive selling are positively related to sales performance. The study concluded that personal factors of salespersons are important in determining their sales performance. Hence, for managers to have a competitive advantage in the banking sector, they need to adopt a more comprehensive understanding of what makes a good customer service provider.
... Whether internal or external, motivational factors serve as stimulants influencing individual ability to execute sales tasks (Abbasi, Goh & Ariffin 2019;Fu et al. 2017;Suen et al. 2022). A meta-analysis of the research work of Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke, Dietz and Verwaal (2011) highlighted three broad categories of individual motivations that are imperative within the context of sales performance, namely cognitive choice, goal orientation, and work engagement. Within these categories, Churchill et al. and Verbeke et al. identified six motivational dimensions of motivation, namely spending time on planning, salesperson's intrinsic motivation, performance goal orientation, salesperson's output productivity, enthusiasm, and job involvement. ...
... It should be noted that the seminal work of Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2011) on sales performance only partially uncovered the importance of the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors on sales performance. No prior studies have explored the significance of the influence of motivational factors on sales performance in a B2B context. ...
... Hence, the study tests a sixdimensional framework of B2B sellers' motivations in sales performance. Therefore, the study validates the seminal work of Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2011) on the motivational indicators of sales performance. Through such a validation, sales managers are given insights and direction regarding the intrinsic and extrinsic elements of motivation that should be considered within a B2B context. ...
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Background: Whether internal or external, motivational factors serve as stimulants influencing individual ability to execute sales tasks. A meta-analysis was conducted highlighting three broad categories of individual motivations that are imperative within the context of sales performance, namely cognitive choice, goal orientation, and work engagement. However, marketing and sales management scholars argue that there is a need for further research exploring the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors on overall sales performance in multiple business settings. Aim: The aim of the study is to test a six-dimensional framework of business-to-business (B2B) sellers’ motivations in sales performance. Setting: The application of a six-dimensional framework on sales performance within a Norwegian context. Different companies from multiple industries operating in the product-orientated sector of Norway were selected to measure the relevance of the six-dimensional framework to sales performance in these companies. Method: In total, 236 usable questionnaires representing multiple industries of different sizes across Norway were used. Data were collected using self-administered questionnaires. Results: The findings indicate that the dimensions of B2B sellers’ motivations are relevant in a B2B sales setting. Therefore, sales businesses operating in a B2B environment need to become increasingly aware that motivations drive sellers to achieve their goals. Conclusion: The study offers an increased understanding on how to structure B2B sellers’ motivations in a six-dimensional framework, including cognitive choice, goal orientation, and work engagement. Contribution: The study develops an improved understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that influence the sales performance of B2B sellers. Furthermore, it contributes to an increased understanding of how to structure B2B sellers’ motivations in a six-dimensional framework.
... Meta-analytical research by Chawla et al. (2020), based on the previous meta-analysis of Verbeke et al. (2011), offers a systematic and objective approach, synthesizing SP driver theory by grouping them in six categories along with a list of determinants. Yet, theory has recognized the seller skills' category as the most relevant (Amor, 2019;Churchill et al., 1985). Moreover, the need to clarify and offer empirical evidence on the effect of such seller skills on performance has recently emerged (Johlke, 2006;Ulaga and Kohli, 2018;Kwak et al., 2019), as the research results are not unanimous (Bolander et al., 2021). ...
... Additionally, SP is based on salespeople, but also in sales situations (Johlke, 2006). Accordingly, Churchill et al. (1985) indicated that different sales situations or product types can EBR affect sales success. Explicitly, recent research has called for increasing knowledge on this issue in the specific context of B2B service firms (Høgevold et al., 2021) where overall firm success is clearly determined by salespeople's SP (Boles et al., 2000). ...
... In such settings, the role of salespeople's skills have been considered as the main driver of SP (Basir et al., 2010;Churchill et al., 1985;Rentz et al., 2002), as skilled salespeople are able to understand customers and customize the offer, and even adapt their selling strategies to the specific situation in order to improve sales results (Arli et al., 2018;Chawla et al., 2020;Churchill et al., 1985;Rentz et al., 2002;Verbeke et al., 2011). But "[. . ...
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Purpose This study aims to examine the role of salespeople’s skills in relative and absolute SP in business-to-business (B2B) settings of services firms. This conceptual logic reported in meta-analytical works, that salespeople’s skills relate directly to their sales performance (SP), is questioned. Design/methodology/approach his research relies on existing theory and previous studies on SP drivers and SP measures. The literature identifies a set of common denominators on the role of salespeople’s skills regarding their SP, all of which are tested in this study. Based on a deductive approach and questionnaire survey, 732 service firms in Norway were targeted. A total of 389 questionnaires were returned, generating a response rate of 53.1%. Findings A total of 10 out of 12 hypothesized relationships in the research model dealing with the relationship between SP drivers and SP turn out to be non-significant. The hypothesized relationship in the research model between relative and absolute SP is also supported. Research limitations/implications The results reported in this study, based on a large sample of service firms, empirically confirm that the direct effect is generally overestimated. Empirical evidence is provided that sheds additional light on the role of salespeople’s skills in relative and absolute SP in B2B settings of services firms. Practical implications This study offers meaningful and relevant insights into the monitoring of SP drivers to practitioners in B2B sales settings of services firms. Salespeople need to learn about gathering knowledge in training programs about each customer and their specific situation. Firms should strive to recruit salespeople who possess the appropriate skills, taking into consideration their customers and specific situations related to them, such as experiences from competitors. Salespeople may be organized around similar customers and similar customer situations, rather than geographical assignments. Originality/value Overall, this research contributes insights into the role played by salespeople’s skills in relative and absolute SP in B2B settings of services firms. In particular, the research contributes additional insights into the non-existent role of interpersonal presentation and communication skills, adaptiveness of sales approach and sales behavior skills and product/technology-related knowledge skills in salespeople’s relative and absolute SP in B2B settings of services firms.
... The literature recognizes a number of sales performance indicators that can explain seller performance (Verbeke et al., 2011). The literature also confirms that seller skills are one of the key areas of sales performance indicators (Basir et al., 2010;Churchill et al., 1985;Churchill et al., 2000;Verbeke et al., 2011;Walker et al., 1977). Nevertheless, more research on the issue is needed (Kwak et al., 2019;Ulaga and Kohli, 2018). ...
... In addition, the literature also suggests that the indicators of seller performance, including seller skills, are affected by the type of products (goods or services) that sellers offer (Churchill et al., 1985;Verbeke et al., 2011), and, recently, Rodriguez et al. (2022 a, b) recognized the paucity of evidence supporting the effect of seller skills on sales performance and the need to deepen our understanding of sales performance drivers but placing the focus on services in B2B environments. Moreover, Ahmad (2020) confirm the sparse empirical evidence on this aspect in the case of B2B services firms. ...
... Altogether, the research objective of this study is to benchmark meta-analytical conceptualizations of B2B seller skills against empirical evidence in services firms. The benchmark is derived from the meta-analytical conceptualizations by Verbeke et al. (2011) andChurchill et al. (1985). Accordingly, this study rests on the principal categories of B2B seller skills in the context of sales performance as conceptualized in the referenced meta-analyses, such as interpersonal, degree of adaptiveness and selling-related knowledge plus use of sales technology, that are subsequently divided into a set of dimensions. ...
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Purpose The purpose of the study was to benchmark meta-analytical conceptualizations of business-to-business (B2B) seller skills against empirical evidence in services firms. Design/methodology/approach The study is based on a deductive approach and questionnaire survey focusing on a range of services firms from different industries and corporate sizes. A total of 389 questionnaires out of 732 were returned, generating a response rate of 53.1%. Findings The study aims to provide empirical evidence and structures relating to B2B sellers' capabilities in a seven-dimensional conceptualization, all of which can be used in services firms to improve their seller efficiency. Each seller skill dimension performs a different function in the sales services process. Research limitations/implications The authors conclude that the verified meta-analytical conceptualizations of B2B seller skills seem valid and reliable in services firms. Nevertheless, further research needs to be carried out, based on other company characteristics as well as industries. Practical implications It reduces the risk perceived by customers in B2B services settings through cultivating the sellers' capabilities, based on the seven-dimensional evidence of seller skills to enhance sales performance. Originality/value The study contributes to existing theory and previous studies by offering a foundation on which to structure sales performance indicators in services firms. Specifically, it contributes to structuring B2B seller skills across a selection of principal dimensions in B2B services settings.
... Age, weight, sex, ethnicity, looks, and education are some of the factors that are taken into account. These individual characteristics have been and are the second most common attribute of interest for researchers, according to (Churchill et al., 1985). The physical evidence encompasses a variety of elements, including the appearance of the employees, workplace design and decor, furniture arrangement and comfort, a welcoming environment, and the creation of tangible items like brochures or flyers (Nguyen et al., 2018). ...
... At this moment, insurance companies often present the market with fresh and inventive offerings. Churchill et al. (1985) discovered surprisingly weak associations between individual performance indicators and the salesperson's actual performance. Wongsapun & Samson (2017) found that the process was insignificant in the customer's decision to purchase the POS systems for casual dining restaurants. ...
... Depending on how one responds to and manages the stress, it may not always be damaging. Churchill et al. (1985) sought to determine the factor that predicted salesperson success that was most quantitatively precise by doing a meta-analysis of 116 publications published over the preceding 75 years. They divided their 1653 observations into the following six categories: aptitude, skill level, motivation, role, personal variables, organizational factors, and environmental factors. ...
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This study aimed to examine the effects of the 7Ps of marketing mix on the sales performance of an insurance company in Perak, Malaysia. The name of the insurance company is not revealed in this study because the management of the insurance company refused to give consent fearing a breach of data protection laws. Seven marketing mix variables were explored regarding their association and relationship with sales performance. The seven key factors are product, price, promotion, placement, people, process, and physical evidence. A self-administered survey was utilized to gather the data, and 101 participants participated in this study. Pearson correlation analysis and linear regression analysis were used to analyse the association and the relationships between the dependent and independent variables. Findings from this study indicated that two key elements of the marketing mix, price, and physical evidence, have a significant relationship with sales performance. In contrast, the results also indicated no significant relationships between the other marketing mix variables of product, place, promotion, people, and process with sales performance. Therefore, according to this study, price and physical evidence directly affected the sales performance of the insurance company in this study. Article visualizations: </p
... Besides, another interviewee, Agus Nurudin, also believed that the achievement of sales/ growth is a consequence of the high effectiveness of business processes through digital transformation. Furthermore, the present finding is supported by Churchill Jr et al. (1985), saying that sales organization effectiveness is a summary evaluation of the overall output of the organization, such as sales value and profit level. ...
... Therefore, sales managers and sales supervisors in digital transformation must be able to take the company one step ahead of competing companies by redesigning business processes and trying to find new ways to win the market. Although business organizations mostly experience the impact of digital transformation due to the transformation process, some studies (Churchill Jr et al., 1985;Wengler et al., 2021) have not classified this impact. Therefore, the present study complements the scientific repertoire by categorizing the impact of digital transformation with a focus on customer and organizational categories and their positive or adverse effects. ...
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A clear understanding of internal strength allows the company to innovate and adapt in a highly competitive Fast-moving consumer goods market. Therefore, the company's ability to oversee risk and opportunities determines the company's resilience. By employing homogeneous purposive sampling, which focused on the member population of 11 FMCG companies, the present study processed quantitative data from a questionnaire using a Likert scale and qualitative data through in-depth interviews with stakeholders. The data was collected through one-on-one in-depth interviews with 11 respondents online and offline in 12 major cities from August to November 2022. Later, questionnaires were processed using AHP Fuzzy to explain and take into account the role of decision-makers resembling FMCG leaders by defining interactive factors, actors, objectives, and strategies. Factor-actor analysis found that the sales director was the actor with the most influential role in the leadership factor, the sales manager was influential in the Organizational Citizenship Behavior factor, and the sales director was a prominent actor in sales management control. The main goal of the president director, IT/Digital director, supply chain director, and sales director in digital transformation is increasing effectiveness/efficiency in business processes. Besides, the sales manager and sales supervisor aspire to achieve sales targets or sales growth set by the company. In increasing effectiveness/efficiency and achieving sales targets/sales growth set by the company, prioritized strategy can be done through the development of leadership, capability, and human resource capacity. Besides, customer/business partner-oriented digitalization is vital for increasing customer/business partner satisfaction with the company's services/business processes. Furthermore, the present study found leadership models as critical for digital transformation with the realistic scenario (iterative improvement) in all likelihood. Sales organizations are expected to consistently and continuously conduct experiments to find new ways of working and produce digital initiatives that companies need to answer customer/consumer demands. Those strategies can be done by clearly identifying factors, actors, objectives, and strategies for better business execution in digital transformation.
... Their importance may vary according to the product type and the context where sales are made (Donassolo & Matos, 2012). From two meta-analyses (Churchill et al., 1985;Verbeke et al., 2010) on the influencers of salespeople's performance, it appears that the primary influencers of performance are: personal, organizational, and environmental factors, motivation, aptitude, levels of skills, perception of their role within the organization and the sales process, knowledge related to the degree of adaptation, role ambiguity, cognitive skills and engagement at work. ...
... Both the studies by Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2010) reached the same conclusion: there is no agreement among researchers on defining and measuring salespeople's performance, especially, which are the main factors that influence salespeople's performance. Even with this lack of consensus, Donassolo (2011) postulates it is preferable to use variables such as effort, sales skills, salesperson's perception of their role within the organization, and self-efficacy when seeking to understand sales performance's main predictors. ...
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Raw performance and the factors that influence it is a relatively rare topic in Organizational and Work Psychology, especially in the context of Positive Organizational Behavior. This study aimed to verify whether psychological capital predicts the performance of salespeople in a wholesaler-distributor. The sample consisted of 237 salespeople who responded to the Inventory of Psychological Capital at Work (ICPT-25). The model test was performed through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), which indicated that the proposed model, in which psychological capital predicted gross performance, was not corroborated. We argue that situational variables can be more robust predictors than individual variables. We propose that raw performance should be investigated with independent variables of a situational nature, such as leadership.
... Improving salesforce performance outcomes for companies with sales representatives is an age-old challenge that can be addressed with the application of emerging technologies through the lenses of established theories. Much has been written in the marketing and management literature about salesforce motivation and performance, primarily emphasizing the motivation of internal salesforces (e.g., Bolander et al. 2020Bolander et al. , 2021Churchill et al. 1985;Finch et al. 2018;Herjanto and Franklin 2019;Herzberg 1959;Maslow 1954;Verbeke et al. 2011;Vroom 1964). There have been multiple factors considered through the lenses of workforce motivation, salesforce expectations and expectancy, commitment, relationships with organizations and leaders, and needs for achievement and recognition. ...
... An earlier meta-analysis of 116 articles regarding determinants of salesperson performance found, "The results indicate the determinants can be ordered in the following way in terms of the average size of their association with performance: (1) role variables, (2) skill, (3) motivation, (4) personal factors, (5) aptitude, and (6) organizational/environmental factors. (Churchill et al. 1985)" According to the meta-analysis, all of these are moderated by the types of products salespeople sell. In a meta-analysis 26 years later, Verbeke et al. (2011) identified the key drivers of sales performance somewhat differently as selling-related knowledge, work engagement, cognitive aptitude, role ambiguity, and adaptive selling, which are factored into the analysis. ...
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This research supports improved salesforce outcomes for companies with independent sales representatives via the application of emerging technologies. It is framed in expectancy theory (in: Vroom, Work and motivation, Wiley, New York, 1964), Herzberg’s et al. (The motivation to work, Wiley, New York, 1959) two factor theory, and the job demands and resources model (JD-R) (Bakker and Demerouti in J Manag Psychol 22:309–328, 2007). The study analyzes the 2018 National Salesforce Survey (USA) commissioned by the Direct Selling Association (Washington, DC, USA). It identifies key factors in salesforce motivation and performance theories studied within these theoretical frames and channel-specific inputs for direct selling independent representatives. While researchers apply multiple methods to salesforce motivation and performance, the power of machine learning has not been applied to independent representatives and their unique circumstances. This research employs supervised learning algorithms for predictive analytics to create models for recruits and existing independent representatives. It finds that the most crucial factors align with expectancy theory for both. Allocated time for direct selling, ability to find new customers, gender, and adopting direct selling as a career play key roles in predicting sales success for individuals entering direct selling. The highest-performing representatives are characterized by time invested, experience of direct selling, recruitment, tenure, and use of technology. By predicting representative success factors, organizations can tailor recruitment, training, and incentives to maximize performance. Because independent sales representatives are not employees, understanding these factors is critical to firms engaging them. Translating established theory into testing with predictive analytics to identify meaningful success factors for rarely studied independent sales representatives has the potential to change the landscape for recruitment, retention, and success.
... Job pressures scale the request and control will be measured in a preferred kind scale (1-4) extending between about often=1, sometimes=2, seldom=3, never/never with 11 items and the segment of social help include six inquiries concerning the specialist association with collogue and chief, will be measure in an enjoyed compose scale (1-4) going between strongly agree=1, mildly agree = 2, mildly disagree = 3, strongly disagree = 4 (Theorell et al., 1988). job satisfaction will be measured by utilizing a 5-point Likert scale going between strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, neither = 3' agree = 4, strongly agree = 5, with 13 items which you feel certain or questionable about the different part of your jobs (Churchill Jr, Ford, Hartley, and Walker Jr, 1985). Then again, other unmistakable graphical techniques for the trial of normality, for example, histogram and Q-Q Plot, have been analyzed because it gives an unpleasant thought regardless of whether the information of dependent variable takes after the presumption of normality. ...
Article
This research investigates the relationships among proactive personality, job stress, and job satisfaction. Organizations are mostly considered people who are more actively performing their tasks and can take the initiative to change overall performance. Here we discuss the role of proactive personality and level of job satisfaction because the person who is more satisfied with their job works due to full of passion, energy, are more effective for the organization. The effect of job stress on the proactive personality on their job satisfaction. Proactive behavior has significant importance in the selection and hiring processes of a company. Data was collected from doctors and nurses of different private and public hospitals and their private clinics. In the current study, a data sample of 392 was collected from different govt and private sectors and used the parceling item method for measurement and structural modeling for the best results. It is demonstrated that proactive personality positively correlated with individual job satisfaction.
... We also used existing scales to measure the moderators of competitive intensity (five items; Jaworski and Kohli, 1993) and role autonomy (four items; Wang and Netemeyer, 2002). Finally, we assessed single-item control variables import to sales performance at the industry-level (industry classification), organizational-level (company size), product-level (goods or services) and individual-level (gender, age, salesperson experience, average hours worked per week) (Churchill et al., 1985;Jaramillo et al., 2005;Verbeke et al., 2011). ...
Article
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide empirical understanding germane to ethical climate’s contingent, nonlinear relationship with salesperson performance. While research shows a positive relationship between a firm’s ethical climate and salesperson performance, current examinations of this effect have been limited to linear hypothesizing and testing. The job demands-resource model, however, suggests that the relationship between ethical climate and salesperson performance is nonlinear. Design/methodology/approach To test the theorized nonlinear and moderated nonlinear relationships, the authors use a sample of 485 business-to-business salespeople and structural equations path modeling. Findings Results reveal an increasing incremental threshold effect between ethical climate and salesperson performance. Findings further support postulations that conditions which increase (e.g. competitive intensity) or decrease (e.g. role autonomy) the extent to which the sales environment is challenging correspondingly increase or decrease the magnitude of the nonlinearity. Research limitations/implications Because the study required variance in environmental-level (e.g. competitive intensity) and organizational-level (e.g. role autonomy) moderators, data used to test the hypotheses came from a cross-sectional, self-reported survey. Practical implications The results produce the managerial insight that there are increasing returns to salesperson performance as the ethical climate increases. Insights from the analysis of moderating conditions further inform managers that in highly competitive industries they should be especially attuned to their ethical climate. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the findings are the first to advance insight into ethical climate’s curvilinear and contingent salesperson performance implications. Furthermore, this study advances moderated nonlinear relationships suggested by theory.
... According to Lien et al. (2015), consumer trust in a brand is increased by a detailed examination of practical benefits including money saved, exceptional services received, and time saved. Perceived value is a person's impression of a product's quality [13]. Since perceived value is a good indicator of how people would act, it is suggested to look into how perceived value affects brand loyalty [14]. ...
... Assessing insurance agents' job performance can be qualitative or quantitative, often measured by closed business within specific periods, such as annually, semi-annually, quarterly, or monthly. Meta-analytic approaches by Li and Zhang (2021) and Churchill (1985) indicate increasing percentages (6% to 20%) of job performance being influenced by personality traits, emphasizing the increasing impact of personality factors on sales representatives' performance. Notably, insurance advisors frequently changing organizations pose challenges for life insurance companies, as customer satisfaction is intricately tied to the quality of service provided by these advisors (Robinson & Rousseau, 2022). ...
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The flourishing life insurance industry in Sri Lanka underscores the pivotal role of insurance agents in advancing revenue streams and overall success. This study examines the nexus between the Big Five personality traits and the Job performance of insurance agents in the life insurance companies in the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. The independent variables encompass the dimensions of openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability, while the dependent variable comprises job performance. A stratified random sampling approach was employed to distribute 300 structured questionnaires among insurance agents in life insurance companies. The collected data were analyzed by using different statistical techniques. The outcomes of the multiple regression analysis underscore a substantial impact of all Big Five personality dimensions excluding agreeableness on job performance. These findings offer valuable insights for insurance agents, aiding them in making informed career choices. Simultaneously, life insurance company managers can leverage this research to refine their selection criteria, ensuring the recruitment of individuals whose personalities align with the dimensions that significantly impact job performance in the industry and identify the training needs for the personality development of the insurance agent in the life insurance companies in Sri Lanka.
... According to Shade, Kornfield and Oliver (2015), one of its significant flaws is that it relies on self-reports, assuming that audiences are active rather than passive actors. However, the self-report research methodology has been broadly validated (Bourque & Fielder, 1995;Churchill Jr et al., 1985;Román & Iacobucci, 2010). Self-reporting is a very practical and convenient research method commonly applied in the social sciences (Bourque & Fielder, 1995;del Valle & Zamora, 2021). ...
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El objetivo de nuestra investigación es medir cómo los usos y motivaciones para usar teléfonos inteligentes por parte de la joven población chilena han cambiado a través del tiempo y cómo estas motivaciones para comprometerse con los teléfonos inteligentes afectan el tiempo dedicado a enviar mensajes de texto en estos dispositivos portátiles. Replicamos una encuesta cara a cara entre millennials y centennials chilenos, realizada por primera vez en 2009 (n= 1.320), repetida en 2015 (n= 744) y realizada nuevamente en 2021 (n= 846). Esta última ola se realizó entre julio y noviembre a sujetos de entre 18 y 25 años residentes en Chile. El cuestionario incluyó 44 preguntas basadas en escalas previamente validadas en estudios que relacionan la Teoría de Usos y Gratificaciones con los teléfonos móviles, actitudes hacia la tecnología y evaluaciones de los usuarios sobre los atributos de los teléfonos móviles definidas por Albarran (2009). También se incluyeron variables relacionadas con datos demográficos (por ejemplo, zona de residencia) y de género, que los encuestados declararon. La mayoría de las motivaciones para utilizar teléfonos inteligentes medidas en nuestra encuesta de 2021 fueron las mismas que medimos en 2015 y 2009, pero otras son nuevas. Para medir cómo ha cambiado el atractivo de las motivaciones a lo largo del tiempo, realizamos una comparación de medias. También realizamos un análisis factorial exploratorio para agregar motivaciones y análisis de regresión para cuantificar cómo las motivaciones afectaban el tiempo que los jóvenes dedicaban a enviar mensajes de texto.
... The first research category includes the influence of salespeople's selling capability on selling performance in general. According to a meta-analysis conducted by Churchill et al. (1985), salespeople's selling capability has the second greatest influence on salesperson's sales performance after salesperson's individual role perception . ...
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Business customers often hold a critical attitude towards an (industrial) innovation and resist its adoption because of the associated uncertainties. One main reason for this lies in a non-functioning knowledge transfer from salespeople to the business customer. This issue results in business customer’s poor adoption of knowledge about the new offering and a potential lower (industrial) innovation adoption; however, until now there are only very limited insights on how to address this issue. One lever seems to be the salespeople’s selling capability, i.e., the capability of individuals to perform salespeople’s tasks, and its contingencies. Therefore, we focus in our study on the influence of the selling capability on customer’s knowledge adoption. We collected unique data from surveys of business customers on actual, incremental industrial innovations, supplemented by objective purchase data from company records. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first, who empirically prove that customers’ knowledge adoption mediates the relationship between salespeople’s selling capability and innovation purchases. Interestingly, we also reveal that there is an optimum level of selling capability for the transfer of knowledge of the innovation to the business customer, which depends on contingencies. Thus, sales managers, innovation managers and marketing managers, should provide their salespeople with additional strategies (e.g. assertive listening) which can complement the use of selling capability and thus prevent salespeople to overuse these.
... However, we were unable to obtain information regarding employees' task performance from additional sources, such as via supervisors and company records. Alas, we at least cautiously point out that there is meta-analytic evidence indicating that, when compared with other performance measures, there generally is no upward bias in self-report measures of performance (see Churchill et al., 1985). ...
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As most previous research on pay transparency focused on individual- or organizational-level dynamics, we have limited understanding of the impact of pay transparency on culture or climate within an organization. This study investigates how procedural pay transparency is associated with the motivational climate in work units within organizations. One might argue that, in the presence of pay transparency, employees may further engage in social comparisons to learn about how they are doing relative to their peers, which leads to an increased performance climate, where success is defined based on relative performance. However, the findings from this study suggest that procedural pay transparency is positively associated with mastery climate instead, that is, a work unit climate where success is defined based on learning, growth, and effort. Furthermore, the results suggest that procedural pay transparency is meaningfully related to sorting and motivational effects through its impact on mastery climate.
... However, we were unable to obtain information regarding employees' task performance from additional sources, such as via supervisors and company records. Alas, we at least cautiously point out that there is meta-analytic evidence indicating that, when compared with other performance measures, there generally is no upward bias in self-report measures of performance (see Churchill et al., 1985). ...
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As most previous research on pay transparency focused on individual- or organizational-level dynamics, we have limited understanding of the impact of pay transparency on culture or climate within an organization. This study investigates how procedural pay transparency is associated with the motivational climate in work units within organizations. One might argue that, in the presence of pay transparency, employees may further engage in social comparisons to learn about how they are doing relative to their peers, which leads to an increased performance climate, where success is defined based on relative performance. However, the findings from this study suggest that procedural pay transparency is positively associated with mastery climate instead, that is, a work unit climate where success is defined based on learning, growth, and effort. Furthermore, the results suggest that procedural pay transparency is meaningfully related to sorting and motivational effects through its impact on mastery climate.
... Selling agents' orientations and skills are crucial in the STE. Orientations, such as attitudes, can be more innate, while skills are subject to development within the selling organizations (Churchill et al., 1985;Churchill et al., 1979). Contemporary research focuses on ambidextrous skills for salespeople, handling "frontline" service roles and sales activities (Mihalache et al., 2014;Rapp et al., 2020;Rapp et al., 2017). ...
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... bno u 70-im godinama 20. veka(Riketta, 2005), ili se posmatrala kao njena komponenta (Allen, Meyer, 1990). Pretpostavlja se da je poistovećivanje ova dva koncepta jedan od razloga što je organizaciona identifikacija bila mnogo manje zastupljena kao istraživačka tema u odnosu na posvećenost, a što je u to vreme zapaženo i u području marketinga (npr.Churchill et al., 1985). Od 80-ih godina 20. veka dolazi do reaktuelizacije organizacione identifikacije kao jedinstvenog koncepta(Riketta, 2005) i istraživačke teme. Najzastupljenija istraživanja su i dalje istraživanja identifikacije zaposlenih s organizacijom u celini(Bednar et al., 2020), iako pojedinci teže pre identifikaciji s ulogom ili karijerom, lično ...
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... Several researchers found that job performance is affected by environmental factors (Armstrong et al., 2014;Chatman et al., 2014;Dermol & Čater, 2013) job-related factors (Armstrong et al., 2014;Diamantidis & Chatzoglou, 2019;Kooij et al., 2013) and factors related to employees (Griffin et al., 2007;Hancock et al., 2013;Parker & Collins, 2010). Applying meta-analysis, Churchill et al. (1985) identified six different categories of determinants related to sales performance such as role perception, environmental and organizational factors, personal factors, aptitude, motivation, and skill level. Consistently throughout the literature, a significant negative relationship was witnessed between sales performance and role perception including role conflict, role overload, and role ambiguity (Verbeke et al., 2010). ...
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The COVID-19 pandemic, as a global health emergency, is likely to have major public health consequences. Fear and anxiety have been among the most typical psychological reactions within the community. Thus, the purpose of this study is to examine the influence of distress, fear of COVID-19, and work overload on job stress and job performance of medical representatives. The sample of the current study consisted of 260 medical representatives working in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir. A web-based cross-sectional survey design was used to gather data from respondents. Data analysis and hypotheses testing were performed by applying partial least square structural equation modeling. Distress, work overload, and job stress were found to have a significant negative impact on the job performance of medical representatives. The direct effect of fear of COVID-19 on job performance was shown to be statistically insignificant. However, fear of COVID-19 significantly affected job performance through job stress.
... Given the focus of the chapter, we confine our discussion only to sales force performance. Interested readers can refer to the work of Churchill et al. (1985) and Verbeke et al. (2011) for meta-analytical reviews of antecedents to sales performance. ...
... Extrinsic motivation is based on the anticipation of rewards and/or punishments, whereas intrinsic motivation is based on the spontaneous enjoyment of an engaging activity that fosters personal development (Gagne & Deci, 2005). One of the most important variables of an employee's overall effectiveness is motivation (Churchill et al., 1985). For example, Oliver & Anderson (1987, discovered that behavioural controls are linked to higher intrinsic motivation among salespeople, while output controls are linked to higher extrinsic motivation. ...
Thesis
The aim of this research is to define, explain and study the influence of customer control that is the result of technological development. Technological evolution has transformed the past business practices and changed the role of customer from passive to active. This role change has the direct influence on employees. Customer being part of a business is studied in various forms such as a co-creator, co-producer, participator, enabler, coordinator, innovator and differentiator. This study is extending the role of customer to the controller. Customer control can improve social needs among employees but can also cause powerlessness, and role ambiguity. To keep employees aligned with organizational objectives, Management Control Systems (MCS) are adapted. In past, MCSs were mostly focused on the internal environment, yet the external environment such as market and customer has proved its importance. This study defined customer control as the authority given to the customer to evaluate employees. It will help to recognize the impact of customer control on employees’ behaviours such as affective commitment, job involvement and alienation. Another purpose of this research is to observe moderating effect of organizational and supervisory support. Furthermore, to investigate the impact of self-determination theory by studying its mediating role between customer control and employee behaviours. This study is conducted in two countries, Pakistan and France. The data for both studies is collected through questionnaires and analysed by using SPSS and AMOS.
... Only few have really examined the effects of salesperson's characteristics that determine his sales performance. Even, those few studies have in the main focused on his socio-demographic factors rather than his personal characteristics (Churchill et al., 1985). The object of the current study is to address this void by examining various dimensions of salesperson's characteristics that drive his performance. ...
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Chapter
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