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The role of teacher-student relationships in unlocking students’ academic potential: Exploring motivation, engagement, resilience, adaptability, goals, and instruction

Authors:
© 2014 Martin & Collie 0
Martin, A.J., & Collie, R.J. (2016). The role of teacher-student relationships in unlocking students’ academic
potential: Exploring motivation, engagement, resilience, adaptability, goals, and instruction. In K.R.
Wentzel & G. Ramani (Eds). Handbook of social influences on social-emotional, motivation, and
cognitive outcomes in school contexts. New York: Routledge.
This chapter may not exactly replicate the authoritative document in the published book/volume. It is not the copy of
record. The exact copy of record can be accessed via the published book/volume, Handbook of social influences on
social-emotional, motivation, and cognitive outcomes in school contexts (2016).
© 2014 Martin & Collie 1
The Role of Teacher-Student Relationships in Unlocking Students’ Academic Potential:
Exploring Motivation, Engagement, Resilience, Adaptability, Goals, and Instruction
Andrew J. Martin and Rebecca J. Collie
School of Education
University of New South Wales
Requests for further information about this investigation can be made to Professor Andrew J. Martin,
School of Education, UNSW, Sydney NSW 2052, AUSTRALIA. E-Mail: andrew.martin@unsw.edu.au.
Phone: +61 2 9385 1952. Fax: +61 2 9385 1946.
Thanks are extended to the Australian Research Council for funding this research.
Introduction
This chapter explores the academic importance of teacher-student relationships, the means by which
teacher-student relationships play a part in unlocking students’ academic potential and development, the
role of teacher-student relationships in assisting our understanding of important educational phenomena, the
place of teacher-student relationships in major theories of achievement motivation and other achievement-
related constructs, and practical approaches to promoting better teacher-student relationships in the
everyday course of pedagogy. As a guiding framework for the discussion, we draw on a recently developed
framework aimed at integrating instructional and self-system factors relevant to optimizing students’
academic potential: the Personal Proficiency Network (PPN). The PPN comprises a constellation of factors
and processes relevant to students’ academic development, including: motivation, engagement, academic
buoyancy, academic resilience, adaptability, growth goals, and guided assessment and instruction. Given
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the breadth of constructs under the PPN, it represents a useful lens through which to consider the place of
teacher-student relationships in students’ academic striving.
The Personal Proficiency Network
The Personal Proficiency Network (PPN) was recently proposed as a synthesis of factors and processes
relevant to the self-system, instruction, and students’ academic development (Martin, 2013). The PPN
comprises (1) interpersonal relationships and social support, (2) motivation and engagement, (3) academic
buoyancy, resilience, and adaptability, (4) growth (‘personal best’) orientation, and (5) guided assessment
and instruction. Figure 1 demonstrates the elements of the model. The PPN represents an organizing
framework for cutting-edge and classic concepts in educational psychology and the related factors and
processes relevant to students striving to achieve their academic potential. The reader is referred to Martin
(2013) for a full articulation and rationale for the PPN, its factors, and its development. The present
discussion uses the key components of the PPN to explore the importance, role, and impact of teacher-
student relationships on students’ academic development.
<<Insert Figure 1 about here>>
Interpersonal Relationships and Social Support
The PPN explicitly emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationships and social support in students’
academic development (see Figure 1). Teachers, parents/caregivers, and peers are three major relationship
sources that are influential in students’ academic lives. This chapter is focused on the role of the teacher
however, much other work has investigated the role of parents/caregivers and peers (e.g., Bempechat &
Shernoff, 2012; Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Juvonen, 2006; Juvonen, Espinoza, & Knifsend, 2012; Liem &
Martin, 2011; Mansour & Martin, 2009; Martin & Dowson, 2009; Pomerantz & Moorman, 2010; Wentzel,
2010). Positive interpersonal relationships (including with teachers) are seen as a buffer against stress and
risk, important for help on (academic) tasks, a source of emotional support in daily life, and a basis for
social-emotional development (Battistich & Hom, 1997; De Leon, 2000; Gutman, Sameroff, & Eccles,
2002; Martin, 2013; Pianta, Hamre, & Allen, 2012). In a meta-analysis of factors most highly correlated
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with academic outcomes, Hattie (2009) found teacher-student relationships to be ranked 11th of 138 factors
analyzed.
Teacher-Student Relationships: Means and Mechanisms
Alongside research demonstrating the positive effects of teacher-student relationships, there has also been
research seeking to understand how teacher-student relationships impact academic outcomes. Martin (2013,
in press) and Martin and Dowson (2009) explore numerous contentions seeking to explain how teacher-
student relationships assist student outcomes. It is possible that interactions with the teacher provide
students with greater self-knowledge and knowledge about what is needed to fit in with the classroom and
activities within it (Wentzel, 2009). It may be that students develop beliefs, values, and orientations that
align with those held by their teachers and which help them function more effectively in the academic
domain (Deci & R.M. Ryan, 2012). For example, good teacher-student relationships are likely to lead
students to internalize some of their teacher’s beliefs and values (Martin & Dowson, 2009). Then, these
beliefs, values, and orientations may function to direct behavior and cognition by way of enhanced
persistence, goal striving, and self-regulation (Wentzel, 2009).
Good teacher-student relationships may also have an energizing function that activates positive mood and
affect (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Furrer, Skinner, & Pitzer, 2014). This energy may provide a further
pathway to enhanced motivation and engagement (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Furrer et al., 2014; Martin &
Dowson, 2009). Indeed, the ‘need to belong’ hypothesis proposes that “human beings have a pervasive
drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal
relationships” (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, p. 497) and that its fulfillment leads to positive emotional
responses. Consistent with other ‘energizing’ perspectives on interpersonal relationships, these positive
emotional responses can ‘drive’ achievement behavior in the form of motivation and engagement (Meyer &
Turner, 2002).
Motivation and Engagement
Multidimensional Motivation and Engagement
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Motivation and engagement represent a second foundation of the PPN (Figure 1). Motivation and
engagement are defined here as students’ inclination, interest, energy, and drive to learn, work effectively,
and achieve to potential and the behaviors that accompany these inclinations (Liem & Martin, 2011;
Martin 2007, 2009; Pintrich 2000, 2003; Reschly & Christenson, 2012; Schunk & Miller 2002; Schunk,
Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). There have been concerns that the diversity of motivation and engagement
theories and factors has left the field overly fragmented. There have thus been calls for integrative
approaches to motivation and engagement theorizing and research (Bong, 1996; Murphy & Alexander
2000; Pintrich 2003; Reschly & Christenson, 2012).
One recent integrative effort led to the development of a multidimensional model of motivation and
engagement, the Motivation and Engagement Wheel as shown in Figure 2 (Martin, 2007, 2009; for
examples of other multidimensional motivation and engagement instrumentation see also Patterns of
Adaptive Learning Survey by Midgley et al., 1997 and the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire
by Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1991). As Figure 2 demonstrates, the Wheel is organized into
higher-order and lower-order factors. These are adaptive cognition/motivation (lower-order factors: self-
efficacy, valuing school, mastery orientation), adaptive behavior/engagement (planning, task management,
persistence), maladaptive cognition/motivation (anxiety, failure avoidance, uncertain control), and
maladaptive behavior/engagement (self-handicapping, disengagement).
<<Insert Figure 2 about here>>
Alongside the (conceptual) Motivation and Engagement Wheel (Martin, 2007, 2009) is accompanying
measurement instrumentation the Motivation and Engagement Scale (MES; Martin, 2010b) that is used
to assess each of the eleven factors. The MES (and subscales within it) has demonstrated sound factor
structure, high factor loadings, reliable factors, invariance as a function of age and gender, and external
validity with other educational factors and processes (see Liem & Martin, 2011 for a review).
Teacher-Student Relationships and Motivation and Engagement Theorizing
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In adopting an integrative approach to motivation and engagement, the Wheel (Martin, 2007, 2009) not only
represents many motivation and engagement factors, it also draws on numerous motivation and engagement
theories. For example (and as more fully detailed in Liem & Martin, 2011; Martin, 2007, 2009), the (a) self-
efficacy dimension of the Wheel draws on self-efficacy theory (e.g., Bandura, 2006) and expectancy-value
theory (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000), (b) the valuing dimension also draws on expectancy-value theory, (c)
mastery orientation draws on self-determination (in terms of intrinsic motivationsee R.M. Ryan & Deci,
2000) and goal theories (see Kaplan & Maehr, 2007), (d) planning, task management, and persistence draw
on theories of self-regulation (e.g., Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011), (e) the uncertain control dimension draws
on control-value theory of achievement emotions (Pekrun, 2006) and attribution theorizing (tapping the
controllability element of attributionssee Connell, 1985; Weiner, 2010), and (f) failure avoidance,
anxiety, self-handicapping, and disengagement factors draw on need achievement and self-worth theories
(e.g., Covington, 1992, 2000; Martin & Marsh, 2003; Skinner, Kindermann, Connell, & Wellborn, 2009).
Importantly, each of these theories articulates a role for teacher-student relationships in the dynamics and
processes proposed to impact student outcomes. By implication, teacher-student relationships are embedded
within the Wheel (Martin, 2007, 2009) by virtue of the theories underpinning key factors in it. Martin and
Dowson (2009) reviewed each of these theories in terms of the teacher-student relationship factors and
processes relevant to them. A summary of their review is now presented.
The control-value theory of achievement emotions is based on the premise that appraisals of control and
values are pivotal to the arousal of achievement emotions (e.g., joy, hope, fear, boredom; Pekrun, 2006). The
theory proposes that the affective impact of the social environment on students’ achievement emotions is
mediated by students’ control and value perceptions. Significant others such as teachers represent an
important part of a student’s social environment and they (relationally) impact the student via autonomy
support, feedback to the student, and facilitation of cooperation in the classroom (Pekrun, 2006). Attribution
theory focuses on the causes attributed to academic outcomes and the impact of these causal attributions on
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academic behavior, cognition, and emotion (Weiner, 2010). Notably, attributions may be learnt from the
attributional styles of others (including teachers) and can develop through feedback from and observation
of significant others such as teachers (Hareli & Weiner, 2000, 2002).
Goal theory focuses on the reasons and motivations for developing and pursuing academic goals (Elliot,
2005; Maehr & Zusho, 2009). These goals can be fostered and communicated to students through the values
and expectations of significant others such as teachers (Martin & Dowson, 2009). Self-efficacy refers to a
belief in one’s capacity and agency to achieve a desired outcome (Bandura, 2006; Schunk & Miller, 2002).
This perceived capacity and agency can be instilled in the student through direct and/or indirect influences
and modeling from and by others, including the teacher (Bandura, 1997). How closely the student is aligned
and connected with the teacher will have a bearing on the extent to which efficacy and agency are modeled.
Students’ expectancies and values are also substantively linked to socializers’ (e.g., teachers) beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors (Eccles, 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000; Wigfield & Tonks, 2002). Socializing via
teacher-student connections thus impacts the extent to which academic beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are
internalized and adopted.
Self-determination theory (SDT) is based on three psychological needs, one of which centers on the need for
relatedness (the others are autonomy and competence). These needs are satisfied through the warmth,
support, and nurturance provided by significant others, including teachers (Deci & R.M. Ryan, 2012; Jang,
Kim, & Reeve, 2012; Reeve, Deci, & R.M. Ryan, 2004). Indeed, Pianta, Hamre, and Allen (2012) suggest
that teacher-student relationships are the “media” through which psychological needs are met. Finally, self-
worth motivation theory conceptualizes the link between self-worth and achievement (Covington, 1992,
1998). This link is partly a function of the interpersonal relationships in a child’s life and the extent to
which affirmation and approval are communicated in conditional or unconditional ways. High academic
achievement is one condition that can be implicated in relationships. In such cases, greater interpersonal
affirmation is provided to a child when he/she performs well academically, whereas a child performing
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relatively poorly receives no such affirmation with potentially negative effects on their self-worth. Quality
teacher-student relationships do not rely on academic achievement as a basis for affirmation and thus tend
not to be a factor that threatens students’ self-worth (Martin & Marsh, 2003). In sum, major theories of
motivation and engagement directly or indirectly recognize the importance of interpersonal relationships
including teacher-student relationships as part of their conceptual and explanatory processes.
Teacher-Student Relationships and the Motivation and Engagement Wheel
The Motivation and Engagement Wheel (Martin, 2007, 2009) provides a useful basis with which to
investigate the role of teacher-student relationships in the context of multiple dimensions of motivation and
engagement. In a study of 3,450 high school students, Martin, Marsh, McInerney, and Green (2009; see also
Martin, Marsh, McInerney, Green, & Dowson, 2007) found that compared with parent-child and peer
relationships, teacher-student relationships explained the bulk of variance in motivation and engagement.
Specifically, quality teacher-student relationships were significantly positively correlated with self-efficacy,
mastery orientation, valuing school, planning, task management, and persistence. Quality teacher-student
relationships were negatively correlated with failure avoidance, uncertain control, self-handicapping, and
disengagement.
Another study examined the extent to which a teacher’s interest in a student impacts the student’s academic
motivation and engagement compared to the extent to which a teacher’s interest in the class impacts the
student’s motivation and engagement (Martin, 2012a). Academic motivation and engagement were
represented by the 11 factors in the Wheel (Martin, 2007, 2009). A total of 4,383 middle school students
were asked to rate their teacher’s interest in them and to rate the teacher’s interest in other students in the
class. Findings indicated that the teacher’s interest in the individual student significantly predicted that
student’s level of motivation and engagement; however, the teacher’s interest in the class had little to no
impact on the individual student’s level of motivation and engagement. It was concluded that a student’s
motivation and engagement relies more on the teacher’s interest in that individual student than on the
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teacher’s interest in the whole class. Clearly, a high quality one-on-one interaction and connection between
teacher and student is important for multiple dimensions of students’ academic motivation and engagement.
Teacher-Student Relationships and Other Motivation and Engagement Findings
There is a substantial body of other motivation and engagement research demonstrating that positive
connections with the teacher are highly influential in students’ academic development (Martin, 2013;
Martin & Dowson, 2009; Pianta et al., 2012; Wentzel, 2010). Teachers who are warm, caring, and sensitive
to their students’ needs foster engagement and achievement among their students (Pianta et al., 2012;
Reyes, Brackett, Rivers, White, & Salovey, 2012; Van Ryzin, Gravely, & Roseth, 2009). Students who
believe their teacher accepts them and has confidence in them report more self-efficacy in their academic
ability and feel that they belong at school (Hughes, 2011). Positive relationships with teachers are linked to
enhanced cognitive, social, and language development (Pianta et al., 2012; Kontos & Wilcox-Herzog,
1997). Students’ feelings of acceptance by the teacher are associated with positive cognitive, emotional, and
behavioral engagement (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Rimm-Kaufman, Baroody, Larsen, & Curby, 2014;
Roorda, Koomen, Spilt, & Oort, 2011). Teachers who encourage student autonomy promote greater
motivation and engagement in their students (Jang et al., 2012; Reeve & Lee, 2014). Also, teachers making
even a modest effort to develop personal connections with students (to the extent that students feel known
by the teacher) significantly increase those students’ academic motivation (Reyes et al., 2012; Roeser,
Eccles, & Sameroff, 1998). Mashburn and colleagues (2008) found that one-on-one time with students
increased learning-oriented interactions. There is thus a clear evidence base linking positive teacher-student
relationships to positive motivation and engagement outcomes.
The Role of Student-Teacher Relationships and Developmental Shifts in Motivation
It is well-established that student motivation tends to decrease as students progress through school with
large drop-offs often occurring after the transition from elementary to middle school (Mahatma et al., 2012;
Wigfield, Byrnes, & Eccles, 2006). Motivation can also decrease from the beginning to the end of the
school year (Gehlbach, Brinkworth, & Harris, 2012; Opdenakker, Maulana, den Brok, 2012). Importantly
though, high quality teacher-student relationships can help to offset and even reverse declines in motivation
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over the course of a school year (Gehlbach et al., 2012) and beyond. Research has shown that positive
teacher-student relationships predict greater motivation and engagement in subsequent grades among
students in the first few years of schooling (Hughes, Luo, Kwok, & Loyd, 2008; Hughes, Wu, Kwok,
Villarreal, & Johnson, 2012; O’Connor et al., 2007) and during the transition to middle school (A.M. Ryan
& Patrick, 2001; Wang & Holcombe, 2010).
Thus, it is important that students are engaged in positive relationships with their teachers throughout their
time at school. One way to achieve this is by providing teachers with training to foster positive relationships
among their students. One example of this is a program that Spilt, Koomen, Thijs, and van der Leij (2012)
examined. The program asked teachers to reflect on their interactions with a particular disruptive student in
their class, their own relational strengths and weaknesses, and possible of areas for improvement in their
relationship with the student. The results showed positive changes in teacher-student closeness and conflict,
and greater teacher sensitivity for a substantial proportion of the teachers.
Academic Buoyancy, Resilience, and Adaptability
Academic Buoyancy and Academic Resilience
The third part of the PPN relates to how students navigate academic adversity. As Martin (2013) has noted,
it is not overly difficult for most students to be motivated and engaged when academic life is proceeding
reasonably smoothly such as when they are receiving reasonable grades, the work is not overly difficult,
there is no too much of it, and there are not too many competing deadlines. However, at some point in all
students’ academic lives, it is likely that things do not proceed so smoothly. It is at this point that they must
effectively navigate academic adversity. Thus, it might be said that the well-rounded student is one who is
motivated and engaged in the ordinary course of academic life but when academic adversity emerges,
he/she can bounce back so as to adaptively (re)engage with academic life.
Martin and Marsh (2009) have suggested that academic adversity can be minor (or, ‘everyday’) and major
(or chronic and/or acute). Minor or ‘everyday’ academic adversity includes an isolated poor grade,
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conflicting assignment deadlines, and difficult or complex schoolwork. Major or chronic and/or acute
academic adversity includes learning difficulties, ongoing underachievement, school suspension or
expulsion, and grade repetition. Academic buoyancy has been suggested as an attribute relevant to students’
capacity to navigate low-level or ‘everyday’ academic risk and adversity (Martin & Marsh, 2009; see also
Malmberg, Hall, & Martin, 2013; Putwain, Connors, Symes, & Douglas-Osborn, 2012; Putwain & Daly,
2013). Academic resilience has been suggested as an ability to successfully deal with chronic and/or acute
academic adversity (Martin, 2013; Martin & Marsh, 2009).
Research investigating predictors of academic buoyancy and academic resilience has identified an array of
contributing factors. This work has largely focused on distal (e.g., ethnicity, SES, single parent) or proximal
factors (e.g., school factors, psychological factors). Because the proximal factors are considered to be more
manipulable (Cappella & Weinstein, 2001), there tends to be a focus on these from an intervention
perspective (Martin & Marsh, 2008). Broadly, proximal factors may be grouped into (a) psychological
factors, (b) family and peer factors, and (c) school factors. The school factors are of interest in this chapter.
School factors include, inter alia, interpersonal relationship with teachers, effective teacher feedback, and
teacher responsiveness (e.g., Alexander, Entwisle, & Dauber, 1993; Catterall, 1998; Finn & Rock, 1997;
Murray & Zvoch, 2011; Rudasill, Reio, Stipanovic, & Taylor, 2010).
Borman and Rachuba (2001) conducted an investigation of academic resilience that analyzed the relative
salience of five competing models: individual/personal characteristics model, effective schools model,
school resources model, peer group model, and supportive school community model. Two models
accounted for most variance in students’ capacity to deal with academic setback and adversity: the
individual/personal characteristics model and the supportive school community model. These involved key
factors of academic engagement, locus of control, and self-efficacy (individual characteristics) and positive
teacher-student relationships (supportive school community model). Thus, alongside well-established
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factors such as self-efficacy and engagement, teacher-student relationships were a major factor in students’
capacity to deal with academic adversity (Martin & Marsh, 2008).
This is consistent with research identifying the role of interpersonal relationships as a buffer against stress
and risk, a source of emotional support, and a basis for social-emotional well-being (Ahnert, Harwardt-
Heinecke, Kappler, Eckstein-Madry, & Milatz, 2012; Battistich & Hom, 1997; De Leon, 2000; Gutman et
al., 2002; Martin, 2013; Pianta, Nimetz, & Bennett, 1997; Pianta et al., 2012; Reyes et al., 2012). It is also
in line with research showing that the role of teacher-student relationships is particularly important for at-
risk students; results show that a supportive and close relationship with the teacher can make the difference
between at-risk students who succeed academically and those who do not (Liew, Chen, & Hughes, 2010;
Murray & Zvoch, 2011; Pianta, Steinberg, & Rollins, 1995; Wit, Karioja, Rye, & Shain, 2011).
In a study of predictors of academic buoyancy, Martin and Marsh (2008) tested factors in the two salient
models (individual/personal characteristics and supportive school community models) from the Borman and
Rachuba (2001) study. Data were from 598 students in five high schools. Half-way through the school year
and then again at the end of the year, students were asked to rate their academic buoyancy as well as a set of
individual/personal and school support predictors. Structural equation modeling showed that teacher-student
relationships explained variance in Time 2 academic buoyancy beyond the effects of academic buoyancy at
Time 1 supporting the role of teacher-student relationships in students’ adaptive responses to academic
setback and adversity.
Adaptability
The third part of the PPN also relates to how students navigate change, uncertainty, variability, transition,
and novelty in their academic lives. It is a fact that through a young person’s life span, the world will see
major change and transition on economic, socio-cultural, technological, medical, geo-political, and other
fronts (Hofäcker, Buchholz, & Blossfeld, 2010; Tomasik, Silbereisen, & Heckhausen, 2010). A young
person’s own life will see frequent change, uncertainty, variability, transition, and novelty. For example,
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most or all of the following will occur: he or she will begin school, adjust to new year groups and subjects
at school, move out of home, start and change jobs, marry or partner, have or care for children, and retire
from work. Indeed, even within a school day, a student will move from one lesson to another, change tasks,
interact with different students and teachers, and adapt to new or changing situations and circumstances
(Martin, Nejad, Colmer, & Liem, 2012, 2013).
These changes interrupt students’ routines and give rise to shifting circumstances and demands to which
young people must adjust (Tomasik & Silbereisen 2009; Tomasik et al., 2010). Adaptability is an attribute
that has recently been the focus of investigation among adolescent school students. Alongside academic
buoyancy and academic resilience, the PPN identifies adaptability as a factor important for students as they
navigate their ever-changing world (Figure 1).
Adaptability is defined by the American Psychological Association as “the capacity to make appropriate
responses to changed or changing situations; the ability to modify or adjust one’s behavior in meeting
different circumstances or different people” (VandenBos, 2007, p. 17). Martin and colleagues (2012, 2013)
extended the definition beyond behavioral and cognitive regulation to also include emotional regulation.
Behavioral regulation refers to the capacity to adjust action or behavior to successfully navigate changing,
novel, and uncertain circumstances and conditions. Cognitive regulation refers to the capacity to adjust
thinking to effectively handle changing, new, and uncertain circumstances and conditions. Emotional
regulation refers to the capacity to adjust emotional responses to effectively negotiate an uncertain, new, or
changing environment or task. As behavioral, cognitive and emotional regulatory functions are involved,
this approach to adaptability is referred to as a “tripartite perspective” on adaptability (Martin et al., 2012,
2013). Each of the three is important for developing and maintaining a positive relationship between the
student and his/her changing academic environment (Wessel, A.M. Ryan, & Oswald, 2008).
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Adaptability is a relatively recent construct on the empirical psycho-educational landscape and so no work
(to our knowledge) has directly investigated the role of teacher-student relationships in its development.
However, adaptability is suggested to be a special case of negotiating situational uncertainty and novelty
that is compatible with broad theories of developmental regulation. Hence, adaptability complements self-
regulation research as an aligned construct (Martin et al., 2013). Given this, it is useful to note that the role
of teachers has early roots in the development of self-regulation frameworks. For example, in 1986
Zimmerman reported “self-regulation is not an idiosyncratic product of a child’s own discovery
experiences, but rather, it is a culturally transmitted method for optimizing and controlling learning events.
Implicit in this account are assumptions about the importance of the relationship between children and their
socializing agent (and analogously between students and their teachers)” (p. 311).
In support of this, it has been shown that beliefs, values, and orientations held by the teacher are internalized
by the student’s (via relatedness) and direct behavior and cognition to enhance self-regulation (Wentzel,
1999, 2009). Eisenhower, Baker, and Blacher (2007) also found significant links between teacher-student
relationships and self-regulation, particularly for academically at-risk students. It is also worth recalling that
teacher-student relationships were significantly associated with self-regulatory factors (planning and task
management) in the Motivation and Engagement Wheel (Martin et al., 2007, 2009). There is thus a
relational basis to self-regulation, and by implication, it is tentatively suggested to also be the case for
adaptability. However, this remains an empirical question for future research.
We might also consider adaptability in terms of students’ academic and non-academic adjustment to and
through school. On this count there is also evidence of a significant role for teacher-student relationships.
For example, Hamre and Pianta (2001; see also Rudasill, 2011) found that students with positive
relationships with kindergarten teachers were better adjusted in subsequent grades (with effects extending to
eighth grade). They concluded that teacher-student relationships are an important part of children’s
adaptation in school. Baker (2006) similarly found that particularly for at-risk students, teacher-student
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relationships were helpful in positive adjustments to elementary school. Further into school, Wentzel (2002)
found that various dimensions of teacher-student interactions significantly predict middle school students’
academic and social adjustment indicators. Then, in college, Larose, Tarabulsy, and Cyrenne (2005) found
that a teacher-student mentoring relationship intervention program had significant emotional, institutional,
and social adjustment yields for the students in the high teacher-student relatedness condition. Taken
together, as with self-regulation, there is a relational basis to students’ academic and institutional
adjustment. By implication, we may speculate the same for the effects of adaptability; but this is yet to be
formally and directly determined and is thus an area for future research.
Growth Orientation Personal Best Goals
In recent years there has been some dissatisfaction with static or relativistic approaches to student
development (Anderman, Anderman, Yough, & Gimbert, 2010; Betebenner, 2009; Martin, 2011). In many
ways, these approaches are not particularly meaningful as comparing students of widely varying abilities
does not give much insight into an individual student’s educational development. Such approaches also tend
to position students in terms of winners and losers’ (Covington, 1992, 2000). Martin (2011) argues that
this positioning of students can have adverse effects on their motivation and engagement, which has led
researchers to emphasize students’ academic progress over time (Anderman et al., 2010). This involves
shifting the emphasis from comparisons between students to an interest in the growth of each individual
student across time (Betebenner, 2009). Thus, alternative approaches to student development have been
advised in the form of a greater focus on students’ academic growth. Approaching academic development
from a growth perspective brings into consideration growth (or ‘personal best’) goals (Martin, 2013,
2014a). As will be demonstrated, personal best goals benefit from a relational approach to their
operationalization.
Growth, or ‘personal best’ (PB), goals are specific, challenging, and competitively self-referenced targets to
which students strive (Liem, Ginns, Martin, Stone, & Herrett, 2012; Martin, 2014a; Martin & Liem, 2010).
Thus, a PB goals entails the student stating exactly what he/she is aiming for, setting a goal that modestly
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exceeds his/her current position or state, and competing with him/herself rather than with others. PB goals
take two forms: ‘process goals’ (e.g., preparing for a test at the weekend when usually no study is done at
weekends, spending an extra 30-minutes doing homework than usual) and ‘outcome goals’ (e.g., scoring a
higher mark in end of year exams than in the termly exams, getting more questions correct in one’s
mathematics test; Martin, 2011; see also www.lifelongachievement.com for downloadable growth goal
resources for students and teachers).
There is an emerging evidence base demonstrating a connection between PB goals and academic outcomes.
In cross-sectional work, PB goals are associated with students’ educational aspirations, class participation,
enjoyment of school, and perseverance (Martin, 2006) and Yu and Martin (2014) found a positive role for
PB goals in predicting engagement. In longitudinal work, PB goals predict later literacy and numeracy
achievement, effort on tests, perseverance, school enjoyment, class participation, homework completion,
educational aspirations, engagement (Martin & Liem, 2010), deep learning and academic flow (Liem et al.,
2012). Moreover, PB goals yield more positive effects on academic outcomes for at-risk students (with
ADHD) than students not at academic risk (Martin, 2012b). Alongside PB goals, other researchers are also
now exploring growth-oriented goals and goal-setting (e.g., see Elliot, Murayama, & Pekrun, 2011; Elliot,
Murayama, Kobeisy, & Lichtenfeld, in press).
Through goal-setting and achievement goal research, there has been some attention given to the role of
teacher-student relationships. Interpersonal relationships have been associated with the goals that students
pursue (Maehr & Zusho, 2009; Martin & Dowson, 2009; Wentzel, 2009). Students’ positive relationships
with teachers (Martin et al., 2007, 2009; Régner, Loose, & Dumas, 2009) have been positively associated
with mastery goals in learning. Indeed, Collie, Martin, Papworth, and Ginns (2014) suggest that teacher-
student relationships may also be important for PB goals. According to them, positive interpersonal
relationships provide a supportive environment that promotes healthy emotional, social, and academic
functioning among students (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Martin & Dowson, 2009). They suggest that this
© 2014 Martin & Collie 16
may also promote the confidence in students to aim higher than in previous efforts, to expend greater effort
in their learning, and to persist with their goals (Wentzel, 2009). On these bases, they suggested that
positive teacher-student relationships would promote PB goals through the motivational and social supports
required in learning. Confirming their contentions, in a study of USA, Canadian and UK high school
students, Collie and colleagues (2014) found that PB goals partially mediated the connection between
students’ interpersonal relationships (including with teachers) and academic engagement. This supported
prior research by Martin et al. (2009) and Liem et al. (2012) finding that the adoption of PB goals was
significantly correlated with students’ relationships with their teachers.
Guided Assessment and Instruction
The final part of the PPN involves instruction with particular emphasis on the appropriate balancing of
explicit instruction and guided discovery learning referred to as guided assessment and instruction in
Figure 1. Whereas other parts of the PPN are very student-centered, relying on the relational support of the
teacher, this component of the PPN is teacher-centered. The capacity of the teacher to conduct effective
assessment, deliver content knowledge, and develop academic skill through instruction is very much
optimized when positive teacher-student relationships underpin pedagogy (Martin & Dowson, 2009). This
chapter is not about assessment, explicit instruction and discovery learning per se; there are many accounts
of these instructional approaches (see Adams & Engelmann, 1996; Alfieri, Brooks, Aldrich, & Tenenbaum,
2011; Fisher & Frey, 2010; Martin, 2014b; Marzano, 2011; Pressley et al., 2003; Rosenshine, 2008, 2009).
Rather, the emphasis here is on how teachers can integrate relational processes into their instruction.
The concept of ‘connective instruction’ was developed to provide guidance on how to effectively integrate
interpersonal relationships into the everyday course of pedagogy (Martin, 2010a, 2013; Martin & Dowson,
2009; also see Munns, 1998). Connective instruction is that which connects the teacher to students on three
levels: interpersonal, substantive, and pedagogical. The ‘interpersonal relationshipis the relationship
between the student and the teacher. The ‘substantive relationshipis the relationship between the student
and the subject matter, content, and nature of tasks in the teaching and learning context. The ‘pedagogical
© 2014 Martin & Collie 17
relationshipis the relationship between the student and the teaching or instruction itself (see also
www.lifelongachievement.com for a downloadable ‘connective instruction’ taxonomy for teachers to self-
rate their pedagogy).
Martin (2010a, 2013; see also Martin & Dowson, 2009) proposed that connective instruction refers to the
‘who’ (interpersonal), ‘what’ (substantive), and ‘how’ (pedagogical) of the teacher-student interaction.
Accordingly, students are more likely to be motivated and engaged when they connect to ‘who’ the teacher
is, ‘what’ tasks and activities are being administered and ‘what’ the teacher is saying, and ‘how’ the teacher
communicates these messages and tasks. Indeed, Martin (2013) likened a high quality lesson to a high
quality musical composition: a great singer (who), a great song (what), and great singing (how). In
sum, connective instruction explicitly positions relatedness as an instructional need and that academic
development is promoted when this need is met (Martin & Dowson, 2009).
The first connection the interpersonal relationship is that between the student and the teacher him or
herself. Martin (2006) identified key characteristics of good interpersonal relationships in the teaching and
learning context. These include: actively listening to students’ views; allowing student input into decisions
that affect them; getting to know the students; showing no favoritism and affirming all students; accepting
students’ individuality; and having positive but attainable expectations for students (pp. 6-7). These are an
important means by which the student connects with the ‘who’ of instruction.
The second key connection the substantive relationship is that between the student and the subject
matter and the nature of tasks administered in the teaching and learning context. Martin (2006) identified
core elements of this substantive relationship: setting work that is challenging but not too difficult;
assigning work that is important and significant; building variety into content and assessment tasks;
assigning interesting work; drawing on material that is fun to learn, where possible and appropriate; and
© 2014 Martin & Collie 18
utilizing material and assigning tasks that arouse curiosity (p. 6). These are an important means by which
the student connects with the ‘what’ of instruction.
The third key connection the pedagogical relationship is that between the student and the teaching or
pedagogy itself. According to Martin (2006) these include: maximizing opportunities for students to
succeed and develop competence; providing clear feedback to students focusing on how they can improve;
explaining things clearly and carefully; injecting variety into teaching methods; encouraging students to
learn from their mistakes; clearly demonstrating to students how schoolwork is relevant and/or meaningful;
and ensuring all students keep up with the work and allowing for opportunities to catch up (p. 7). These are
an important means by which the student connects with the ‘how’ of instruction.
In sum, teachers make a difference in students’ academic lives (Hattie, 2009) and the extent of this impact
relies on their capacity to deliver pedagogy through approaches that enable the student to connect in
personally meaningful ways to three key elements of pedagogy: who is doing the teaching (the singer), the
substance of what is taught (the song), and how it is taught (the singing). These three elements are the
cornerstones of connective instruction. When students are more personally connected with the teacher and
the teaching and learning context, assessment and instruction are more likely to engage and motivate
students to work and achieve to potential.
Future Directions for Theory and Research
There is a substantial volume of theory and research conceptualizing and investigating the nature, role, and
impact of teacher-student relationships on students’ academic outcomes. However, given its clear
importance in student development, theory, research, and practice would benefit from knowing more. For
example, this chapter dealt with some relatively novel constructs that have shown promise in early studies
and which have not been formally or directly studied in relation to teacher-student connections.
Adaptability, for example, is one such construct and it would be useful to know to what extent and in what
© 2014 Martin & Collie 19
ways teacher-student relationships enhance students’ capacity to deal with change, uncertainty, variability,
transition, and novelty in their academic lives.
The question of causal ordering is deserving of further investigation. Skinner and Belmont (1993) found
evidence of reciprocal relationships between academic engagement and teacher-student relationships.
Whereas most research sees interpersonal relationships as predicting subsequent academic outcomes,
Skinner and Belmont found that positive engagement is also a basis for subsequent positive relationships.
To what extent might this be the case for buoyancy, resilience, adaptability, and growth goals and mindsets?
Investigating temporal ordering also brings into consideration developmental issues. Questions around this
involve exploring the role of interpersonal relationships in impacting development of motivation and
engagement over time, shifts in relationships with teachers, parents and peers and impacts on students’
academic resilience and goals, and the changing nature of teacher-student relationships as students move
through school and how this affects academic outcomes.
As always, there is a need to better understand the phenomena under focus for at-risk students. While the
chapter did touch on at-risk students in parts, more can be known about how, for example, teacher-student
relationships can be a platform for closing achievement gaps. There is also the question of the relative
impacts of good vs. poor teacher-student relationships. For example, does one poor relationship with a
teacher have a greater impact on academic outcomes than one or more positive relationships? To the extent
that this is the case, how do schools deal with this? We might also further consider the domain-specificity of
teacher-student effects. How far beyond the academic domain can teacher-student relationships impact? To
what extent can teachers offer a compensatory interpersonal relationship in non-academic life if there are
problematic or non-existent interpersonal relationships with parents/caregivers?
There is also the ever-present need for more intervention research. Teacher professional development (or
‘in-servicing’) can be effective in enhancing the educational outcomes of students (Cherubini, Zambelli, &
© 2014 Martin & Collie 20
Boscolo, 2002; Lumpe, Czerniak, Haney, & Beltyukova, 2012; Stipek, Giwin, Salmon, & MacGyvers,
1998). Research has also pointed to the need for teacher professional development in assisting
disadvantaged and disengaged students. Notably, one of the key suggested areas for professional
development in this area is improving teacher-student relationships (Becker & Luthar, 2002).
Research design and data can also be areas for future development. Most research is based on retrospective
reports or reports somewhat removed from the actual teacher-student interaction. Real-time data on the
teacher-student relationship as it happens would be useful. Recently, Malmberg, Woolgar, and Martin (in
press) demonstrated the success of mobile technology as a means of collecting real-time data on learning
and instruction from students. Moving beyond self-reports, there is a need to complement students’
perceptions of teacher-student relationships with reports and observations by others. It would be interesting
to juxtapose self- and other-reports in predicting key constructs under consideration in this chapter. Finally,
whereas most research adopts variable-centered approaches to teacher-student relationships, future work
might consider person-centered approaches. This would involve identifying groups of students high and low
in relational quality with a view to understanding factors that determine their group membership as well
as the effects of such membership. This has the advantage of studying patterns of teacher-student
relationships occurring ‘naturally’ and may then also provide an opportunity for in-depth case study and
qualitative research.
Conclusion
Positive interpersonal relationships are a source of happiness and a buffer against stress; they are important
for healthy human functioning; and, they are instrumental in help for challenges, tasks, and emotional
support in daily life. Teacher-student relationships are a critical part of students’ interpersonal landscape.
There is substantial research and theory emphasizing the important role that teacher-student relationships
play in students’ academic outcomes at school. Using the Personal Potential Network as a guiding
framework organizing the present discussion of teacher-student relationships, it is evident that a quality
teacher-student relationship is an important end in itself and also a means to unlock students’ academic
© 2014 Martin & Collie 21
potential by way of motivation, engagement, academic buoyancy, academic resilience, adaptability, growth,
and instruction. In sum, theory, research and practice in the area of teacher-student relationships attest to the
importance of high quality interpersonal connections for healthy academic functioning and effective ways to
optimize these influential connections.
© 2014 Martin & Collie 22
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GUIDED INSTRUCTION AND
ASSESSMENT
BUOYANCY, RESILIENCE,
ADAPTABILITY
GROWTH (‘PERSONAL BEST’)
ORIENTATION
PERSONAL
PROFICIENCY
NETWORK
RELATIONSHIPS AND
SOCIAL SUPPORT
Figure 1.
Personal Proficiency Network (PPN; reproduced with permission from Lifelong
Achievement Group, www.lifelongachievement.com)
Note. The PPN has been slightly revised from its original formulation (Martin, 2013) such that (a)
Adaptability is now integrated with Buoyancy and Resilience and (b) Guided Instruction and Assessment
has been added to the Network.
© 2014 Martin & Collie 34
Figure 2.
Motivation and Engagement Wheel (reproduced with permission from Lifelong Achievement
Group, www.lifelongachievement.com).
Self-
efficacy
Mastery
orientation
Valuing Persistence
Planning
Task
management
Anxiety
Failure
avoidance
Uncertain
control
Self-
handicapping
Disengagement
ADAPTIVE
COGNITION
(Adaptive Motivation)
ADAPTIVE
BEHAVIOR
(Adaptive Engagement)
MALADAPTIVE
COGNITION
(Maladaptive Motivation)
MALADAPTIVE
BEHAVIOR
(Maladaptive Engagement)
... Collaborative learning environments, such as study groups and academic communities, foster a sense of belonging and academic engagement, reducing stress and reinforcing students' commitment to learning (Wang, 2024). Similarly, teachers who provide consistent mentorship and constructive feedback contribute to students' emotional and cognitive resilience, ensuring they remain motivated despite academic setbacks (Martin & Collie, 2016)Conversely, the absence of adequate support increases students' vulnerability to stress, anxiety, and disengagement. Research indicates that students with lower levels of perceived social support are at a higher risk of academic withdrawal, particularly when faced with economic hardship and unstable learning environments (Rui & Guo, 2023). ...
... Evaluative support, delivered through constructive teacher feedback, is another critical component in fostering resilience. Timely, meaningful feedback encourages students to refine their academic competencies, build self-confidence, and develop adaptive learning approaches (Martin & Collie, 2016). This feedback-driven approach allows students to continuously improve their performance, reinforcing that setbacks are learning opportunities rather than failures (Martínez-López et al., 2024). ...
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This study aims to provide a comprehensive synthesis of existing research on the role of social support in fostering educational resilience among students facing academic challenges. By examining different forms of social support—emotional, instrumental, informational, and evaluative—, this study seeks to understand how these factors contribute to student's academic persistence, self-efficacy, and overall well-being. Furthermore, it explores how cultural and socioeconomic contexts influence the accessibility and effectiveness of social support in various educational settings. This study employs a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach, analyzing relevant peer-reviewed articles published after 2018 by Elsevier, Wiley, Springer, and Emerald. The study systematically reviews the literature to identify key mechanisms through which social support enhances educational resilience, highlighting variations across educational environments and socioeconomic backgrounds. The findings indicate that social support is crucial in mitigating academic stress, enhancing self-regulated learning, and improving students' psychological well-being. Emotional and instrumental support from family and teachers significantly influences students' motivation and academic engagement. Additionally, cultural and economic factors shape how students perceive and benefit from social support. The discussion explores how integrating social support mechanisms into education policies and school programs can strengthen students' resilience. This study provides practical implications for educators, institutions, and policymakers, emphasizing the need for academic mentoring programs, counseling services, and inclusive education policies to ensure equitable access to social support. Future research should explore longitudinal studies and the impact of digital platforms in providing academic and psychological support to students.
... In the academic domain, research has demonstrated the risks imposed by poor relationships with teachers, defined here as relationships that, while within the normal range, nevertheless involve higher than average experiences of neglect or rejection, chaotic or undependable practices, and overcontrol or coercion. Reviews and meta-analyses have documented the extent to which poor teacher-student relationships can undermine students' motivation, engagement, academic functioning, performance, and success (Gregory & Korth, 2016;Martin & Collie, 2016;Pianta et al., 2012;Quin, 2017;Roorda et al., 2017;Tao et al., 2022;Wentzel, 2016;Wigfield et al., 2015). Multiple theories, chief among them attachment theory and selfdetermination theory (e.g., Connell & Wellborn, 1991;Ryan & Deci, 2017;Sabol & Pianta, 2012), offer explanations for these pervasive effects: When children have poor relationships with teachers, their basic psychological needs (e.g., for relatedness or autonomy) are not met in the classroom. ...
... Students high on this risk factor reported that interactions with their teachers were characterized by more rejection (neglect, dislike), chaos (unpredictability, undependability), and coercion (control, intrusiveness). Such teacher-student relationships make it more difficult for students to get their needs met in the classroom, and so make it less likely that they will be cooperative, willing, or interested in teachers' goals, listen to or comply with their requests, or internalize the value of the learning activities they assign (Gregory & Korth, 2016;Martin & Collie, 2016;Quin, 2017;Roorda et al., 2017;Tao et al., 2022;Wentzel, 2016;Wigfield et al., 2015), thus undermining their engagement. This risk factor may be especially salient over the transition to middle school when both students and teachers report normative declines in the quality of their relationships (De Wit et al., 2010;Hughes & Cao, 2018) coinciding with the shift to a multi-teacher format where students take classes from more teachers for shorter periods of time. ...
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Developmentalists have increasingly concluded that systems approaches to resilience provide a useful higher-order home for the study of the development of coping. Building on previous work on the complementarity of resilience and coping, this paper had two goals: (1) to propose a set of strategies for examining the role of coping in processes of resilience, and (2) to test their utility in the academic domain, using poor relationships with the teacher as a risk factor, and classroom engagement as an outcome. This study examined whether coping serves as a: (1) promotive factor, supporting positive development at any level of risk; (2) pathway through which risk contributes to development; (3) protective factor that mitigates the effects of risk; (4) reciprocal process generating risk; (5) mechanism through which other promotive factors operate; (6) mechanism through which other protective factors operate; and (7) participant with other supports that shows cumulative or compensatory effects. Analyses showed that academic coping at this age was primarily a mediator of risk and support, and a promotive factor that added to engagement for students with multiple combinations of risk and support. Implications are discussed, along with next steps in exploring the role of coping in processes of resilience.
... TSRs represent a crucial pathway to student success (e.g., Martin & Collie, 2016;Martin & Dowson, 2009;Pianta et al., 2003;Wentzel, 2016), but teachers face unique challenges when trying to build positive relationships with students (Englehart, 2009). TSRs differ from many other relationships we encounter in our lives. ...
... To support teachers' relationship-building efforts and to design effective interventions that improve TSRs, we need to understand what motivates teachers to build positive TSRs. Educational psychologists have highlighted the ways in which TSRs can contribute to students' achievement motivation (Martin & Collie, 2016;Martin & Dowson, 2009;Pianta et al., 2003;Wentzel, 1999Wentzel, , 2012Wentzel, , 2016, whereas in contrast to the growing literature on correlates of TSRs, research on the factors that contribute to teachers' motivation to engage in these relationships with students is relatively rare. Fortunately, eminent scholars in educational psychology have spent decades theorizing what motivates people and applying it to education. ...
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Few question the value of teacher-student relationships (TSRs) for educational outcomes. TSRs are positively associated with students’ achievement and engagement, as well as teachers’ well-being. Building and maintaining these crucial classroom relationships, however, is not easy. Drawing on prominent motivation theories in educational psychology, I present the Motivating Teacher-Student Relationships framework for understanding what motivates teachers to build positive TSRs. In particular, I focus on how teachers’ motivational beliefs about TSRs energize, direct, and sustain their efforts to engage in relationship-building behaviors and, thus, lead to positive relationships with their students. To build positive TSRs, teachers must believe it is their role to build TSRs, value TSRs, and believe they can successfully build TSRs (i.e., have relational self-efficacy). These beliefs are shaped by teachers’ sociocultural contexts and can facilitate or undermine the development of these learning relationships. With a greater understanding of how motivational beliefs influence social relationships, the field of education can more effectively develop theoretically grounded interventions to improve TSRs and mitigate inequality.
... Among college students, teachers' emotional support has been found to alleviate academic stress and strengthen students' ability to cope with high-intensity academic demands 29 . Furthermore, by fostering supportive teacher-student relationships, teachers' emotional support encourages students to seek help when encountering difficulties, which further enhances their resilience 30 . ...
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College students’ learning engagement not only significantly influences their academic performance but also plays a vital role in their future career development. Ensuring that students maintain high levels of engagement is essential for society’s goal of cultivating high-quality talent. Therefore, understanding the key factors that drive student engagement is critical for educators as they develop effective strategies to foster this engagement. This study aims to explore the mechanisms behind the relationship between teachers’ emotional support and college students’ learning engagement, with a focus on the mediating roles of academic self-efficacy and academic resilience. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed: (1) Teacher emotional support positively predicts learning engagement; (2) Academic self-efficacy and academic resilience serve as mediators between teacher emotional support and learning engagement; (3) Academic self-efficacy and academic resilience function as sequential mediators in the relationship between teacher’ emotional support and learning engagement. This study utilized a random sampling method to survey 414 eligible college students from a university in western Shandong Province, China. Standardized scales were employed to measure teacher emotional support, learning engagement, academic self-efficacy, and academic resilience. For data analysis, Pearson correlation analysis was performed first, followed by the bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method. (1) The study detected no significant systematic bias, and the correlations among teacher emotional support, learning engagement, academic self-efficacy, and academic resilience were all statistically significant. (2) Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, this study clarifies the relationship between teacher emotional support and learning engagement. The findings reveal that teacher emotional support positively predicts academic self-efficacy, academic resilience, and learning engagement. Similarly, both academic self-efficacy and academic resilience positively predict learning engagement, with academic self-efficacy also directly and positively predicting academic resilience. Notably, all proposed hypotheses were empirically supported. (3) The indirect effect through academic self-efficacy is 0.085, while the indirect effect through academic resilience is 0.121. Additionally, the combined indirect effect of both academic self-efficacy and academic resilience as sequential mediators is 0.059. (4) The cumulative total of all these indirect effects is 0.265. Based on Self-Determination Theory, we propose a sequential mediation model where teachers’ emotional support significantly and positively impacts students’ learning engagement, with academic self-efficacy and academic resilience acting as key mediators in this relationship. Additionally, teachers’ emotional support enhances students’ learning engagement by boosting their academic self-efficacy and reinforcing their academic resilience. These findings offer strong theoretical support for educational practice.
... This was tied in specifically with achieving milestones during their degree studies, which reinforces comments that success to them was inked to being task-driven. Recent studies on goal setting have demonstrated that task achievement fosters both pride and relief, particularly in academic contexts (Moeller et al. 2012;Martin and Collie 2016). ...
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This research investigates how university students define and perceive success, an area that is increasingly important to ensuring that a university’s brand remains aligned to the expectations of future students. Over the next decade, university students will comprise members of Generation Z (Gen Z), and by recognizing this group of students’ preferences and aspirations, universities can tailor their branding, educational portfolio, and overall campus experiences to ensure that together they resonate and satisfy evolving needs and demands. Using data based on a sample of Gen Z undergraduate students undertaking their degrees at three case study UK post-1992 universities, this research adopted an exploratory, interpretivist methodology. Data collected from semi-structured interviews were analyzed using recursive abstraction to identify underlying patterns and trends within the data. The research identified five key themes that Gen Z are using to define success, and these are the following: (1) being objective and task-driven; (2) embracing fluidity and subjectivity; (3) being ethically and morally responsible; (4) having resilience; and (5) accepting and learning from failure. Recommendations were made for actions that universities should start to take to enable them to work toward achieving this.
... Teacher support is directly and indirectly associated with academic resilience (Fang et al., 2020;Martin & Collie, 2016;Mills, 2021;Permatasari et al., 2021;Pitzer & Skinner, 2017;Romano et al., 2021). For example, a study by Fang et al. (2020) showed that teacher support improved students' academic resilience, indicating that children from low-income families are more likely to have higher academic resilience when they receive more teacher praise. ...
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The purpose of the present study was to examine the associations among teacher support, academic self-efficacy, and academic motivational resilience. Two hundred and four preservice teachers anonymously completed an online survey which included demographic information, academic motivational resilience, teacher support, and academic self-efficacy. Three separate structural equation models were tested. In each model, one of the teacher support aspects (i.e., instrumental aid, assurance of self-worth, and seek secure base) was included as a predictor variable. All models were the same in that the three dimensions of academic motivational resilience (i.e., perseverance, adaptive reflection, and negative affect/emotional response) were included as outcome variables and academic self-efficacy as a mediator. Findings were (1) The effect of teachers’ instrumental aid on perseverance was partially mediated by academic self-efficacy while the effect of instrumental aid on both adaptive reflection and negative affect/emotional response were fully mediated by academic self-efficacy; (2)The effect of teachers’ assurance of self-worth on perseverance was partially mediated by academic self-efficacy while the effect of assurance of self-worth on both adaptive reflection and negative affect/emotional response were fully mediated by academic self-efficacy; and (3) Academic self-efficacy fully mediated the effect of teachers’ provision of secure base on all three factors of academic motivational resilience. Implications for research and practice were discussed.
... Beyond immediate family, the role played by teachers is among the most prominent ones in any child's life [74,75], and the personal relationships developed between teachers and students have been found to substantially contribute to children's well-being [76,77]. Hence, while supportive teachers are a valuable resource for students in general, for children facing adversity, the benefits are even more vital [78,79]. ...
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Despite extensive research on resilience, little information exists on the resilience of teachers who faced adversity in childhood and the meanings they attribute to their current work with at-risk students. Thus, this study aimed to address this knowledge gap by examining the narratives of teachers who were at-risk children. Based on 30 semi-structured life-narrative interviews, the findings revealed the significant meaning that the participants ascribed to positive relationships. Whether such relationships were present or absent in their childhood, these relationships were instrumental in their choice to pursue a career in education. In supporting their students’ resilience and becoming the teachers they wanted as children, they found meaning in their past experiences of risk and coping. The study’s discussion applies the social mirroring theory to analyze how the participants resisted the negative image presented to them by others in their childhood and how a belief of hopeful prospects fortified them and led them to take on transformative justice as their life mission. Supporting at-risk children functioned as a form of healing for the participants, fostering both their students’ and their own resilience. The study findings highlight the importance of accounting for teachers’ childhood experiences as formative narratives that mold their educational work.
... As the main adults in schools, teachers have a significant impact on the academic achievement and well-being of students (Roorda et al., 2017;Martin & Collie, 2016;Wentzel, 2016). Interactions and teaching styles in the classroom can shape students' perceived relationships with their teachers and influence their academic performance (Becker & Luthar, 2002). ...
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In the learning environment, both teachers and peers are influential social agents. In the present study, we differentiated between positive and negative aspects of teacher and peer relationships and examined how they predict adolescent students’ academic interest and self-concept, which in turn lead to different levels of academic achievement and subjective well-being at school. Additionally, we explored whether father absence moderated these predictive relationships. Results based on a group of 4274 Chinese middle school students revealed that positive social relationships were more closely related to interest, self-concept, and well-being than negative ones. The predictive paths from teacher relationships to motivation and achievement were stronger than those from peer relationships. However, peers played a prominent role in helping students with absent fathers build a positive self-concept, which led to improved achievement.
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A sample of 1,803 minority students from low-income homes was classified into 3 groups on the basis of grades, test scores, and persistence from Grade 8 through Grade 12; the classifications were academically successful school completers (''resilient'' students), school completers with poorer academic performance (nonresilient completers), and noncompleters (dropouts). Groups were compared in terms of psychological characteristics and measures of ''school engagement.'' Large, significant differences were found among groups on engagement behaviors, even after background and psychological characteristics were controlled statistically The findings support the hypothesis that student engagement is an important component of academic resilience. Furthermore, they provide information for designing interventions to improve the educational prognoses of students at risk.
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There are many stressful factors in modern society affecting young people. Much has been written about adult coping strategies, but relatively little has been written about the developmental aspects and issues surrounding this topic. As well as providing a much-needed theoretical framework, this title evaluates practical applications and programmes, signposts to what works and what does not work. As such, it will be useful to developmental psychologists, social scientists, educators, and those involved in child welfare.
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Social-motivational processes and socialization experiences can play a critical role in students' academic success. However, the search for specific mechanisms and processes that explain these social influences on motivation is still in its inception. The purpose of this article was to begin to articulate some of these processes in the hope that more precise explanations of influence will emerge. The Ist section of the article focuses on ways in which social-motivational processes are relevant for understanding motivation to achieve academically, using goal pursuit as a case in point. Models describing complementary, developmental, and hierarchical relations among social and task-related goals and their implications for understanding student achievement are presented. Then, ways in which students' social encounters and experiences with parents, teachers, and peers might influence their adoption and internalization of socially valued goals are examined. New directions for theoretical and empirical inquiry are presented.
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Self-determination theory maintains and has provided empirical support for the proposition that all human beings have fundamental psychological needs to be competent, autonomous, and related to others. Satisfaction of these basic needs facilitates people's autonomous motivation (i.e., acting with a sense of full endorsement and volition), whereas thwarting the needs promotes controlled motivation (i.e., feeling pressured to behave in particular ways) or being amotivated (i.e., lacking intentionality). Satisfying these basic needs and acting autonomously have been consistently shown to be associated with psychological health and effective performance. Social contexts within which people operate, however proximal (e.g., a family or workgroup) or distal (e.g., a cultural value or economic system), affect their need satisfaction and type of motivation, thus affecting their wellness and effectiveness. Social contexts also affect whether people's life goals or aspirations tend to be more intrinsic or more extrinsic, and that in turn affects important life outcomes.