No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Characterisation of lemon-flavoured olive oils
... Another method known as "coextraction or co-processing" consists of the incorporation of the material into the oil during crushing or kneading. [14][15][16] With this approach, cleaner products can be obtained, which enables a faster and more efficient transfer of aromatic compounds and phenolics than the maceration method. [17][18][19] With aromatization, it is intended to have effects, such as improving oxidative stability, nutritional quality, and sensorial properties. ...
... For fruity taste, those aromatized oils compared to plain oil received lower values; even the lowest values in this regard were given to the TPC and TEM samples. Similar effect was also reported by Sacchi et al., [14] who reported a lowering of the fruity attribute in lemon juice, lemon leaf, and albedo aromatized olive oils with increase in the bitter and pungent attributes. [14] The combined use of ginger and turmeric spices resulted in values close to normal olive oil in terms of fruity taste, as their use alone was scored with low fruity taste scores. ...
... Similar effect was also reported by Sacchi et al., [14] who reported a lowering of the fruity attribute in lemon juice, lemon leaf, and albedo aromatized olive oils with increase in the bitter and pungent attributes. [14] The combined use of ginger and turmeric spices resulted in values close to normal olive oil in terms of fruity taste, as their use alone was scored with low fruity taste scores. The addition of ginger, turmeric, and ginger + turmeric extracts or powders did not lead to any sensorial defects, and none of the samples received negative perception. ...
Aromatized olive oils were prepared by the addition of ginger and turmeric spices and their combination (ginger + turmeric) with two different forms: powder and extracts. The spices were incorporated to olive paste at kneading stage (co‐processing) or directly to olive oil as infusion (maceration) (5% for powder, 3% for extract; w/w). Aromatization provided a lower peroxide value accompanied by a longer induction period, increased total phenolic content, and enhanced antioxidant activity. The use of turmeric as a powder may be advantageous for use in vegetable oils, especially because the bioactive antioxidant compounds it contains are hydrophobic. In another way, it was also the reason why the alcoholic extract of ginger gave more effective results than turmeric, which had a higher extraction yield than ginger. For both the co‐processing and maceration methods, ginger powder and extract induced the strongest radical scavenging activity in oil. The pungent taste was more marked in turmeric‐aromatized oils and spicy taste in ginger‐aromatized oils. The use of these two spices together incorporated the bioactive components into the oil while balancing the burning effect of ginger, making it more possible to benefit from its high antioxidant effect.
Practical Applications : Aromatization of olive oil by maceration and co‐processing not only enriched it with bioactive components but also improved oxidative stability with quality indices such as free acidity and peroxide. In terms of quality indices and oxidative stability, maceration had advantages over co‐processing. However, co‐processing was more effective in terms of total phenolic and radical scavenging activity. At the industrial level, the incorporation of an aromatic material at one step of the process, that is, co‐processing or co‐milling, can be advantageous in terms of application without requiring extra time for the aromatization.
... During storage the co-milled samples had the highest levels. This agreed with findings of other authors who studied olive oil flavoured with lemon (Sacchi et al., 2017). The FA increase is probably due to the more acidic environment during malaxation caused by the acids released from bergamot that promotes the hydrolysis of triglycerides. ...
... As expected, olive oil enrichment caused an increase in polyphenols. Despite this, adding the matrix by co-milling increases the volume of the paste and naturally there is a loss of these molecules in the olive mill wastewater, also due to the fact that the acids frees by the bergamot could lead to the scission of the secoiridoid aglycons into simple phenols more likely to be lost with the wastewater (Sacchi et al., 2017). The acidic environment that could have caused the bergamot juice, originated a strong lowering of pH of the olive paste generating an unfavorable condition for the activity of some enzymes, even inhibiting some of it. ...
... First, CFVOOB10 and CFVOOB20 scored a high overall acceptability of 8 and 9 points respectively. In agreement with Sacchi et al. (2017), the fruits belonging to the Citrus, own a positive effect on the olive oil with some defects, covering perfectly all of them when aromatization is performed during the crushing of fresh olives. Other results indicated an increment of citrusy, fruity, bitter, and salty notes. ...
This study aims to examine the bioactivity of Calabrian extra virgin olive oil enriched with bergamot fruits (Citrus bergamia Risso & Poiteau) harvested in Reggio Calabria province (Italy). To extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), cv Ottobratica 10 and 20% of fresh fruit was added during crushing of the olives and 2% by infusion of freeze-dried bergamot (CFVOOB10, CFVOOB20 and IFVOOB samples, respectively) was added. EVOO, bergamot extract and flavoured samples (FVOOs), were analysed throughout a one-year period. Total phenol content (TPC) as well as total chlorophyll (TChlC) and total carotenoid (TCC) contents were spectrophotometrically determined. In addition, the phenolic profile wasstudied by UHPLC. Free acidity (FA), peroxide values (PV), spectrophotometric indices, α-tocopherol, colour, and antioxidant activity were also assessed. The impact of bergamot addition on lipase, α‐amylase, and α‐glucosidase was estimated. Expert panellists evaluated the influence on the sensorial attributes, and CFVOOB10 was found to be the most pleasant. CFVOOB10 also showed the lowest PV and the highest FA after the storage. CFVOOB20 showed good protection against lipid peroxidation. Generally, all the FVOOs maintained a better inhibitory activity against the key enzymes related to obesity, compared to the EVOO. Data analyses confirmed that these FVOOs should be considered to be functional with a good sensory profile.
... Virgin olive oil (VOO) plays a key role in the Mediterranean diet, being one of the most valued fats worldwide, with recognized health positive effects related to its bioactive composition [1]. ...
... Therefore, increasing oils' natural antioxidant contents could contribute to improve chemical stability, while enhancing their nutritional and nutraceutical properties [1,18]. The development of functional foods may become a challenge, being necessary to identify new sources of bioactive compounds to increase the availability of healthy food products. ...
... For olive oils producers, co-extracted oils could be an opportunity for innovation, differentiation, and creation of oils richer in bioactive composition. During the last years, some studies have shown oils co-extracted with the addition of olive leaves, bergamot, rosemary, thyme, basil, and oregano, to be responsible for increasing oils' quality and positive sensory notes [1,19,[21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. ...
Olive oil, a fundamental component of the Mediterranean diet, is recognized as a functional food due to its health-promoting composition. The concentration of phenolic compounds in olive oil is influenced by various factors such as genetics, agro-climatic conditions, and technological processes. Therefore, to ensure an ideal intake of phenolics through the diet, it is recommended to produce functional enriched olive oil that contains a high concentration of bioactive compounds. The co-extraction technique is used to create innovative and differentiated products that promote the sensory and health-related composition of oils. To enrich olive oil, various natural sources of bioactive compounds can be used, including raw materials derived from the same olive tree such as olive leaves, as well as other compounds from plants and vegetables, such as herbs and spices (garlic, lemon, hot pepper, rosemary, thyme, and oregano). The development of functional enriched olive oils can contribute to the prevention of chronic diseases and improve consumers’ quality of life. This mini-review compiles and discusses relevant scientific information related to the development of enriched olive oil using the co-extraction technique and its positive effects on the health-related composition of oils.
... In fact, limonene has been used clinically to dissolved cholesterol-containing gallstones, as it is an excellent cholesterol solvent (Sun, 2007). It has also been used to relieve heartburn, as it possesses a gastric acid neutralizing effect, and To obtain lemon-flavored olive oil, fresh lemons are directly added to the olive mill together with fresh olives for extraction (Sacchi et al., 2017). However, this method has negative effects on oil quality, such as an increase in free fatty acids (FFAs) and dramatic decreases in total phenolics and the sensory profile of the product (Sacchi et al., 2017). ...
... It has also been used to relieve heartburn, as it possesses a gastric acid neutralizing effect, and To obtain lemon-flavored olive oil, fresh lemons are directly added to the olive mill together with fresh olives for extraction (Sacchi et al., 2017). However, this method has negative effects on oil quality, such as an increase in free fatty acids (FFAs) and dramatic decreases in total phenolics and the sensory profile of the product (Sacchi et al., 2017). There is a risk of physical instability of the product upon exposure to the acidic juice from fresh lemons, as it is an oil-in-water dispersion (Sacchi et al., 2002;Balasundram et al., 2006). ...
... showing that β-pinene is the next abundant terpene compound in lemon-flavored olive oils (Sacchi et al., 2017). Table 1 shows the main quality indices for olive oil as set by the International Olive Council (2019), TPCs, carotenoids, and total antioxidant powers measured in unflavored oil and oils flavored with different quantities of lemon flavedo. ...
Lemon-flavored olive oil is one of several popular flavored oils on the market. This study aimed to examine the amount of limonene, an abundant aroma compound in lemon, that is transferred from lemon to olive oil under different flavoring conditions. First, the presence of limonene in different parts of fresh lemon tissue (flavedo, albedo, and tissues other than flavedo and albedo) was examined in olive oils flavored with each tissue. Limonene was found to be mainly distributed in the flavedo. Effects of extraction time, temperature, and quantity of the flavedo added were determined as independent variables. Results indicated that the extraction time and temperature influenced the amount of limonene transferred. In particular, the addition of increasing quantities of flavedo resulted in significant increases in the amounts of limonene transferred without increasing the oxidative degradation of the oil samples. We determined the optimal conditions for lemon-flavored olive oil preparation based on the amounts of limonene transferred.
... Mixtures of VOO and other typically Mediterranean ingredients are marketed as "flavored olive oil" (FOO), "aromatized olive oil" or "gourmet olive oil" and represent a possible answer for olive oil producers and industries to the increasing demand of consumers for a novel and healthy food. Different strategies for producing FOO were cited in the literature (Moldao-Martins et al., 2004;Gambacorta et al., 2007;Issaoui et al., 2011;Sousa et al., 2015;Sacchi et al., 2017). In order to develop an effective and efficient way to produce FOO without mitigating the nutritional quality value and without compromising the chemical characteristics of VOO, researchers from the University of Bari in Italy, studied three different processes: infusion of olive oil with ground herbs, adding herbs to crushed olives before malaxation and the use of ultrasound technology. ...
... Concerning the nature and the kind of the ingredients used to prepare gourmet olive oil, industrial experts and researchers have used dried and⁄or fresh herbs, whole spices, ground spices, essential oils or as oleoresin, vegetables, fruits, mushrooms and nuts (Issaoui et al., 2011;Sousa et al., 2015;Sacchi et al., 2017). Regardless of the method used to aromatize olive oil, the addition of ingredients was found to have a positive influence on the final product due to an increase in total polyphenols, which enhances antiradical and antioxidant activity (Gambacorta et al., 2007;Clodoveo et al., 2016) and improves its sensory profile (Sacchi et al., 2017). ...
... Concerning the nature and the kind of the ingredients used to prepare gourmet olive oil, industrial experts and researchers have used dried and⁄or fresh herbs, whole spices, ground spices, essential oils or as oleoresin, vegetables, fruits, mushrooms and nuts (Issaoui et al., 2011;Sousa et al., 2015;Sacchi et al., 2017). Regardless of the method used to aromatize olive oil, the addition of ingredients was found to have a positive influence on the final product due to an increase in total polyphenols, which enhances antiradical and antioxidant activity (Gambacorta et al., 2007;Clodoveo et al., 2016) and improves its sensory profile (Sacchi et al., 2017). Negative effects were also determined, such as the possible presence and survival of some microorganisms, as previously reported by Ciafardini et al., 2004. ...
The presence of flavored olive oils (FOO) on the market represents an answer to an increasing consumer demand for novel and healthy food. This work aims to compare the sensory acceptability and the thermal stability of FOO prepared by mixing different flavors (lemon, onion, garlic, paprika) to an extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) also used as the control sample. 96 Tunisian citizens were involved in a consumer test and the lemon flavored oil was the most liked whereas the least liked was the oil with onion. Samples were subjected to different heat treatments (60 °C, 100 °C, 200 °C for 1, 2, 4, 8 hours) and the flavor addition did not influence the EVOO stability when samples were heated at 60 °C, whereas at 200 °C the FOO with onion and garlic showed higher oxidative stability. The thermo-oxidation process at 60 °C and at 100 °C of the FOOs was not detrimental for the volatile compound markers but the effect was noticeable for all these markers at 200 °C.
... Caponio et al. found that olive oils aromatized with spices exhibited significantly higher levels of PV and K232 than unflavoured oils [39]. Sacchi et al. confirmed a significant increase in K232 and K270 values in olive oils flavoured with lemon [41]. However, Clodoveo et al. observed no differences when using flavours like thyme or oregano in olive oils [42]. ...
... Metabolites generated by this enzyme contribute significantly to the fruity taste by synthesising various aromatic compounds and flavour enhancers [40]. Essential compounds responsible for the fruity flavour in VOOs include ethyl isobutanoate, ethyl 2-methylbutanoate and ethyl 3-methylbutanoate [36,37,41]. As indicated in Table 3, a similar trend was observed for the fruity sensation in this study. ...
This study aimed to study the impact of Ferulago angulata ( Schlecht ) Boiss (known as an antioxidant known as Chavir) extract, obtained through ultrasound‐assisted extraction (UAE), on the physicochemical, antioxidant and sensory properties of virgin olive oil (VOO) during a 90‐day storage period at room temperature. For this purpose, different concentrations of Chavir extract (100, 200 and 300 ppm) were added to VOO. Key parameters, including total phenol content (TPC), extract composition by HPLC‐DAD and quality indicators like acidity value (AV), p‐anisidine value ( p ‐AV) and UV indices (parameters: K232, K270 and ΔK), were determined. AVs increased overall during the storage period, but adding Chavir extract at 300 ppm appeared to counteract the rise in free fatty acids, suggesting a potential role in reducing hydrolysis. p ‐AVs decreased in unflavoured and flavoured samples, indicating reduced oxidation in Chavir‐flavoured VOO. K232 values exhibited a decline in the presence of flavouring agents and their concentrations. In contrast, the values of K270 showed an increase over the storage period, which indicated the formation of aldehyde and ketones in the second oxidation step. All samples maintained ΔK values below permissible limits (≥ 0.01), signifying good stability. The sensory evaluation emphasised positive attributes such as bitterness, fruitiness and pungency, indicating the high quality of VOO. The addition of Chavir extract further enhanced all of these positive characteristics, particularly at the 300 ppm concentration. However, a gradual decline was observed in all these attributes over time. Notably, the Chavir extract played a crucial role in delaying the formation of secondary oxidation products, which contribute to negative attributes like rancidity in VOO. Moreover, adding Chavir extract increases oxidative stability, infuses the positive qualities in VOO and provides valuable insights into its potential applications for enhancing the overall quality of VOO during storage. This enhancement not only helps maintain high quality and nutritional value but also makes the product more appealing to consumers.
... Flavoured extra-virgin olive oil production can be achieved in three ways: the aromatic plant can be added before or after the extraction process of the olives (Lamas et al. 2022),an essential oil can be added directly into the olive oil (Asensio et al. 2013). In the first case, as extensively reported in the literature, one of the typical flavouring techniques involves the co-extraction of the flavouring agent with the olives, usually performed by milling and malaxation (Baiano et al. 2009;Sacchi et al. 2017). On the other hand, the flavouring agent may be exposed through direct contact with the oil (contact by infusion), by monitoring different conditions such as time and temperature exposition (Ayadi et al. 2009;Sousa et al. 2015). ...
... These findings were also in agreement with the literature data on flavoured lemon EVOOs. In this concern, Sacchi et al. confirmed the similarity between typical lemon terpenes and the volatiles of flavoured lemon EVOOs, obtained by milling fresh lemons and olives (Sacchi et al. 2017). However, besides qualiquantitative data, chiral data showed some differences concerning previous literature findings for both the lemon EVOOs analysed . ...
Within extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) global market, there is a niche market of olive oils flavoured with aromatic and medicinal plants. The use of aromatic and medicinal plants to flavour extra-virgin olive oils enriches the oil both from a sensorial and nutritional point of view, affecting its chemical composition. It is, therefore, necessary to develop analytical techniques useful to investigate in deeply the quali-quantitative profile of molecules contained in both the volatile and non-volatile fractions of extra-virgin olive oil. In the current study, several flavoured EVOOs (with truffle, basil, cardamom, bergamot, lemon, mandarin, sage, porcini mushroom, garlic, and rose) were purchased from local stores and analysed by both HPLC and GC methods to verify the correspondence with the profile of the added aroma. Furthermore, considering the preciousness and cost of some specific flavouring ingredients, in some cases, multidimensional gas chromatographic approach coupled to IRMS or performed by a chiral separation (Es-MDGC) was led to investigate their authenticity. From the results obtained, these complementary approaches allowed confirming the genuineness for most of the flavoured EVOOs. For few flavourings, some differences were detected with respect to literature references, thus requiring additional analytical devices to further authenticate their genuineness.
... Obtained values, ranging from 0.24 to 0.48%, were below the limit fxed by the IOC for the EVOO category suggesting that aromatization did not down ground the oil from its initial category. Te presence of organic acids in thyme, causing a more acidic environment that probably allowed the hydrolysis of triglycerides, could explain the increased acidity level in enriched oils [37]. ...
... Te passage of the components from the plant to the oil absorbing at 270 nm or the apparition of secondary oxidation products could explain this result. In the previous works, the extinction coefcients were sometimes higher [12,37] and other times lower [39] in enriched oils than that in control. ...
The present study aimed to evaluate the changes in extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) after enrichment treatments with Thymus leptobotrys, a Moroccan endemic aromatic plant. The EVOO sample was supplemented with two materials obtained from the aerial parts of T. leptobotrys: powder (2.5 and 5%) or essential oil (100 and 200 ppm). The chemical composition analysis of T. leptobotrys extracts (essential oil and powder methanolic extract) allowed the determination of its phenolic profile. Quality parameters (acidity, peroxide value, and specific extinction coefficients), color, fatty acids composition, minor components (pigments and phenol), and Rancimat oxidative stability of the control and enriched oils were measured. Rosmarinic acid and thymusin were the main identified compounds in the powder; thymusin was identified for the first time in the essential oil where it was predominant. Generally, the enrichments did not downgrade the oil from its initial category (EVOO), according to quality indexes. Adding T. leptobotrys to EVOO, especially the essential oil, enriched its phenolic profile by allowing the migration of thymusin, a lipophile flavone, without affecting its quality parameters or color.
... The oxidation process is highly influenced by the processing and storage conditions of the oil, which affects not only its sensory and healthy qualities [13], but also its economic value and consumer acceptability [6]. The addition of aromatic herbs, bulbs or fruits-such as oregano, basil, rosemary, thyme, garlic and lemon-to olive oil results in aromatized or flavored olive oils (FOO) [14][15][16][17][18][19][20], thereby modifying their shelf life [12], and perhaps, masking undesirable sensory perceptions. The flavoring process of VOOs is varied and can include the infusion of spices into the oil, ultrasound-assisted maceration and joint malaxation of olive paste and herbs, among others [14,[18][19][20][21]. ...
... The common compounds identified in both herbs were γ-terpinene, limonene, 1,8cineol and tetrahydrolinalool; both FOO samples showed an increase in their concentrations except for tetrahydrolinalool, the concentration of which remained unaltered during the storage. Depending on the flavoring, higher levels of terpenic compounds, such as limonene, were found [17]. The BOO samples showed significant (p < 0.05) differences between the first and sixth months of storage for γ-terpinene, which increased from 0.02 ± 0.001 mg/Kg to 0.04 ± 0.01 mg/Kg with significant differences (p < 0.05). ...
The volatile compounds of virgin olive oil (VOO) have an important role from a sensory point of view as they are responsible for the aroma of the oil. Once the oil is obtained, auto-oxidation is the main process contributing to its deterioration, modifying the volatiles profile and aroma. The addition of aromatic herbs to VOO is a traditional technique to change the flavor and to preserve the oil. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect on the volatile profile and sensory properties of flavoring VOO with rosemary and basil herbs and its impact on the evolution of the oxidative process during a six-month shelf-life study at 15.7 ± 3.6 °C and exposed to 500 ± 100 lx of light for 12 h each day. The determination of quality parameters, volatiles concentrations and VOO sensory properties and their comparison with the flavored VOO samples showed that the addition of basil or rosemary herbs, in addition to retarding the oxidation of the oil, allowed the discrimination of the flavored samples due to the migration of compounds from herbs to the oil. The aroma of basil olive oil (BOO) samples was mainly due to β-pinene, ocimene and 1,8-cineol compounds while for rosemary olive oil (ROO) samples, their aroma was mainly due to the concentrations of camphene, β-myrcene, α-terpinolene, limonene and 1,8-cineol. From the antioxidant standpoint, the effect of the herbs was more noticeable from the third month onwards.
... With time, these samples moved progressively from the negative quadrant of the plot to the positive quadrant because of TPC depletion and increase in hydrolytic and oxidative markers ( Figure 1B). Changes in quality parameters because of flavouring practices are well known and observed by several authors (Baiano et al., 2009Caponio et al., 2016;Clodoveo et al., 2016;Gambacorta et al., 2007;Sacchi et al., 2017;Sousa et al., 2015). ...
... Aromatisation effect was also observed on the phenolic profile of VOO Caponio et al., 2016;Sacchi et al., 2017). Table 2 shows the significance of differences in the phenolic profile of oils at T3 and T6 with respect to T0, while Figure 2 reports the results of PCA. ...
The purpose of the current research was to study the effects of 6-month frozen storage on the quality parameters and the phenolic profiles of flavoured olive oils (FOO) produced by co-malaxation or infusion using basil, chilli, or chilli–garlic as flavouring ingredients. The results demonstrated that during frozen storage, FOOs underwent degradative processes that caused a progressive depletion of phenolic compounds and the rising of oxidative and hydrolytic markers. A clear interaction appeared between storage time, flavouring ingredient and flavouring technique. Infusion caused a greater quality loss than co-malaxation, and in basil flavoured oils the drawbacks of infusion were greater than in other flavoured oils. The impact of flavouring method on the phenolic profiles of oil became more evident at the end of the storage period. It was confirmed that oleocanthal is less affected by storage in freezing conditions than other secoiridoids.
... Os benefícios nutricionais devidos ao consumo do azeite de oliva estão relacionados principalmente à sua composição de ácidos graxos, ao alto teor de ácido oleico e à razão equilibrada de ácidos graxos saturados e poli-insaturados (Makni et al., 2015). Os benefícios do azeite na saúde humana são atribuídos principalmente aos compostos fenólicos e a capacidade antioxidante, importantes na prevenção de muitas doenças, como câncer, distúrbios inflamatórios, degeneração neurológica, doenças coronárias e diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (Foscolou, Critselis & Panagiotakos, 2018;Perestelo et al., 2017;Sacchi et al., 2017). Também são atribuídos aos polifenóis do azeite de oliva as propriedades antialérgicas, antiaterogênicas, antitrombóticas, antimutagênicas, anticâncer, antiangiogênicas, antiapoptóticas e antimicrobianas (Gorzynik-Debicka et al., 2018;Guo et al., 2018;Ramos et al., 2020). ...
... Diversas matérias-primas podem ser adicionadas aos azeites de oliva condimentados (Mannina et al., 2012;Yilmazer et al., 2016). A adição destas matérias-primas pode ser feita na forma de óleo essencial, produto seco, in natura ou em diferentes combinações (Baiano et al., 2009, Perestelo et al., 2017Sacchi et al., 2017). Entre os condimentos utilizados, destaca-se o alho (Allium sativum), comumente utilizado para temperar e condimentar alimentos em sua forma in natura ou em combinações com outros ingredientes. ...
O alho (Allium sativum) é popularmente utilizado para condimentar azeites de oliva, possui altos teores de alicina e selênio com capacidade antioxidante, além de compostos fenólicos como os ácidos p-cumárico e cafeico. O presente trabalho avaliou a qualidade do azeite de oliva extravirgem condimentado individualmente com alho desidratado e com alho in natura, ambos na proporção de 10 % (m/m) durante a infusão permanente por 50 dias à 60 ± 2⁰C. Foram realizadas análises para determinar a atividade antioxidante, o conteúdo de compostos fenólicos totais, a estabilidade térmica e os principais parâmetros de qualidade pela determinação do índice de acidez, índice de peróxidos, coeficiente de extinção específica por absorção UV, atividade de água (Aw), teor de clorofilas e carotenoides. Os resultados demonstraram que a infusão permanente de alho desidratado (AOEVD) e do alho in natura (AOEVIN) no azeite de oliva aumentaram a atividade antioxidante das amostras avaliadas, preservaram o teor de compostos fenólicos totais ao longo do armazenamento e retardaram o processo de degradação das clorofilas em relação a amostra controle (AOEVP). A amostra AOEVIN apresentou o maior índice de acidez; o AOEVD apresentou a menor Aw; e o AOEVD e o AOEVIN reduziram o índice de peróxidos em relação ao AOEVP. Assim, a adição de 10 % (m/m) de alho desidratado ou in natura de forma permanente pode aumentar a capacidade antioxidante, o teor de compostos fenólicos totais e retardar a degradação de clorofilas no azeite de oliva.
... In general, the effects of the flavoring of cv. Arbequina oils, with two typical agents (garlic and rosemary) and a less common one (cinnamon), on their physicochemical-sensory profiles were in line with the literature data [2,7,11,12,[37][38][39][40]. As shown in Table 1, flavoring did not have a significant effect on FA, as also described by other researchers [7,37], but contributed to the reduction of the primary oxidation, as can be inferred by the sig-nificant decrease of the PV, mainly for rosemary and garlic flavored oils (a decrease of 26% and 11% compared with the unflavored oil, respectively), in line with the findings of Gambacorta et al. [38] and Sacchi et al. [39], when using several flavoring agents (rosemary, pepper, oregano, garlic or lemon). ...
... Arbequina oils, with two typical agents (garlic and rosemary) and a less common one (cinnamon), on their physicochemical-sensory profiles were in line with the literature data [2,7,11,12,[37][38][39][40]. As shown in Table 1, flavoring did not have a significant effect on FA, as also described by other researchers [7,37], but contributed to the reduction of the primary oxidation, as can be inferred by the sig-nificant decrease of the PV, mainly for rosemary and garlic flavored oils (a decrease of 26% and 11% compared with the unflavored oil, respectively), in line with the findings of Gambacorta et al. [38] and Sacchi et al. [39], when using several flavoring agents (rosemary, pepper, oregano, garlic or lemon). A similar decreasing trend was observed for K 232 , although in this case more expressive for garlic and cinnamon flavored oils (reduction of 29% and 24%, respectively). ...
Cv. Arbequina extra virgin olive oils (EVOO) were flavored with cinnamon, garlic, and rosemary and characterized. Although flavoring significantly affected the physicochemical quality parameters, all oils fulfilled the legal thresholds for EVOO classification. Flavoring increased (20 to 40%) the total phenolic contents, whereas oxidative stability was dependent on the flavoring agent (a slight increase for rosemary and a decrease for cinnamon and garlic). Flavoring also had a significant impact on the sensory profiles. Unflavored oils, cinnamon, and garlic flavored oils had a fruity-ripe sensation while rosemary flavored oils were fruity-green oils. Fruit-related sensations, perceived in unflavored oils, disappeared with flavoring. Flavoring decreased the sweetness, enhanced the bitterness, and did not influence the pungency of the oils. According to the EU regulations, flavored oils cannot be commercialized as EVOO. Thus, to guarantee the legal labelling requirement and to meet the expectations of the market-specific consumers for differentiated olive oils, a lab-made electronic nose was applied. The device successfully discriminated unflavored from flavored oils and identified the type of flavoring agent (90 ± 10% of correct classifications for the repeated K-fold cross-validation method). Thus, the electronic nose could be used as a practical non-destructive preliminary classification tool for recognizing olive oils’ flavoring practice.
... Olive oil plays a key role in the Mediterranean diet, being one of the most valued fats worldwide, with appreciated sensory characteristics and recognized health positive effects related to its phenolic composition [1]. This fact has been recognized by the European Food Safety Authority [2] leading to the health claim stating that olive oil polyphenols contribute to the protection of blood lipids from oxidative stress. ...
... Positive health effects related to olive oil consumption have been attributed, to some extent, to their phenolic composition [39]. Similarly, olive leaves have been traditionally used as a folk remedy, due to the recognized anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antimicrobial, and hypocholesterolemic effects [1], partially attributed to low-molecular-weight polyphenols like oleuropein [41]. Talhaoui et al. [42] reported that, besides oleuropein, cv. ...
The effect of olive leaves addition (1%, w/w, cvs. Arbequina or Santulhana), during the industrial extraction of Arbequina oils, on their physicochemical, color, phenolic profile, and sensory characteristics, was studied. Leaves’ incorporation reduced the primary oxidation (peroxide value by 33% and K232 by 17%) and increased the oxidative stability (19%), with the impact being more pronounced for Arbequina leaves. For these latter oils, leaves incorporation increased the total phenolic content (293 ± 9 mg GAE/kg), which became richer in secoiridoid derivatives (143.7 ± 3.0 mg/kg). Also, only Arbequina oils extracted with their own leaves supported the health claim regarding the protection of blood lipids against oxidative stress (hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol derivatives content greater than 5 mg per 20 g of olive oil). On the other hand, the incorporation of leaves from cvs. Arbequina and Santulhana during extraction enhanced the bitterness (55–59%) and decreased the pungency (25–33%). Santulhana leaves promoted an increase of the green-fruitiness (5.3 ± 0.5), while Arbequina leaves enhanced the oils’ sweetness (7.0 ± 0.4). Moreover, a potentiometric laboratory-made electronic tongue was applied, as a taste sensor device, being capable of successfully discriminating Arbequina oils extracted without or with addition of leaves, allowing the identification of (un)deliberated leaves incorporation during oils’ extraction. Lastly, it was found that the quality and composition of Arbequina oils industrially extracted were leaf cultivar dependent, with the low level of phenolics of control oils promoted by the incorporation of Arbequina leaves.
Graphic abstract
... Olive oil is widely used in the Mediterranean diet, being its consumption associated with several health benefits [1]. This vegetable oil is one of the most valued in the world, being commercialized as extra virgin or virgin olive oil (EVOO or VOO, respectively), which include both blend and monovarietal olive oils. ...
... Santulhana oils, at considerable intensities (with mean intensities ranging from 4.6 Table 1 Mean values (± standard deviation) of free acidity, peroxide value, extinction coefficients, oxidative stability and total phenols contents of monovarietal olive oils from four Portuguese cultivars (cvs. Cobrançosa, Madural, Santulhana and Verdeal Transmontana) (for each oil, n = 6 bottles × 2 analysis) 1 FA free acidity, PV peroxide value, K 232 and K 268 UV-Vis extinction coefficients at 232 and 268 nm, respectively; OS oxidative stability, TPC total phenols content 2 P values for the one-way ANOVA. Different letters in the same row show statistically differences from the given mean (p < 0.05) [39,43,54]. ...
Four Portuguese monovarietal olive oils (cvs. Cobrançosa, Madural, Santulhana and Verdeal Transmontana) were evaluated, totalizing 24 independent samples. Olive cultivar significantly influenced (P values < 0.05, one-way ANOVA) the oils’ physicochemical and sensory attributes, fulfilling all oils the legal thresholds for extra-virgin classification. Oils from cv. Verdeal Transmontana had the highest oxidative stability (16.9 ± 1.0 h), whereas cvs. Cobrançosa and Santulhana oils have the highest total phenols content (204 ± 30 and 177 ± 33 mg GAE/kg, respectively). Concerning the sensory attributes, only cv. Santulhana oils fitted fruity greenly oils type, presenting, in general, significantly higher olfactory and gustatory intensities (P values < 0.05, one-way ANOVA), with a higher number of perceived sensory attributes (e.g., herbaceous sensations), compared to the other monovarietal oils. Free acidity, peroxide value, extinction coefficients, total phenols and oxidative stability allowed the unsupervised differentiation (principal component analysis, PCA) of the four monovarietal oils, and in a less extent, the sensory data. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy-chemometric procedure was developed based on raw or transformed forms of the recorded spectra. Raw, 1st and 2nd derivative spectra allowed the unsupervised (PCA) and supervised (linear discriminant analysis, LDA) identification of the olive cultivar of the studied oils. In fact, FTIR-LDA models, based on the raw transmittance or on their 1st or 2nd derivatives, recorded at 5, 4 or 3 selected wavenumbers, respectively, allowed to correctly classify all oils (sensitivities greater than 99 ± 7% for the repeated K-fold-CV internal validation). Therefore, FTIR spectroscopy could be used as a fast, reliable, environmentally friendly and non-destructive olive cultivar-classification tool for monovarietal oils.
... Flavored vegetable oil is one of the example [1], which is a type of vegetable oil infused with herbs, spices, or citrus to enhance its sensory qualities and health benefits [2]. The flavor profile of these oils is determined by the aromatic ingredients added, as they contribute to creating a unique taste and sensory experience [3]. ...
Citrus-flavored vegetable oils (CFVO) demand has grown rapidly in the food industry due to increasing consumer demand for salads as a healthy food choice. Salad dressing has a distinctive taste from sour-tasting citrus that when added to salads to increase acceptance. This study primarily aimed to characterize antioxidant activity, total flavonoid content, and sensory quality by hedonic and organoleptic test between all unflavored oil and CFVO from three different vegetable oils (coconut oil ( Cocos nucifera L. ), palm oil ( Elaeis guineensis L .), sesame oil ( Sesamum indicum L .)) and three citruses (key lime ( Citrus aurantifolia ), kaffir lime ( Citrus hystrix ), and nasnaran ( Citrus ambylcarpa )). One-Way ANOVA with post hoc Tukey were conducted to assess antioxidant and flavonoid differences. ANOVA with Tukey HSD and HSD, PCA and HCA, and a Spearman correlation analysis were conducted to assess the sensory qualities of citrus-flavored vegetable oils. There were different hedonic responses towards citruses in addition to the vegetable oils for each hedonic attribute. There is also a different response to the antioxidant and total flavonoids content of each treatment. The best formula according the multi-attribute decision using a compensatory model and additive weighting technique (MADCAW) score describes key lime (140%) flavored coconut oil as the best formula as having 56.58% antioxidant, 37.00 mg QE/100 g flavonoid and color liking 1.84, aroma liking 3.56, and taste liking 1.88. In conclusion, citrus-flavored vegetable oil has the potential to be a high-antioxidant vegetable oil with good acceptance by consumers.
... Fagundes et al. [32] studied a pink-pepper-flavored Brazilian olive oil, in which they found the K 232 and K 268 values to be significantly higher than in the control. The authors explained how the presence of some terpenes (of which mace is naturally rich) can interfere with the signal in the 232 nm region, causing an increase in K 232 [33]. ∆K was strongly influenced by the addition of mace, particularly when it was co-mixed with the olive paste: −0.003 vs. 0.031 for the C and MAVOO-M, respectively, on the day of the production. ...
This work aimed to evaluate the impact of enrichment processing on the quality parameters, bioactivity and sensorial aspects of Myristica fragrans (mace)-flavored olive oil storage for one year. The mace powder was added to extra virgin olive oil through two different processes: immediately after crushing the olives by mixing mace (1% weight/weight (w/w)) with the olive paste (MAVOO-M) and by adding mace to extra virgin olive oil (C) (2% w/w) (MAVOO-I). A multi-analytical approach was applied to measure the main qualitative indexes, such as the free acidity, peroxide value and ultraviolet parameters. The total phenolic and carotenoid contents (TPC and TCC, respectively) and α-tocopherol were also evaluated, as well as the sensory attributes. The radical scavenging potential was estimated by using two different in vitro tests, namely, 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). A significant increase in the free acidity parameter was found in all the flavored oils, and particularly in the MAVOO-M (1.27% oleic acid); at the same time, this oil was the sample with the lowest peroxide value (i.e., 9.68 meqO2/kg) after 360 days of storage. At the end of the storage, an increase in L* values was found in both the MAVOO-M and -I vs. the C (43.88 and 43.02, respectively, vs. 42.62). The TCC was strongly influenced by the addition of mace, especially when the infusion process was used. In fact, after one year of storage, the TCC in the MAVOO-I resulted in ~34.7% more than the MAVOO-M. A promising DPPH radical scavenging activity was observed independently by the applied aromatization process, with IC50 values of 19.77 and 17.80 μg/mL for the MAVOO-M and MAVOO-I, respectively. However, this activity decreased during storage, and a similar trend was observed using the ABTS test. In conclusion the infusion as enrichment methodology led to more promising results in terms of functionality compared with the co-mixing one.
... According to Gambacorta et al. [36], the addition of garlic, oregano, and rosemary raises the K 270 values. These results are comparable to those obtained by Sacchi et al. [37], who used lemons to flavor OO. They reported that when using lemon at large amounts, some terpenes that absorb in the wavelength region (232-270 nm), such as β-myrcene, can pass to the OO which interferes with the signal. ...
Enriched olive oil combines olive oil with plants for enhanced flavor and potential health benefits, offering a versatile culinary ingredient. This process combines the natural goodness of olive oil with the unique characteristics of plants. The aim of this work was to study the effect of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) as a food additive (E 392) in the enrichment of ripe and fallen olives on the quality of the resulting flavored olive oil. Olive fruits at different stages of maturation green (ST1), mixed (ST2), black (ST3), and fallen in the ground (FO) were crushed with rosemary at two different percentages (2 and 5% w/w). Quality parameters, fatty acid profile, antioxidant profile, and volatile composition were evaluated. For ST3 and FO, rosemary addition decreased free acidity values, peroxide index, K232, and pigment content. Total phenols increased by 34 and 55% for ST3 and FO, respectively with 2% rosemary. As for bio-phenols, this process influenced antioxidant activity. In fact, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) activity is improved by 59 and 51%, respectively, for ST3 and FO oils flavored with 5% rosemary. As anticipated, the volatile profile changed significantly due to the rosemary addition, inducing the presence of terpene compounds, such as α-pinene, α-cymene, camphene, β-pinene, and α-terpineol. These findings prove that aromatization process improves the quality and the antioxidant profile of olive oils obtained from mature and fallen olives, and could help in solving the economic problems of oil mills. Other plants such as garlic, lemon, thyme, and others can be studied to find out if better results can be achieved.
... (Caponio et al., 2016). Such enrichment is useful to increase the antioxidant activity and the nutritional value of the oil (Bendini et al., 2015;Peres et al., 2021;Sacchi et al., 2017). Caponio et al. (2016) evaluated the influence of aromatization technique on the chemical and sensory quality of olive oils flavored with dried basil, dried chilli pepper and a combination of them. ...
... As expected, the enrichment of EVOO improves its quantity of phenols, especially when the matrix was added in the olive paste. However, this type of addition might cause an increment in paste volume and a naturally greater loss in the olive mill wastewater [41]. In fact, GM sample showed a lower phenolic content than the unflavoured sample at T0. ...
Citation: Custureri, I.M.G.; Sicari, V.; Loizzo, M.R.; Tundis, R.; Soria, A.C.; Giuffrè, A.M. Evaluation of Quality Parameters and Functional Activity of Ottobratica Extra Virgin Olive Oil Enriched with Zingiber officinale (Ginger) by Two Different Enrichment Processes during One-Year Storage. Foods 2023, 12, 3822. https://doi. Abstract: The aim of this work was to evaluate the impact of two enrichment processes on the quality parameters and bioactivity of Ottobratica extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) with ginger during storage. The first procedure was conducted by including ginger powder with olive fruits in the malaxer, and the second by infusion into the EVOO. The obtained oils were stored at room temperature for one year in the dark and periodically analysed. To evaluate the effect on the shelf-life of flavoured olive oils (FVOOs), physical, chemical and sensory parameters were evaluated. The FVOOs were investigated for antioxidant activity through a multi-target approach. The inhibition of lipase and carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes was analysed. The addition of ginger in the malaxer generated a product that preserved the lowest values of peroxide after storage (10.57 mEq O 2 kg −1) and maintained the highest α-tocopherol level (101.16 mg kg −1). The FVOOs, regardless of the enrichment technique used, showed a higher antioxidant activity than EVOO. Generally, a reduction in the inhibitory activity of the carbohydrate inhibitory enzymes was observed, especially after 60 days of storage. The addition of ginger improved the lipase inhibitory effect, especially if added during malaxation, and helped the FVOOs maintain this activity during storage.
... As expected, the enrichment of EVOO improves its quantity of phenols, especially when the matrix was added in the olive paste. However, this type of addition might cause an increment in paste volume and a naturally greater loss in the olive mill wastewater [41]. In fact, GM sample showed a lower phenolic content than the unflavoured sample at T0. ...
The aim of this work was to evaluate the impact of two enrichment processes on the quality parameters and bioactivity of Ottobratica extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) with ginger during storage. The first procedure was conducted by including ginger powder with olive fruits in the malaxer, and the second by infusion into the EVOO. The obtained oils were stored at room temperature for one year in the dark and periodically analysed. To evaluate the effect on the shelf-life of flavoured olive oils (FVOOs), physical, chemical and sensory parameters were evaluated. The FVOOs were investigated for antioxidant activity through a multi-target approach. The inhibition of lipase and carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes was analysed. The addition of ginger in the malaxer generated a product that preserved the lowest values of peroxide after storage (10.57 mEq O2 kg−1) and maintained the highest α-tocopherol level (101.16 mg kg−1). The FVOOs, regardless of the enrichment technique used, showed a higher antioxidant activity than EVOO. Generally, a reduction in the inhibitory activity of the carbohydrate inhibitory enzymes was observed, especially after 60 days of storage. The addition of ginger improved the lipase inhibitory effect, especially if added during malaxation, and helped the FVOOs maintain this activity during storage.
... The quality of the fruits is the main factor The main problem with the addition of herbs to olive oils is the incorporation of new products in the oil, which could promote the main degradation reactions, such as lipolysis and oxidation. The risk of lipolysis increases when fresh herbs are used, as the presence of free water in the oil will increase triacylglycerol's hydrolytic reactions [22][23][24]. Regarding the oxidation reactions, the fatty acid composition of oils is a determining factor for oxidation susceptibility [25]. Table 1 presents the results of quality criteria for Cornicabra oils obtained in an Abencor system either with or without USAE treatment. ...
Flavoring olive oils is a new trend in consumer preferences, and different enrichment techniques can be used. Coextraction of olives with a flavoring agent is an option for obtaining a flavored product without the need for further operations. Moreover, ultrasound (US) assisted extraction is an emergent technology able to increase extractability. Combining US and coextraction, it is possible to obtain new products using different types of olives (e.g., cultivar and ripening stage), ingredient(s) with the greatest flavoring and/or bioactive potential, as well as extraction conditions. In the present study, mastic thyme (Thymus mastichina L.) (TM) and lemon thyme (Thymus x citriodorus) (TC) were used for flavoring Cornicabra oils by coextraction. The coextraction trials were performed by (i) thyme addition to the olives during crushing or malaxation and (ii) US application before malaxation. Several parameters were evaluated in the oil: quality criteria parameters, total phenols, fatty acid composition, chlorophyll pigments, phenolic profile and oxidative stability. US application did not change the phenolic profile of Cornicabra olive oils, while the enrichment of olive oils with phenolic compounds or pigments by coextraction was very dependent on the thyme used. TM enrichment showed an improvement of several new phenolic compounds in the oils, while with TC, fewer new phenols were observed. In turn, in the trials with TC, the extraction of chlorophyll pigments was higher, particularly in crushing coprocessing. Moreover, the oils obtained with US and TM added in the mill or in the malaxator showed lower phenol decrease (59%) than oils flavored with TC (76% decrease) or Cornicabra virgin olive oil (80% decrease) over an 8-month storage period. Multivariate data analysis, considering quality parameters, pigments and phenolic contents, showed that flavored oils were mainly grouped by age.
... Aromatic plants and spices are fundamental ingredients in Mediterranean cuisine (i.e., rosemary in grilled meat or chicken, lemon in salads or soups and orange in desserts/coffee). According to some previous investigations, lemon [11], chili peppers [12][13][14], mint and thyme [15], orange [16], mugwort [17], lavender and sage [10], basil [18], rosemary [19,20] and saffron [21] have been used for the preparation of flavored olive oil to improve its sensory qualities and satisfy the consumers. In addition, numerous biological activities are generally attributed to these enriched oils or some of their components, including antioxidant and antimicrobial properties [22,23]. ...
The goal of this work was to investigate the impact of the flavoring of some aromatic plants/spices, including rosemary (R), lemon (L) and orange (O) at the concentration of 5% and 35% (w/w) added by 2 methods (conventional maceration and direct flavoring), on quality attributes, chemical changes and oxidative stability of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO). Six flavored oils were obtained (EVOO + O, O + O, EVOO + R, O + R, EVOO + L and O + L). The physicochemical parameters (water content, refractive index, acidity and peroxide value, extinction coefficient, fatty acids, volatile aroma profiles, Rancimat test, phenols and pigments composition) of the flavored oils were investigated. Based on the results obtained, it was observed that flavoring with a conventional process provided increased oxidative stability to the flavored oils, especially with rosemary (19.38 ± 0.26 h), compared to that of unflavored oil. The volatile profiles of the different flavored oils revealed the presence of 34 compounds with the dominance of Limonene. The fatty acid composition showed an abundance of mono-unsaturated fatty acids followed by poly-unsaturated ones. Moreover, a high antioxidant activity, a significant peripheral analgesic effect (77.7% of writhing inhibition) and an interesting gastroprotective action (96.59% of ulcer inhibition) have been observed for the rosemary-flavored oil. Indeed, the flavored olive oils of this study could be used as new functional foods, leading to new customers and further markets.
Keywords: flavored olive oil; chemical compositions; aroma volatiles; antioxidant properties; pharmacological properties
... It consists, in fact, of the addition of ingredients during milling or in the malaxation step in order to obtain a production with higher antioxidant activity or to enrich and change the acidic composition or part of the unsaponifiable fraction of oil (Peres et al. 2021). Many studies report the co-extraction of olive oil with the addition of matrices with positive sensory notes like lemon, bergamot, rosemary, thyme and basil (Baiano et al. 2009;Clodoveo et al. 2016;Sacchi et al. 2017). Other studies were intended to increase the antioxidant activity of olive oil with the addition of citrus fruits peels (Cerretani et al. 2008;Erg€ on€ ul and S anchez 2013;Ascrizzi et al. 2018), spices (Caponio et al. 2016) and tomato (Bendini et al. 2015). ...
Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), grape seeds (GS) and pomegranate seeds (PS) are very popular for human consumption because of their nutraceutical properties. A co-milling of olives with GS or PS was carried out with the aim of a preliminary study of the lipidic and phenolic characteristics of the obtained vegetable oils, also during their shelf life. Results show that the use of GS and PS in the olive co-milling enriches the oil in healthy compounds, such as punicic acid and γ-tocopherol. However, the co-milling process must be re-evaluated, since the compositional profile of the co-milled oils is just slightly different from EVOO. The oxidative state of the oils obtained suggests the use of a protective packaging combined with small containers in order to ensure a rapid consumption. With an appropriate formulation the co-milled oils could bring health-positive compounds and, simultaneously, raw materials could be valorised.
... (2) Co-pressing/Malaxation Method (CM): The smashed spice and herb plants are added to the vegetable oilseeds during the cold-pressing or malaxation processes of vegetable oils, and the processes are continued for 4 h or 8 h until vegetable oils no longer flow out. After the residual turbidity and flavoring materials are removed by high-pressure and high-speed centrifugation, the flavored vegetable oils from the coldpressing machine or malaxation mash are obtained [13]. (3) Extraction/Enrichment Method (EM): The flavoring materials of spice and herb plants are extracted by liquidsolid extraction or liquid-liquid extraction using organic solvents and then added directly to the vegetable oils [14]. ...
The preparation of flavored vegetable oils using spice and herb plants is considered to be an indispensable opportunity for the application of these plants. In the present exploration, sunflower oil (SFO) samples flavored by Mentha spicata L. (spearmint) were prepared using the maceration method (MM) and ultrasound-assisted maceration (UM). The antioxidant effects, sensory evaluation and the oxidative stability during accelerated storage; the physicochemical properties including the levels for acid value (AV), peroxide value (PV) and p-anisidine value (AnV); and the specific extinction values at 232 nm (K232) and 268 nm (K268) of the SFO samples were measured. The contents of beneficial ingredients including chlorophylls, carotenoids, polyphenols and tocopherols, and the micro-organism colonies for yeasts, molds, Listeria monocytogenes and Enterobacteriaceae bacteria were determined. The results show that the physicochemical properties, beneficial ingredients, antioxidant effects, sensory attributes and the oxidative stability in accelerated storage were greater in the flavored SFO sample than the control. Therefore, the SFO flavored by spearmint can be developed as flavored vegetable oils, and the ultrasound-assisted maceration can be widely employed in the preparation of flavored vegetable oils in the future.
... A number of previous investigations describe the aromatization of olive oils with different sources of natural bioactive ingredients such as olive leaves, olive pomace, herbs and spices (red pepper, lavender, laurel, chili, garlic, rosemary, basil, thyme, mint, oregano, etc) fruits (lemon, orange, etc), truffles, licopen, seaweed, walnuts, fish oil, etc (Damechki et al., 2001;Bendini et al., 2002;Ayadi et al., 2009;Sousa et al., 2015;Baiano et al., 2016;González et al., 2017;Campo et al., 2018;Kasimoglu et al., 2018). Aromatization methods include traditional maceration, maceration with the application of ultrasound (Assami et al., 2016) or microwaves (Benmousa et al., 2016), extraction of different compounds (by solid-liquid extraction, liquid-liquid extraction, or supercritic extraction) from the material and incorporation of the extract into the oil, and, finally, co-processing during milling or malaxation (Clodoveo et al., 2016;Yilmazer et al., 2016;Sacchi et al., 2017;Sena-Moreno et al., 2018;Issaoui et al., 2019). Reboredo-Rodríguez et al. (2017) have reviewed the current potential of producing virgin olive oils enriched with bioactive compounds, which allow for an optimum intake of phenols in diet. ...
A strategy to increase shelf life of Empeltre olive oils could consist in the incorporation of flavoring agents (rich in antioxidant compounds). The aim of this study was to describe the quality of Empeltre olive oils flavored with rosemary and garlic at different concentrations and methods (maceration and co-processing during malaxation).
The incorporation of garlic during malaxation increased total phenol content and antioxidant capacity.
Aromatization with rosemary (added during malaxation) increased total phenol content more than 50%. Changes in individual phenols were observed after garlic and rosemary aromatization. Slight increases in α-tocopherol were also observed at 5 and 7% concentration. Pigment content increased with rosemary concentration. As a consequence, antioxidant capacity and oxidative stability increased. Aromatization with rosemary by co-processing during malaxation was more effective in increasing antioxidant compounds than the maceration method.
Empeltre olive oils aromatized with garlic achieved a greater sensory acceptance and better scores than with rosemary.
... This suggests that the sensory profile of flavored EVOO greatly depends on the method of aromatization. Nevertheless, it should be noted that flavored EVOO with citrus were generally appreciated by consumers (Ascrizzi et al., 2019;Ayadi et al., 2009;Sacchi et al., 2017). ...
This study delineates the effects of incorporation of 6 selected essential oils into the extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) on its volatile profile, sensory attributes, oxidative stability, fatty acid composition and their nutritional quality. Results indicate that headspace bouquets of flavored EVOO consisted mainly on the main components of the aromatizing essential oils being carvacrol, 1,8‐cineole, β‐caryophyllene, trans‐anethole, α‐phellandrene and limonene for thyme, rosemary, black pepper, fennel, Brazilian pepper tree and orange, respectively. Sensory analysis showed that fennel‐flavored EVOO was the most preferred by consumers. Results of 12‐month storage revealed that thyme‐, fennel‐, and Brazilian pepper tree‐flavored EVOO maintained good oxidative stability. Concomitantly, the content of individual fatty acid remained virtually unchanged for flavored EVOO, maintaining thereby the original nutritional quality of EVOO. The present results could open up opportunities for the development of flavored EVOO with improved oxidative stability and nutritional quality at affordable price.
... Nevertheless, it was observed that total PUFA values partially decreased in the TIO group. No statistically significant difference was observed in the results of the fatty acid of olive oil, sumac infused oil, and tarragon infused oil obtained by soaking in olive oil (p > .05).Sacchi et al. (2017) were investigated the fatty acid composition of two samples of unflavored and flavored olive oil produced by fresh lemons added to olives in olive mills. They were reported fatty acid composition showed little changes due to the addition of fresh lemons. ...
... Nevertheless, it was observed that total PUFA values partially decreased in the TIO group. No statistically significant difference was observed in the results of the fatty acid of olive oil, sumac infused oil, and tarragon infused oil obtained by soaking in olive oil (p > .05).Sacchi et al. (2017) were investigated the fatty acid composition of two samples of unflavored and flavored olive oil produced by fresh lemons added to olives in olive mills. They were reported fatty acid composition showed little changes due to the addition of fresh lemons. ...
In this study, different application methods (Spice, Brew, Infused Oil) were employed using sumac (Rhus coriaria) and tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) spices and some effects on marinated sea bream were investigated during 180 days of experiment at +4C°.
The nutrition composition of the samples, TBARS values, fatty acid values of the oils and the fatty acid values of the samples on days 0, 15 and 180th were determined. It can be said that the nutritional composition were minimally affected by different application methods. On the last day of storage TBARS values of the groups were as follows: BS>C>BT>SIO>ST>SS>TIO. No statistically significant difference was observed in the fatty acids results of olive oil, sumac infused oil and tarragon infused oil obtained by soaking in olive oil (p>0.05). TBARS all the groups showed strong positive correlation with SFA, MUFA and PUFA. PUFAs were the predominant fatty acids, followed by MUFAs and SFAs.
... They can be added directly during the preparation of the dish, as cooked or raw ingredients, or can be used in olive oil flavouring. A niche market for olive oils is represented by flavoured olive oil "condiments", e.g. using dried oregano, rosemary, chilli pepper (Antoun and Tsimidou 1997;Caporaso et al. 2013;Gambacorta et al. 2007) and even fresh lemons directly added during milling (Sacchi et al. 2017). From a production point of view, adequate research is required to understand the stability of flavoured oils. ...
Olive oil is the product obtained from the olive fruit. Several grades can be obtained, extra virgin olive oil being the top category. The balanced fatty acid composition of olive oil, particularly its high content of oleic acid, makes this product nutritionally important. In addition, virgin olive oil contains bioactive compounds such as unsaponifiable constituents and phenolic compounds. Polar phenols and volatile compounds are two of the most interesting classes of compounds in olive oil. The scientifically proven beneficial health effects related to VOO consumption and the unique sensory properties of this product make it versatile for several culinary uses. This chapter reviews olive oil composition, focusing on the flavour-active compounds and their changes due to the variety, environmental conditions, processing and technological factors. The culinary uses of olive oils are then presented, with emphasis on traditional uses, possible food pairing and innovative applications including substitution of other fats and molecular gastronomy.
... The importance of EVOO is mainly attributed both to its high content of oleic acid, a balanced quantity of polyunsaturated fatty acids and its richness in polar polyphenol-rich compounds, giving EVOO its bitter, pungent taste but also acting as natural antioxidants that contribute to preventing several human diseases (Bulotta et al. 2014;Camerota and Celletti 2015;Vitaglione et al. 2015). The interaction of EVOO during cooking and frying with other Mediterranean vegetables has been extensively studied in recent years Kalogeropoulos et al. 2007;Sacchi et al. 2014), as well as the lipid-solvent role of EVOO for herb and vegetable infusion to obtain naturally flavored and functional EVOOs (Antoun andTsimidou 1997, 1998;Caporaso et al. 2013;Sacchi et al. 2017). ...
The Contribution of Wild Edible Plants to the Mediterranean Diet: An Ethnobotanical Case Study Along the Coast of Campania (Southern Italy). Wild edible plants, an essential component of people’s diets in the Mediterranean basin, are consumed because they have a positive influence on health, supplying the body with microelements, vitamins, phenols, flavonoids, antioxidants, and fiber. In this paper we provide a list of wild plants used in the local cuisine along the coast of Campania, highlighting the medicinal properties of the most widely used species. Fieldwork was conducted from April 2017 to September 2019; in all, 69 informants were interviewed. We carried out an extensive literature review searching both national and international journals for ethnobotanical articles concerning the whole of Italy and especially the region of Campania, published from 1963 to 2019. The relative frequency of citation (RFC) index for each species is provided. Based on the interviews, 85 species and subspecies distributed in 29 families are documented as being used as food. Asteraceae was the most cited family (26.5%) followed by Brassicaceae and Lamiaceae (7.2%). The culinary uses of 11 wild species (13.5% of the total) were hitherto unreported in the ethnobotanical literature for Campania. The present study confirms the persistence of traditional plant use in the region of Campania. Ethnobotanical data, as well as the phytochemical and nutritional profiles of the species in question, offer insights into designing new dishes such as food pairing with other ingredients to improve nutritional and/or sensory quality (e.g., bitterness reduction, flavor enhancement, antioxidant bioavailability).
... The physicochemical data showed that the oils, independently of the olive cultivar, fulfilled the legal thresholds established by the European Commission (EC) regulations for EVOO quality grade classification (Commission Delegated Regulation [EU] 2015[EU] /1830[EU] , 2015Sacchi et al., 2017). In which concerns the TPC, the values found although apparently low compared to other oils produced from other olive cultivars (Gharby et al., 2016), are in agreement with those reported by other researchers for cv. ...
Physicochemical parameters, total phenols contents (TPC), and oxidative stabilities at 120–160 °C were evaluated for two monovarietal (Arbequina and Cobrançosa cultivars, cvs.) and one blend extra‐virgin olive oil, confirming the label quality grade and allowing grouping them according to the different TPC (TPC = 88 ± 7, 112 ± 6 and 144 ± 4 mg CAE/kg, for cv. Arbequina, blend and cv. Cobrançosa oils, respectively). The lipid oxidation rate increased with the decrease of the TPC, being Cobrançosa oils (higher TPC) more thermally stable. Kinetic‐thermodynamic parameters were determined using the activated complex/transition‐state theory and the values did not significantly differ for Cobrançosa and blend oils, which had the highest TPC, suggesting a hypothetically threshold saturation of the beneficial effect. Cobrançosa oils had a significant more negative temperature coefficient, higher temperature acceleration factor, greater activation energy and frequency factor, higher positive enthalpy of activation, lower negative entropy of activation, and greater positive Gibbs free energy of activation, probably due to the higher TPC. The results confirmed that lipid oxidation was a nonspontaneous, endothermic, and endergonic process with activated formed complexes structurally more ordered than the reactants. A negative deviation from the Arrhenius behavior was observed for all oils being the super‐Arrhenius behavior more marked for Arbequina oils that had the lowest TPC. Finally, the kinetic‐thermodynamic parameters allowed classifying oils according to the binomial olive cultivar/total phenols level, being the temperature acceleration factor and the Gibbs free energy of activation at 160 °C the most powerful discriminating parameters.
... The Mediterranean-style diet is not a specific diet, but rather a collection of dietary habits characterized by a high consumption of fruit, vegetables, legumes, and complex carbohydrates, with a moderate amount of fish, the use of olive oil as the main source of fats, and a low-to-moderate amount of red wine during meals [4]. The notable positive healthy effect of the Mediterranean diet has also been attributed to olive oil, which is one of the most appreciated fats worldwide [5]. oxygenated monoterpenes as the most abundant class of volatiles, ranging from 25.7% in Olea europaea L. leaves up to 81.0% in Citrus × aurantium L. ...
The nutraceutical properties of extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) can be further improved by the addition of olive leaves during olive pressing. However, while Citrus leaves are rich sources of bioactive substances, no data are available in the literature about the effect of Citrus leaf addition on the nutraceutical and sensorial profiles of olive oil. This study aimed at comparing the chemical and sensorial qualities of olive oils obtained from ripe olives pressed together with either Olea or Citrus spp. (lemon or orange) cryomacerated leaves. General composition parameters as well as major antioxidants and antioxidant activity were measured. A panel test evaluation, as well as headspace volatile characterization (headspace solid phase microextraction, HS-SPME), were also performed. All data were compared with an EVOO extracted from the same olive batch used as control. It was possible to obtain Leaf Olive Oils (LOOs) characterized by a higher (p < 0.05) content of antioxidants, compared to the control sample, and the highest oleuropein concentration was detected in the olive oil extracted in presence of olive leaf (+50% in comparison with the control). All the LOOs showed a higher smell complexity and the scent of ripe fruit was generally mitigated. Lemon and olive LOOs showed the best smell profile.
Recent studies have explored the antioxidant properties of lemon essential oil (LEO), taking considering factors like plant part, extraction methods, and antioxidant assay. However, due to varied results and limited precision in individual studies, our meta-analysis aims to offer a comprehensive understanding across different experiments, irrespective of location or time. Out of 109 scientific articles published between 1947 and 2024, only 28 successfully validated their data on differences in antioxidant capacity and IC50, using weighted averages of Hedges’ d in meta-analysis. A meta-analysis revealed several key findings: (i) lemon leaf and peel extracts have higher IC50 compared to controls, whereas whole plant extracts show lower values (p < 0.001); (ii) the maceration preserves antioxidant properties better than hydro-distillation and Soxhlet extraction (p < 0.001); (iii) LEO require higher concentrations to achieve comparable free radical inhibition as the standard controls such as AsA, BHT, and quercetin, suggesting lower antioxidant efficiency. This was supported by IC50 result, which showed no significant difference between LEO and other compounds like thymol, Thymus vulgaris EO, and Citrus aurantium EO. However, compared to AsA, BHT, limonene, and trolox, the inhibition efficacy was significantly lower (p < 0.01). These findings consistently demonstrated significant antioxidant activity across multiple assays, including ABTS, β-carotene bleaching, DPPH, and FRAP (p < 0.01). Notably, the predominant components of LEO including α-linoleic acid, D-limonene, limonene, L-limonene, neryl acetate, sabinene, and Z-citral, which demonstrate significant potency as antioxidant agent (p < 0.01). Specifically, limonene and Z-citral make substantial contributions to its antioxidant capacity (p < 0.01). Despite variations in purity among LEO extractions, there is potential for future enhancement through nanoemulsion. In conclusion, LEO show promise as an alternative antioxidant, with emphasis to selecting samples based on leaves or peels and employing maceration extractions for various antioxidant assays. Active components rich in terpenoids, such as limonene and Z-citral, are particularly noteworthy.
Graphical Abstract
Changes in quality parameters of flavored/aromatized Chemlali olive oil by the green addition of Verbena officinalis L. phenolic-rich extract were studied as a function of storage time (6 months) at room temperature (20 °C). Evaluation of oil quality was established by studying the FA, PV, K232, K270 parameters, as well as chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, total phenolic and flavonoid content (TPC and TFC, respectively). Results showed that chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments decomposed, respectively, for more than 30 and less than 24% in the flavored/aromatized oil samples stored at 20 °C. Additionally, the decreasing rate of phenolic and flavonoid content in the flavored olive oil was lower than that in the control samples. These findings proved that aromatization with Verbena officinalis L. phenolic-rich extract obtained after optimisation of microwave parameters may be an alternative to improve olive oil quality and create a new competitive flavored product.
In this study, the effect of adding some aromatic plants (garlic, rosemary, thyme, and hot-red pepper) on the quality and organoleptic properties of flavored olive oil extracted from the olive fruits Maraqi variety are studied after adding aromatic plants at a concentration of 2%. Acidity, peroxide value, K232, K270, sensorial attributes, oxidative stability, and phenolic contents had been monitored. Also, phenolic compounds are identified in the flavored and unflavored olive oil samples. These results demonstrated that the aromatic plant had enhanced the flavored olive oil stability; the levels of addition of aromatic plants could be distinguished by the taster’s sensory attributes of flavored olive oil. As the plan of the experiment includes process preparation and consumer preference, it is possible to apply the obtained results to the production of flavored olive oil. The producers will gain a new product with more added values due to the nutritional and antioxidant strength of the aromatic plants.
graphical abstract Fullsize Image
Leaves incorporation during the extraction of olive oils can enhance their chemical-sensory quality. Thus, leaves from cvs. Arbequina or Santulhana were added (1%, w/w) during the extraction of Arbequina oils using an Abencor system, being discussed the impacts on the phenolics and volatiles formation enzymatic pathways. Leaves addition contributed to a significant decrease (P-value < 0.05) of the contents of secoiridoids (-11%), C6-aldehydes (-16%), and ester compounds (-22%). This could be tentatively related to a reduction of the enzymatic activity of secoiridoids biosynthesis and lipoxygenase pathways, promoted by the leaves' addition. Moreover, in the presence of leaves, the oils’ total contents of phenolics and volatiles were significantly reduced (-7 and -17%, respectively). Contrary, the incorporation of leaves significantly increased (P-value < 0.05) the contents of C6-alcohols (+37%) and the intensities of the green fruity (+25%) and apple (+30%) sensations.
Background
Flavouring and fortifying virgin olive oils is an increasing commercial trend, aiming to meet new consumers' preferences and provide new differentiated products. These practices usually positively impact the oils’ sensory profile and chemical composition, increasing their natural richness on bioactive compounds. However, some negative effects have also been reported.
Scope and approach
This review provides a summary of common flavouring/fortification techniques as well as of the usual natural agents used. Co-extraction, contact and essential oils incorporation techniques are addressed. Usually, flavouring/fortification enhances desirable sensory sensations, and shelf-life, and promotes incorporating bioactive compounds like antioxidants. Also, the excess of flavouring may promote the appearance of unpleasant sensory sensations and, in some cases, result in pro-oxidant activity. Fortification, in turn, involves the incorporation of extracts rich in bioactive compounds, contributing to the nutritional and healthy enrichment of the olive oil. However, fortification may also increase the oil's turbidity and/or promote the appearance of unpleasant sensory sensations, resulting in a less appealing oil, hindering the consumers' purchasing.
Key findings and conclusions
Although traditional in the Mediterranean, olive oil flavouring or fortification may have positive/negative effects at chemical and sensory levels. This awareness is of paramount commercial importance and can be used as a decision-maker tool for olive oil producers. Thus, the advantages/disadvantages of the different methodologies are discussed, and some perspectives and possible future directions are proposed and briefly discussed.
Extra virgin olive oil is highly appreciated worldwide for its healthy and organoleptic properties. From the variety of compounds present in the oil, phenols stand out, not only for producing the bitter-pungent perception but also for their antioxidant properties, which contribute to human health protection. The addition of plants can change the phenolic profile due to a migration of plant antioxidants to the oil. The aim of this work was to study the evolution of the oxidative process of extra virgin olive oil under mild storage conditions for 8 months, monitoring the individual content of 15 phenols by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and the changes of the phenolic profile of the non-flavoured oil compared with the same flavoured (rosemary and basil) oil. The oxidative alteration was more marked in virgin than in flavoured oils, where it happened slowly. Throughout storage, the behaviour of the phenols varied, resulting in a decrease in their concentration, except in the case of tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol. The addition of plants had an antioxidant effect, slowing down the oxidative process, which prolongs the shelf life of the flavoured oil compared to the unflavoured oil. Furthermore, multivariate statistical analyses allowed the classification and differentiation of the different samples.
Olive co-processing consists of the addition of ingredients either in the mill or in the malaxator. This technique allows selecting the type of olives, the ingredients with the greatest flavoring and bioactive potential, and the technological extraction conditions. A new product—a gourmet flavored oil—was developed by co-processing olives with Thymus mastichina L. The trials were performed using overripe fruits with low aroma potential (cv. ‘Galega Vulgar’; ripening index 6.4). Experimental conditions were dictated by a central composite rotatable design (CCRD) as a function of thyme (0.4−4.6%, w/w) and water (8.3−19.7%, w/w) contents used in malaxation. A flavored oil was also obtained by adding 2.5% thyme during milling, followed by 14% water addition in the malaxator (central point conditions of CCRD). The chemical characterization of the raw materials, as well as the analysis of the flavored and unflavored oils, were performed (chemical quality criteria, sensory analysis, major fatty acid composition, and phenolic compounds). Considering chemical quality criteria, the flavored oils have the characteristics of “Virgin Olive Oil” (VOO), but they cannot have this classification due to legislation issues. Flavored oils obtained under optimized co-processing conditions (thyme concentrations > 3.5−4.0% and water contents varying from 14 to 18%) presented higher phenolic contents and biologic value than the non-flavored VOO. In flavored oils, thyme flavor was detected with high intensity, while the defect of “wet wood”, perceived in VOO, was not detected. The flavored oil, obtained by T. mastichina addition in the mill, showed higher oxidative stability (19.03 h) than the VOO and the co-processed oil with thyme addition in the malaxator (14.07 h), even after six-month storage in the dark (16.6 vs. 10.3 h).
The aims of this study were to evaluate the total phenolic and pigment contents of five edible plants collected from Eastern Black Sea region and to test the storage stability of extra virgin olive oils aromatized with traditionally consumed plants. Aromatized extra virgin olive oils were prepared by addition of dry forms of local plants such as mendek (Aegopodium podagraria L.), çalıçilek (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), galdirik (Trachystemon orientalis L.), sakarca (Ornithogalum umbellatum L.) and hırnık (Diospyros lotus L.). Changes in the quality status of extra virgin olive oil were monitored with free fatty acid, peroxide value, total phenol content, pheophtyin a, lutein and beta carotene analyses during 5-month storage period at 24°C. Furthermore, hue and chrome values, total phenolic, chlorophyll and carotene contents were also analysed to determine the characteristic properties of plant samples. The addition of mendek and çalıçilek have remarkable effects on the transfer of phenolic compounds and pigments from plants to oil during all storage. It was determined that the addition of plant materials can improve the oil stability and cause to a lower free fatty acid and peroxide values in aromatized extra virgin olive oils. Obtained findings suggest that the aromatized olive oils with local plants is sensorial and nutritionally acceptable and can be used safely in aromatization and preparation of healthy and tasty foods at non-thermal process.
The effect of typical domestic microwave heating (0–15 min, at 800 W) on the thermal degradation of unflavored and flavored olive oils’ minor bioactive compounds and related antioxidant activity was studied. Olive oils from cv. Arbequina were flavored with lemon verbena essential oil (0%, 0.2% and 0.4%, w/w) leading to a linear increase of total
phenols (112–160 mg gallic acid kg-1 oil, R-Pearson = +0.9870), total carotenoids (2.19–2.56 mg lutein kg-1 oil, R-Pearson = +0.9611), and, to a less extent, of chlorophyll (2.32–3.19 mg pheophytin kg-1 oil, R-Pearson = +0.8238). However, no such linear trend was observed for the oxidative stability (6.5–7.8 h) or the radical scavenging activity (inhibition rates: 40%–43%). The contents of total phenols, total carotenoids, and chlorophyll decreased with the rise of the microwave heating time, following their thermal degradation, a second-order kinetic model (0.8784 ≤ R-Pearson ≤ 0.9926). The essential oil addition did not influence the estimated second-order rate reaction constants of total phenols (0.00070–0.00072 kg oil min-1 mg-1 gallic acid)and total carotenoids (0.14–0.17 kg oil min-1 mg-1 lutein), with a broader variation observed for chlorophyll (0.014–0.022 kg oil min-1 mg-1 pheophytin). Globally, total carotenoids degraded faster than total phenols and chlorophyll (half-life of 2.3–3.4, 8.8–12.8,
and 14.5–30.8 min, respectively). Moreover, except for chlorophyll, the half-life of total phenols and carotenoids linearly decreased with the essential oil addition (R-Pearson: -0.9999 and -0.9421, respectively), showing that flavoring did not have a protective effect against degradation when subjected to a microwave heating.
Background: In response to consumer demand for novel and healthy foods, the presence in the market of olive oils (OOs) flavored with different plants, spices, herbs or fruits is increasingly common. All these flavoring agents have been used over the years due to its content in compounds with biological activities. Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the potential role of the addition of S. montana EO at 100 ppm (0.01%, v/v), known for its high content of bioactive compounds, good flavor, and aroma in improving oxidative stability and quality profile of EVOO subjected to conditions causing accelerated oxidation (Light storage at 900 lux). Materials and methods: The S. montana EO chemical components were identified using Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). Enriched and non-enriched EVOO samples were examined as function of time (30, 60 and 9 days) of display for different quality indices. Results: Using GC/MS analysis of S. montana EO: thymol (28.36%), carvacrol (17.45%), p-cymene (10.91%), trans-caryophyllene (5.54%), ɤ-terpinene (5.03%) and geraniol (4.50%) were identified. The results highlighted that the enrichment with S. montana EO led to lower values of lipid oxidation indicators (K232, K270, peroxide value) and higher concentration of antioxidants (total phenols and pigments). In sum, the use of bioenrichment methods could be a sustainable solution for the promotion of the quality characteristics of EVOO in Algeria. Keywords: Bioenrichment, Satureja montana L., Essential oil, Extra virgin olive oil, Display, Quality stability.
Background: In response to consumer demand for novel and healthy foods, the presence in the market of olive oils (OOs) flavored with different plants, spices, herbs or fruits is increasingly common. All these flavoring agents have been used over the years due to their content in compounds with biological activities. Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the potential role of the addition of S. montana EO at 100 ppm (0.01%, v/v), known for its high content of bioactive compounds, good flavor, and aroma in improving oxidative stability and quality profile of EVOO subjected to conditions causing accelerated oxidation (Light storage at 900 lux). Materials and methods: The S. montana EO chemical components were identified using Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). Enriched and non-enriched EVOO samples were examined as function of time (30, 60 and 90 days) of display for different quality indices. Results: Using GC/MS analysis of S. montana EO: thymol (28.36%), carvacrol (17.45%), p-cymene (10.91%), trans-caryophyllene (5.54%), ɤ-terpinene (5.03%) and geraniol (4.50%) were identified. The results highlighted that the enrichment with S. montana EO led to lower values of lipid oxidation indicators (K232, K270, peroxide value) and higher concentration of antioxidants (total phenols and pigments). In sum, the use of bioenrichment methods could be a sustainable solution for the promotion of the quality characteristics of EVOO in Algeria. Keywords: Bioenrichment, Satureja montana L., Essential oil, Extra virgin olive oil, Display, Quality stability.
Arbequina extra-virgin olive oils were flavored with lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora) essential oil (0.1-0.4%, w/w), being evaluated quality parameters (free acidity, peroxide value, UV-extinction coefficients), oxidative stability, antioxidant and total reducing capacity. The kinetic-thermodynamic nature of the lipid oxidation was evaluated by Rancimat (110-150°C). The essential oil addition promoted the antioxidant and total reducing capacities but, unfortunately, increased primary and secondary related quality parameters. However, flavoring decreased the oils’ oxidative stability. The kinetic- thermodynamic data showed that unflavored oils had significantly lower oxidation reaction rates (0.055-0.06492 h-1), more negative temperature coefficient (-0.0268°C-1), higher temperature acceleration factor (1.852), greater activation energy (82.7 kJ mol-1) and frequency factor (10.9×109 h-1), higher positive enthalpy of activation (79.4 kJmol- 1), lower negative entropy of activation (-131.8 J mol-1K-1) and greater positive Gibbs free energy of activation (129.95-135.23 kJ mol-1), showing that oils’ oxidation was negatively influenced by the essential oil incorporation. Overall, oxidation had a non- spontaneous, endothermic and endergonic nature. Finally, olive oils could be satisfactorily classified (principal component and linear discriminant analysis) according to the flavoring level, using quality-antioxidant-stability or kinetic-thermodynamic datasets. The latter showed a less predictive performance, although ensuring the full discrimination of unflavored from flavored oils.
The present study aimed to evaluate two different processes of olive oil aromatization with Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi, conventional maceration (CM) and ultrasound-assisted maceration (UM), and their influence on quality parameters, total phenolic compounds (TPC), fatty acid profile (FA), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), antioxidant capacity, and oxidative stability. Flavoring reduced peroxide values, although it increased free fatty acids and extinction coefficients. The flavorization process did not change the FA profile, which showed oleic acid as a major compound. The VOCs varied and the migration of oxygenated monoterpenes were more effective in UM-flavored olive oil compared to its CM counterpart. All flavored olive oils presented higher oxidative stability than the control samples and UM-flavored olive oil was highlighted for its higher antioxidant activity. These findings proved that aromatization with pink pepper assisted by ultrasound may be an alternative to improve olive oil quality and create a new competitive flavored product.
Deep-frying using sunflower oil (SFO) requires natural antioxidants, and the preparation of flavored SFO using spices and herbs offers an important method. In the present study, in the deep-frying procedure of Chinese Youmotou at 180 °C, improvements in the levels of total polar compounds (TPC), thiobarbituric acid (TBA), conjugated dienes, conjugated trienes, polymer, viscosity and b* of SFO samples at the 30th hour were significantly inhibited by 50.2%, 43.0%, 62.6%, 37.8%, 61.9%, 24.0% and 50.4% (p < 0.01 or p < 0.05), respectively, after the addition of Fructus gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides fruits, FGEO) essential oil at 0.12 g/kg compared with those in the no-added SFO samples (control samples). Meanwhile, the levels of L* was significantly reduced by 24.1% (p < 0.05). The sensory attributes of the fried product, Chinese Youmotou, including flavor, taste, crispness and overall acceptability, were prominently increased by 37.3%, 32.1%, 62.2% and 53.3% (p < 0.01 or p < 0.05), respectively. Moreover, improvements in the oxidative stability of SFO due to FGEO were attributed to one of its chemical constituents, carvacrol methyl ether. Consequently, SFO flavored by Fructus gardenia could be employed as a flavored vegetable oil for deep-frying procedures.
Olive oil price and consumers’ preference depend on the commercial grade classification that can decrease if any sensory defect is perceived leading to an economic loss. Enriched oils, obtained by incorporating dried aromatic herbs, spices, or essential oils, which is a common practice in the Mediterranean region, are commercially available. This practice may conceal the fraudulent purpose of masking the perception of sensory defects. The detection of this type of fraud is a difficult task, requiring sensory analysis. Thus, in this study, extra‐virgin and lampante olive oils, the latter classification being due to the perception of an intense winey‐vinegary defect, were deliberately enriched with different amounts of basil‐dried herbs and oregano‐dried herbs. Sensory analysis showed that, depending on the aromatic herb and on the added amount (0.011–0.110 g herb per kg oil), the defect intensity could be masked leading to an erroneous classification of flavored lampante oils as flavored virgin oils. In contrast, the electronic tongue‐chemometric approach could unmask the defect in flavored oils (predictive sensitivities: 70–78%) and semiquantitatively discriminate flavored oils according to the added levels of basil or oregano (predictive sensitivities: 93–100%). The electronic tongue approach showed satisfactory unmasking performance when compared with the sensory panel, and so, its future application as a quality control taste‐sensor device for disclosing olive oil sensory defects masked by the incorporation of flavoring agents may be foreseen.
Flavoured olive oil gained has importance in terms of its sensorial properties and oxidative stability in recent years. However, the water activity level of the flavouring agent can be important for oxidative stability. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of the water activity of rosemary, which was used as a flavouring agent, on the oxidative stability of olive oil. For this purpose, rosemary samples were adjusted to different levels of water activity (0.17, 0.24 and 0.44) and used for the aromatization of virgin olive oils. At the end of the aromatization, the olive oil samples were exposed to an accelerated oxidation test at 60 °C for 28 days. The peroxide, p-anisidine, TOTOX (total oxidation index), free fatty acid, chlorophyll, carotenoid and specific extinction values of the samples were determined. According to the results, the oxidation of olive oils is limited by decreased water activity values in the rosemary samples. Moreover, unflavoured oils were identified as being more sensitive to oxidation when compared to flavoured oils. Additionally, storage time had important effect on all of the analysed parameters. The present research showed that the water activity of rosemary, when used as condiment, affected the oxidative stability and carotenoid content of virgin olive oil. Using rosemary with a low water activity value to flavour olive oil was more effective in terms of oxidative stability. These findings implied that the oxidation of flavoured olive oil could be decreased by decreasing the water content of the condiment used.
The extraction of flavoring compounds from different plants and aromatic herbs has been using since ancient times in vegetable oils to enhance their aroma and taste, whereas the technology of production has changed over time. Our work aimed to evaluate alternative technologies for the production of aromatized olive oil such as ultrasound- and microwave-assisted extraction in comparison to traditional infusion or maceration of dried red hot chili pepper (10% w/v for 7 days). For the ultrasonic treatment, samples of olive oil were prepared by adding 10% and 20% dried chili pepper and subjected to ultrasound-extraction for 10 or 20 minutes. For microwave extraction, samples were added with 20% chili powder and treated for 10, 30 or 60 seconds. Capsaicinoids were quantified by HPLC-DAD directly in the flavored olive oil and antioxidant activity was evaluated by ABTS+ method. Capsaicinoids analysis in aromatized olive oil treated 20 minutes by ultrasound resulted about 130 ppm (capsaicin and hydroxycapsaicin), when 10% chili powder was used, while it was 250 ppm when 20% chili was used. The content of capsaicinoids extracted by traditional infusion was always higher for both concentrations of chili powder studied. The concentration of capsaicinoids in samples treated by microwaves extraction seem to be dependent on the treatment time, resulting 130 and 230 ppm capsaicinoids for 10 and 60 seconds of treatment, respectively. In conclusion, the production of flavored olive oils by using technologies such as microwave and ultrasound-extraction could allow the production of high quality oils, with fast and cost-effectively methods.
Spices and herbs are traditionally added to olive oil in Mediterranean gastronomy to enhance its aroma and taste. This paper aims to characterize olive oil aromatized by addition of dried chili pepper (Capsicum annum) (DCP) at different concentrations (10% and 20% by weight) up to 30 days of infusion. Capsaicinoids quantification by HPLC-DAD, volatile compounds analysis by SPME-GC–MS and antioxidant activity by ABTS method were performed on chili pepper flavored olive oil (CPOO) in comparison to whole olive oil. At day 7 of infusion, the maximum capsaicinoids content was reached for both the concentrations used and no significant increase was observed for longer infusion times. The volatile headspace composition of CPOOs was influenced by the concentration of DCP added. The addition of DCP caused a significant increase in hexanal, related to oxidation processes. 2-Methylbutanal, 3-methylbutanal and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one were also detected in CPOO and derived from chili as degradation products of the drying process. DCP infusion significantly enriched olive oil with antioxidant compounds and also modified its volatile profile. Capsaicinoids and aroma compounds were rapidly released within the first week of chili infusion in CPOOs, thus suggesting reducing infusion time by optimizing DCP concentration in order to improve CPOO quality and shelf life.
A study is reported on the chemical and sensorial characteristics of extra virgin olive oil flavored with hot pepper, garlic, oregano and rosemary during 7 months of storage. The oils were prepared by addition of the spice oily extracts at three different levels of concentration to an extra virgin olive oil. The following parameters were monitored: acidity, peroxide value (PV), K 232 , K 270 , (E)‐2‐hexenal/hexanal ratio and sensorial characteristics. At the end of the storage, all samples showed PV and K 232 values lower than the control, whereas similar values of acidity, K 270 and (E)‐2‐hexenal/hexanal ratio were observed. These results demonstrated that the herb and spice extracts improved the stability of the extra virgin olive oil. Tasters were able to distinguish among the levels of addition, and at the end of the storage, they preferred the oils flavored with 20 g/L of rosemary, 40 g/L of hot pepper, 40 g/L of oregano and 30 g/L of garlic.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This research is strongly oriented to the industrial application. The obtained results could be immediately applied to flavored olive oil production since the experimental plan includes the set‐up of the process and the preference of consumers. Producers will acquire a novel product having a greater added value (due to the nutritional and antioxidant power of the spices) but without changes in the plants already present in the factories and, thus, without increases in costs.
Polyphenols of olive oil show autoprotective, sensory, and nutritional-therapeutic effects. Two new phenolic compounds have
been isolated from virgin olive oils by preparative high-performance liquid chromatography and their structures established
on the basis of their mass spectra and nuclear magnetic resonance spectral data. The compounds identified are the lignans
pinoresinol and 1-acetoxypinoresinol. Both have been found in all the commercial virgin olive oils analyzed. Pinoresinol concentration
was rather similar in all the oils. In contrast, 1-acetoxypinoresinol concentration was higher in oils of the Arbequina and
Empeltre cultivars than in Picual or Picudo cultivars. Pinoresinol and 1-acetoxypinoresinol may represent the major phenolic
compounds in some Arbequina and Empeltre oils. Lignans possess biological and pharmacological properties and, therefore, the
two new compounds identified in olive oils may contribute to the reported beneficial effects which are attributed to polyphenols
on human health of a diet rich in olive oil.
Lipid oxidation is a major cause of quality deterioration in food emulsions. Polysaccharides used to improve emulsion stability and texture may also affect lipid oxidation. In the present study, the oxidative stability of olive oil–lemon juice salad dressings, stabilized with gum arabic or propylene glycol alginate in admixture with xanthan, was investigated. Oil-in-water emulsions (50:50, v/v) were prepared with lemon juice and extra virgin olive oil and then homogenized at various homogenization rates to form different particle sizes. Keepability was followed by storing at room temperature for 6–8 months and measuring the formation of primary and secondary oxidation products. The shelf life was compared to that of the bulk olive oil. It was shown that the polysaccharides had the ability to inhibit lipid oxidation, probably due to their amphiphilic character (gum arabic and propylene glycol alginate) as well as their ability to induce viscosity increase. Olive oil–lemon juice emulsions were also assessed for consumer acceptance. The panellists were asked to smell the samples and rate them according to rancidity using a four-point (1 = no perception, 4 = extreme) intensity scale. The results were in accordance to those of chemical analysis. Lipid oxidation was not affected by the oil droplet size, as demonstrated by peroxide value measurements and sensory evaluation.
The study was carried out to examine the presence of antioxidants and pro-oxidants in oregano and rosemary gourmet oils. Dry, ground plant material (5% w/w) was infused to olive oil for 24, 48 and 72 hours and then it was removed by filtration. All preparations were found acceptable using a panel test. The total polar phenol content increased 3.5 and 1.7 times in oregano and rosemary gourmet oils with respect to that of the control sample. A qualitative enrichment of the methanol:water fraction of olive oil with phenolic compounds from herbs were found using HPLC. No rosmarinic acid was detected in the gourmet oils. Vanillic acid was only found in the rosemary gourmet oil. The presence of flavonoids was assessed using TLC. α-Tocopherol content of the oil matrix was not changed after herb infusion. A significant increase was found in pheophytin, α,β-carotene and lutein content of oregano flavoured oils. The oxidative stability of gourmet oils was greater to that of the control using the Rancimat test. In photo-oxidation, oregano flavoured oil was less stable than the rosemary one. Total chlorophyll content may be a critical factor for the shelf life of these preparations. Suitable labelling suggesting avoidance of light may be useful for a safe domestic use.
In Experiment 1, four normosmics and four anosmics (three congenital, one idiopathic) provided odor and nasal pungency thresholds, respectively, for the following terpenes: delta3-carene, p-cymene, linalool, 1.8-cineole, and geraniol, plus the structurally related compound cumene. Additionally, all subjects provided nasal localization (i.e., right/left) and eye irritation thresholis. Trigeminally mediated thresholds (i.e., nasal pungency, nasal localization, and eye irritation) lay about three orders of magnitude above odor thresholds, which ranged between 0.1 and 1.7 ppm. The results implied uniform chemesthetic sensitivity across tasks and sites of impact. In Experiment 2, normosmics and anosmics provided odor and nasal pungency thresholds, respectively, for three pairs of isomeric terpenes: alpha- and gamma-terpinene, alpha- and beta-pinene, and R(+)- and S(-)-limonene. Odor thresholds ranged between 1.4 and 19 ppm, that is, about an order of magnitude higher than those of the previous terpenes, with no substantial differences between odor thresholds of members of a pair. Regarding chemesthetic impact, only alpha-terpinene evoked nasal pungency. The overall outcome suggests comparable trigeminal chemosensitivity between nose and eyes and between normosmics and anosmics, as shown before for homologous n-alcohols. It also lends support to a previously derived solvation model of the chemesthetic potency of airborne substances, and indicates the likely importance of certain molecular-size restrictions for effective trigeminal impact. See full article at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/5c00m587
The volatile components of Italian and Japanese lemon and bergamot peel oils were analyzed by GC and CC-MS. Two varieties of Italian lemon and one Japanese lemon were compared, while Italian grown bergamot was compared to Japanese grown bergamot. The essential oils were extracted by the cold-pressed oil method. The quantitative compositions of the peel oils were determined either by relative peak area percent or by weight percent with both n-heptanol and methyl myristate as internal standards. Octanal, nonanal, decanal, terpinen-4-ol, citronellyl acetate and trans-beta-farnesene were detected at levels of more than 0.01% in the Italian lemon oils, while the same compounds were not found in the Japanese oils. Neral and geranial were present in Japanese lemon oils at levels two times higher than the Italian oils analyzed. There was a difference in the ratio of linalol to linalyl acetate between Italian and Japanese bergamots with indices of 0.156 and 0.550, respectively. The contents of monoterpenes such as limonene, beta-pinene, gamma-terpinene and p-cymene were higher in the Italian than in the Japanese oils.
Together with its companion volume, Handbook of herbs and spices: Volume 2 provides a comprehensive and authoritative coverage of key herbs and spices. Chapters on individual plants cover such issues as description and classification, production, chemical structure and properties, potential health benefits, uses in food processing and quality issues. Authoritative coverage of more than 50 major herbs and spices, Provides detailed information on chemical structure, cultivation and definition, Incorporates safety issues, production, main uses, health issues and regulations.
The main fatty acids of ill extra-virgin olive oils from eastern Sicily were used to differentiate the oils according to the geographical area of production (Enna, Etna, Plains of Catania). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Discriminant Analysis (DA) were applied to the data. Overall, 82.88% of the samples were correctly classified, while 4% from Enna, 36% from Etna and 22.22% from the Plains of Catania were incorrectly classified. To verify the statistical model with the original data, 11 samples of unknown origin were added to the data set. The results of DA showed a high percentage of wrong classification (54.54) among oils of unknown origin. This initial investigation can contribute to setting necessary DOC accomplishment factors.
Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) cv. Ravece (Campania region, Italy) was studied to investigate the effects of the industrial filtration process on the legal quality parameters, fatty acids, phenolics, and volatile compounds. Filtration did not cause significant changes in some quality indices, i.e., acidity and spectrophotometric indices, with the exception of K 232 value. Peroxide value was significantly higher after the filtration process, probably due to further exposure to oxygen. This increase may affect oil shelf life. The content of total phenolic compounds did not change dramatically, but hydroxytyrosol and 3,4‐DHPEA‐EA were significantly lower in filtered oil, arising from complex biophenols hydrolysis. Little but significant changes were also observed for some fatty acids. The majority of 38 volatile compounds analyzed by the SPME‐GC/MS technique did not change significantly ( p ≤ 0.05) after industrial filtration, while some of them increased their initial concentration up to twofold, i.e., 2‐methylbutanal. 6‐Methyl‐5‐hepten‐2‐one and heptanol also increased after filtration, while t , t ‐2,4‐hexadienal, t ‐2‐hexen‐1‐ol, and c ‐2‐penten‐1‐ol significantly decreased.
Practical applications: These results may be useful at an industrial level as well as from a scientific viewpoint to assess the factors influencing volatiles headspace concentration after filtration. Our findings could also provide important information for olive growers and the olive mill industry to optimize virgin olive oil technology in order to obtain products with specific sensory attributes and to preserve the sensory notes of typicality.
Analysis of volatile compounds from cv. Ravece extra virgin olive oil in unfiltered (“cloudy”) and filtered oil by an industrial‐scale process.
In the present work different flavourings (garlic, hot chili peppers, laurel, oregano and pepper) commonly used in Mediterranean cuisine were added to olive oils from Cv. Cobrançosa. Flavouring influence in olive oils quality, fatty acids profile, tocopherols and tocotrienols composition, antiradical activity, total phenols content and oxidative stability were evaluated.
Garlic addition induced an increase in free acidity values (from 0.6 to 0.8%), but the remaining quality indices weren't negatively affected. Fatty acids profile changed but values remained under the limits of extra-virgin olive oils. Olive oils were nutritionally enriched due to the increase in vitamin E, mainly in oils flavoured with hot chili pepper (198.6 mg/kg). Antioxidant properties were influenced as well. Total phenols content decreased in all flavoured olive oils (control with 345.7 mg CAE/kg; oregano 293.8 mg CAE/kg) but the capability to counteract oxidation was generally improved (control with 9.4 h and oregano with 10.4 h). The addition of flavouring influenced quality, composition and olive oils characteristics being possible to separate them according to the flavouring used by applying chemometrics.
Abstract Virgin olive oil (VOO) is the pillar fat of Mediterranean diet. It is made from olive fruits and obtained by squeezing olives without any solvent extraction. Respect to the seed oils, an unique polar polyphenol-rich fraction gives to VOO a bitter and pungent taste. The recent substantiation by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) of a health claim for VOO polyphenols, may represent an efficient stimulus to get the maximum health benefit from one of the most valuable traditional product of Mediterranean countries educating consumers to the relationship between the VOO bitterness and its health effect. Agronomical practices and new processing technology to avoid phenolic oxidation and hydrolysis and to enhance the aromatic components of the VOO have been developed and they can be used to modulate taste and flavour to diversify the products on the market. VOOs having high concentration of phenol compounds are bitter and pungent therefore many people do not consume them, thus loosing the health benefits related to their intake. In this paper the chemist's and nutritionist's points of view have been considered to address possible strategies to overcome the existing gap between the quality perceived by consumer and that established by expert tasters. Educational campaigns emphasizing the bitter-health link for olive oils should be developed.
Aromatherapy utilises a number of essential oils in the treatment of certain inflammatory disorders. The mechanisms of inflammation involve complex cascades of events in which the metabolism of arachidonic acid, which begins by its oxidation by the enzyme 5-lipoxygenase, plays an important role. The prime objective of this study was to assess in vitro, the potential of essential oils, absolutes and natural or nature-identical chemicals to inhibit this enzyme. Thirty-two essential oils, 10 absolutes and 26 chemicals were screened. The results are reported and discussed.
Aromatisation of olive oil is a new trend in the Mediterranean area, both for sensory and for nutritional improvement. This work presents the development of a green enrichment of an olive oil with basil. In fact instead of a solvent extraction of the aromas, purify them and add them to the olive oil or instead of doing steam distillation prior to add the essential oil into the olive oil, basil leaves were directly put into the olive oil. Ultrasounds were then applied to the mixture in order to accelerate diffusion of the basil volatile compounds into the olive oil. The processing time is reduced from hours or days to few minutes when comparing traditional maceration and ultrasound assisted aromatisation. GC/MS chromatographs have similar profiles between macerated and ultrasounds assisted macerated oils. Concentration of linalool and eugenol were calculated into the aromatised oils and used as indicators of the aromatisation.
The true origin of the olive is not known but is speculated to be Syria or possibly sub-Saharan Africa. For more than 6000 years, the cultivated olive has developed alongside Mediterranean civilizations and is now commercially produced on more than 23 million acres (9.4 million ha) in the Mediterranean basin. New plantings also exist in California, Chile, Argentina, South Africa, and Australia. Various nonscientific selection processes created a multitude of different cultivars. Many villages in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa feature distinct varieties. However, it is also common to see the same cultivars with different names and, in some cases, different cultivars with the same name. This is currently being sorted out with DNA identification. The olive tree requires some chilling; tolerates hot, dry conditions; does not like moisture during bloom, and actually produces better with some stress. As a result, olives were traditionally relegated to lands where little else would survive. For thousands of years olives were grown primarily for lamp oil, with little regard for culinary flavor. World production of table olives is now about 1.5 million t/year. The ''California Style'' black table olive is virtually unknown outside the United States, and this very mild-flavored olive is largely used on pizzas. Elsewhere, table olive recipes are as varied as the villages in the Mediterranean region. Oil styles are also varied, and most olive fruit (' '16 million t/year) is processed into oil. There are about 19 classic styles of olive oil produced in the world, primarily based on specific varieties grown in different regions. In some cases oils are made with a blend of regional varieties. Defective olive oil is common worldwide. The author discusses six of the world's most influential olive oil varieties 'Picual', 'Coratina', 'Koroneiki', 'Arbequina', 'Frantoio', and 'Leccino'; covers some horticultural history of oil olive cultivation and processing; and describes the most current trends toward superhigh-density plantings and automated continuous oil processing. along the eastern Mediterranean Coast in what are now southern Turkey, Syria, Leb- anon, Palestine, and Israel based on written tablets, olive pits, and wood fragments found in ancient tombs. Ancient documents in Syria indicate that around 2000 BCE the value of olive oil was five times that of wine and two and a half times that of seed oils. The spread of the olive tree probably coincided with the vegetative propagation and trade of superior wine grape, date palms, and fig selections. Propagation of olive trees by seed is very frus- trating, because the juvenile nonbearing phase is so long (10-15 years) and the progeny very often do not even resemble the original mother tree. These first nurserymen and agriculturists probably also selected for vari- eties that came into bearing early, produced heavy yields every year, grew on poor soils in arid areas, and were easy to harvest. The spread of the olive tree in commerce is well documented. The primary movement, how- ever, was to the west.
The peel and leaf oils of Citrus limon L. from Benin were analyzed by capillary GC on two columns of different polarity, and by GC/MS. In these oils 42 and 27 components were identified, representing over 99.7% of the oils. The main constituents of the lemon peel oil were limonene (70.4%), γ-terpinene (11.8%) and β-pinene (4.2%). The leaf oil consisted mainly of limonene (40.8%), β-pinene (18.5%) and citronellal (16.5%).
Attention is drawn to the development of a new and green alternative technique for the extraction of essential oils from spices. Solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) is a combination of dry distillation and microwave heating without added any solvent or water. SFME and hydrodistillation (HD) were compared for the extraction of essential oil from three spices: ajowan (Carum ajowan, Apiaceae), cumin (Cuminum cyminum, Umbelliferae), star anise (Illicium anisatum, Illiciaceae). Better results have been obtained with the proposed method in terms of rapidity (1 h vs. 8 h), efficiency and no solvent used. Furthermore, the SFME procedure yielded essential oils that could be analysed directly without any preliminary clean-up or solvent exchange steps. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The chemical modifications and partitioning toward the brine phase (5% salt) of major phenol compounds of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) were studied in a model system formed by sealed cans filled with oil-brine mixtures (5:1, v/v) simulating canned-in-oil food systems. Filled cans were processed in an industrial plant using two sterilization conditions commonly used during fish canning. The partitioning of phenolic compounds toward brine induced by thermal processing was studied by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic analysis of the phenol fraction extracted from oils and brine. Hydroxytyrosol (1), tyrosol (2), and the complex phenolic compounds containing 1 and 2 (i.e., the dialdehydic form of decarboxymethyl oleuropein aglycon 3, the dialdehydic form of decarboxymethyl ligstroside aglycon 4, and the oleuropein aglycon 6) decreased in the oily phase after sterilization with a marked partitioning toward the brine phase. The increase of the total amount of 1 and 2 after processing, as well as the presence of elenolic acid 7 released in brine, revealed the hydrolysis of the ester bond of hydrolyzable phenolic compounds 3, 4, and 6 during thermal processing. Both phenomena (partitioning toward the water phase and hydrolysis) contribute to explain the loss of phenolic compounds exhibited by EVOO used as filling medium in canned foods, as well as the protection of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in canned-in-EVOO fish products.
There is a growing interest in natural antioxidants found in plants because of the world-wide trend toward the use of natural additives in food and cosmetics. Herbs and spices are one of the most important targets to search for natural antioxidants from the point of view of safety. This review presents the results on stabilization of lipids and lipid-containing foods with different herbs and spices (ground materials or extracts) and reports the structure of the main antioxidatively acting compounds isolated from them. The review presents information about the antioxidative effects of rosemary, sage, oregano, thyme, ginger, summer savory, black pepper, red pepper, clove, marjoram, basil, peppermint, spearmint, common balm, fennel, parsley, cinnamon, cumin, nutmeg, garlic, coriander, etc. Among the herbs of the Labiatae family, rosemary has been more extensively studied and its extracts are the first marketed natural antioxidants. Sage and oregano, which belong to the same family, have gained the interest of many research groups as potential antioxidants.
The chemical characteristics, phenolic content and antioxidant activity of olive oils flavored with garlic, lemon, oregano,
hot pepper, and rosemary were evaluated during 9months of storage. At the end of the storage period, the unflavored and the
garlic-flavored oils maintained their chemical parameters within the limits fixed for extra-virgin olive oils. After 9months
of storage, a noticeable decrease in phenolic content was observed in all the oils. The highest (35.0±3.9mg/kg oil) and
the lowest (6.3±0.4mg/kg) phenolic contents were detected in the unflavored and garlic-flavored oils, respectively. Compounds
such as 3,4-DHPEA-EDA (3,4-dihydroxyphenylethyl 4-formyl-3-formylmethyl-4-hexenoate, the dialdehydic form of decarboxymethyl
elenolic acid linked to hydroxytyrosol) and p-HPEA-EDA (dialdehydic form of the decarboxymethyl elenolic acid linked to tyrosol) were the most abundant in both unflavored
and lemon-flavored oils up till 6months of storage. At the end of the storage period, increases in 3,4-DHPEA (hydroxytyrosol)
and p-HPEA (tyrosol) were measured in almost all the oils. During storage, the antioxidant activity coefficients of the phenolic
extracts, calculated according to the β-carotene bleaching assay, significantly decreased and, after 9months, were in a decreasing
order: rosemary (51.3±4.2), hot pepper, lemon, oregano, unflavored, and garlic (8.5±0.7).
More than 180 spice-derived compounds have been identified and explored for their health benefits (Aggarwal et al. 2008). It is beyond the scope of this chapter to deal with all herbs and spices that may influence the risk of cancer and tumor behavior. Therefore, a decision was made to review those with some of the more impressive biological responses reported in the literature, and a conscious effort was made to provide information about the amount of spices needed to bring about a response and thus their physiological relevance. When possible, recent reviews are included to provide readers with additional insights into the biological response(s) to specific spices and to prevent duplication of the scientific literature. Because there is a separate chapter devoted to curcumin (a bioactive component in turmeric) in this book and there are also several excellent reviews published about curcumin (Patel and Majumdar 2009; Aggarwal 2010; Bar-Sela, Epelbaum, and Schaffer 2010; Epstein, Sanderson, and Macdonald 2010), turmeric is not discussed in this chapter.
The main sensory defects found in virgin olive oil (winey–vinegary, mustiness–humidity, fusty and rancid) were studied by dynamic headspace high-resolution gas chromatography with flame ionisation and mass spectrometry detection and dynamic headspace high-resolution gas chromatography–olfactometry to determine the most prominent volatile compounds responsible for them. A comparative study between defective and high quality virgin olive oils showed qualitative and quantitative differences in the volatile profiles, explained by the presence of enzymatic activities before the oil extraction process or by alteration during olive oil storage. The highest sensory significance, evaluated by odour activity values, corresponded to 1-octen-3-ol for mustiness–humidity, ethyl butanoate, propanoic and butanoic acids for fusty sensory defect, acetic acid, 3-methyl butanol and ethyl acetate for winey–vinegary and several saturated and unsaturated aldehydes and acids for rancid sensory defect.
The present study was carried out to determine the oxidative stability and acceptability of olive oil mixed with herbs and spices. Gourmet olive oils were prepared by including separately dry oregano and rosemary at a 2% level of addition or garlic extract. The products were stored at 37 °C in glass bottles. The resistance to oxidation of these specialities was compared with the shelf life of control samples. When the control sample reached a peroxide value of 70 meq O2/kg oil, oregano and rosemary-olive oil samples showed peroxide values four and nine times lower, respectively. The addition of garlic extract did not improve the stability of olive oil. Most panelists judged the odor and flavor of the samples as medium strong to strong using a 0–5 acceptability scale. Consumer acceptability and preference studies were also conducted for olive oil mixed with 1, 2 and 5% oregano. Consumers were able to differentiate between the levels of addition and preferred the samples with a low to moderate odor and flavor.
Phenolic compounds, ubiquitous in plants are an essential part of the human diet, and are of considerable interest due to their antioxidant properties. These compounds posses an aromatic ring bearing one or more hydroxyl groups and their structures may range from that of a simple phenolic molecule to that of a complex high-molecular weight polymer. Flavonoids, which bear the C6–C3–C6 structure, account for more than half of the over eight thousand different phenolic compounds. The antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds depends on the structure, in particular the number and positions of the hydroxyl groups and the nature of substitutions on the aromatic rings. Fruits, vegetables and beverages are the major sources of phenolic compounds in the human diet. The food and agricultural products processing industries generate substantial quantities of phenolics-rich by-products, which could be valuable natural sources of antioxidants. Some of these by-products have been the subject of investigations and have proven to be effective sources of phenolic antioxidants. When tested in edible oils, and in fish, meat and poultry products, phenolic-rich extracts have shown antioxidant activities comparable to that of synthetic antioxidants. Practical aspects of extraction and production of sufficient amounts of natural antioxidants from most of these sources remain to be elucidated.
The nutritional benefits generally recognized for the consumption of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) are based on a large number of dietary trials of several international populations and intervention studies. Unfortunately, many authors in this field used questionable analytical methods and commercial kits that were not validated scientifically to evaluate the complex bioactive constituents of EVOO and lipid oxidation and decomposition products. Many questionable antiradical methods were commonly used to evaluate natural polyphenolic antioxidants, including an indirect method to determine low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Extensive differences were observed in experimental design, diet control, populations of different ages and problems of compliance intervention, and questionable biomarkers of oxidative stress. Analyses in many nutritional studies were limited by the use of one-dimensional methods to evaluate multifunctional complex bioactive compounds and plasma lipid profiles by the common applications of commercial kits. Although EVOO contains polyphenolic compounds that exhibit significant in vitro antioxidant activity, much more research is needed to understand the absorption and in vivo activity. Many claims of in vivo human beneficial effects by the consumption of EVOO may be overstated. No distinctions were apparently made between in vivo studies based on general health effects in large populations of human subjects and smaller scale well-controlled feeding trials using either pure or mixtures of known phenolic constituents of EVOO. More reliable protocols and testing methods are needed to better validate the complex nutritional properties of EVOO.
