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A primary study on Chinese terrestrial ecosystem services and their ecological-economic values
... Ecosystem services also provide goods and services [5], enabling people to enjoy the benefits of provisioning, regulating, cultural and supportive services [6]. These services encompass all categories of unprocessed materials necessary for production and day-to-day functioning, as well as the components that establish and sustain the earth's eco-support system, thereby shaping the environmental circumstances imperative for human survival [7]. Furthermore, ecosystem services include the products and services that directly or indirectly maintain life, facilitated by their structure, processes and functions [8]. ...
... For example, China's rice-fishery integrated cultivation technology utilizes the circular ecological mechanism of rice-fish symbiosis to build a three-dimensional circular ecological agriculture system [61]. 7 (2) Ecological industrialization management mode: Enterprises or social management groups conduct industrial development and management of ecological resources on the basis of ensuring that the functions of the ecosystem are not destroyed. For example, Anji County in Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province [62] and Shadong Village in Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture, Hunan Province [63] rely on the advantages of ecological background to develop characteristic farm music projects and karst landform tourism projects respectively. ...
The realization of value in eco-products represents a rapidly advancing research theme. However, the clarity of relevant concepts, types and operational mechanisms remains elusive. A comprehensive review of current-stage research outcomes in eco-product value realization not only provides a novel approach to rejuvenating regional economies but also proactively contributes to the enhancement of local ecological environments. This article conducts a systematic literature review on the fundamental concepts, research scope and pathways for realizing the value of eco-products. The conclusions are as follows: (1) To clarify the basic concepts of ecosystem services and eco-products, the interrelationship between the two and the research scope of eco-products. (2) To elaborate the method for accounting the value of eco-products. (3) To demonstrate governmental path, market path and collaborative path for realizing the value of eco-products. (4)To review cases pertaining to the realization of value in public eco-products, quasi-public eco-products and operational eco-products both domestically and internationally. Building on this research foundation, the article identifies shortcomings in past research results and proposes key directions for future research progress.
... According to the difference between potential and actual erosion modulus (Zhang et al., 2016;Han et al., 2021;Ouyang et al., 1999), the value of soil erosion reduction is calculated as follows: ...
... According to the consumption quota of relevant engineering projects in Hubei province ("Hubei Provincial Construction Engineering, " 2008, the cost of earthwork excavation and transportation per unit volume could be obtained. The potential erosion modulus and the actual erosion modulus were obtained from relevant research (Han et al., 2021;Ouyang et al., 1999). The soil bulk density in Wuhan was taken as the average value of 1.35 g/cm 3 (Wang et al., 2020). ...
Despite rapid development in response research of land use to ecosystem service values (ESV), there is little attention to the influence of ecological construction at a local scale with an empirical study. Based on land use data from two Chinese land surveys, this study attempted to assess ESV from the dual perspectives of urbanization and ecological protection with the primary data-based approach from 1996 to 2018 in Wuhan, central China. We found that the ESV increased from 119.32 billion yuan to 220.29 billion yuan during 1996 – 2018, with an average annual growth rate of 1.27%, 3.86%, 3.49%, 2.97%, and 1.87% during the periods 1996 – 2000, 2000 – 2005, 2005 – 2010, 2010 – 2015, and 2015 – 2018, respectively. The conversion of other land use types to forest and water bodies was the main reason for the increase in ESV. The analysis results could be helpful to provide a new way to create policies pertaining to city development and ecological environment protection in typical rapid urbanization regions.
... China has some of the most severe soil erosion in the world [4]. The soil erosion control function of grassland ecosystems in China is manifested in preventing wind and hydraulic erosion [4]. ...
... China has some of the most severe soil erosion in the world [4]. The soil erosion control function of grassland ecosystems in China is manifested in preventing wind and hydraulic erosion [4]. More than 2.6 × 10 6 km 2 of land in China is subject to erosion, which is particularly likely to occur in ecologically fragile areas [5]. ...
The study area was the Hulunbuir Plateau in northeastern China, based on a natural resource element observation study. The assessment of the spatial and temporal variation of soil erosion is crucial for implementing environmental management in the fragile ecosystem of the Hulunbuir Plateau. The study provides an interesting basis for soil erosion control on the Hulunbuir Plateau and other areas with similar climatic conditions, with the aim of providing sound data to support environmental protection policies in the study area. In this study, the spatial and temporal variations in soil erosion in the region from 2000 to 2020 were quantitatively assessed using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation. Furthermore, the patch-generating land use simulation model predicted future soil erosion. Land use prediction data were examined using Kappa coefficients. The prediction of future land use types using CMIP6 data and natural social data in the PLUS model were used to predict soil erosion for different future scenarios. The results showed that the soil erosion rate on the Hulunbuir Plateau showed a significant increasing trend in time from 2000 to 2020. Spatially, soil erosion increases gradually from the west to the east. Soil erosion occurs mainly on grasslands, while cultivated lands show a significant increasing trend by 2020. Slope erosion occurs mainly in areas between 15° and 35°. From 2020 to 2050, soil erosion will increase significantly due to increased precipitation. The soil erosion in SSP2–4.5 is better than the other scenarios.
... WY i is the water yield in cell i, ARE i is the mean reference evapotranspiration every year in cell I; P i is the precipitation every year in cell I; and P y is cost of unit reservoir capacity [33]. ...
... where WY i is the WY in cell i; ARE i is the mean reference evapotranspiration every year; P i is the mean precipitation every year; V 8 is the value of WY; and P y is the cost of unit reservoir capacity [33]. The calculation methods of related factors are presented in the Supplementary Materials. ...
Understanding on the spatiotemporal interactions between ecosystem services (ESs) and social–ecological drivers is crucial for the design of sustainable development strategies for coastal wetlands. In this paper, we took the Yellow River Delta (YRD) as a case study, based on multiple evaluation methods to study the spatiotemporal dynamics of ESs in the YRD from 1980 to 2020. With the help of principal component analysis (PCA) for identification of multiple drivers, we researched the spatiotemporal differentiation and influence mechanism of drivers on ESs, using the coupling coordination degree (CCD) model and geographically and temporally weighted regression (GTWR) model, and subsequently provided the development strategy for each district in Dongying City. The results showed that (1) the patterns of ESs were spatially heterogeneous, with a fluctuating upward trend from 1980 to 2020, which was mainly affected by regulating service. (2) Our spatiotemporal analysis of ES interactions identified that cultural service was mainly disorder with other ESs. Nevertheless, in wetlands, various ESs can basically develop in a coordinated manner. (3) We integrated multiple drivers into five principal components by PCA, to which the response of ESs had spatial heterogeneity. (4) Consequently, we integrated spatiotemporal knowledge on ES interactions and their drivers into spatial planning.
... Wetland ESs has gradually become a research hotspot in the field of ecology (Mondal et al. 2017). Ouyang et al. (1999) first estimated the value of terrestrial ESs in China. Xie et al. (2015) revised the coefficient according to Chinese characteristics based on Costanza's research and proposed a new ecosystem service assessment unit price system based on expert knowledge. ...
The assessment of wetland ecosystem services value can provide theoretical basis for regional social and economic development, ecological environment protection and other planning and measures. Based on the factors of hydrology, meteorology, society, economy, resources, environment and culture, the value of wetland ecosystem services in the Yellow River Delta was evaluated by the revised equivalent factor method. The results showed that from 2005 to 2020, the area of tidal flat wetland decreased by 54.35%, and aquaculture increased by 206.91%. The total value of wetland ecosystem services increased from 28.03 billion CNY to 35.77 billion CNY, an increase of 27.63%, showing an N-shaped change of "increase - decrease - increase" on the whole. The ecosystem service value per unit area was more in coastal areas and less in inland areas. From 2005 to 2020, the ecosystem service sensitivity coefficient of the Yellow River Delta wetland was all less than 1. Under the premise of rational development and utilization, it is predicted that the value of ecological services will continue to increase in the future.
... The 1990, 2000, 2010, and (Costanza et al. 1997;Ouyang et al. 1999;Xie et al. 2017;Zhu et al. 2023) we selected 11 indicators to calculate the ESV, including food production (FP), raw material production (RMP), gas regulation (GR), water supply (WS), climate regulation (CR), environmental purification (EP), soil conservation (SC), hydrological regulation (HR), biodiversity protection (BP), nutrient maintenance (NM) and aesthetic landscape (AL), which are valued in monetary terms. According to the approach proposed by Xie (2008), the economic value of one ecosystem service equivalent factor is equal to 1/7 of the market value of the average grain yield per unit area in a given year. ...
Context
Decades of intensifying human activities have led to drastic changes in land use and land cover (LULC) in the Poyang Lake Basin (PLB), resulting in significant changes in landscape pattern and ecosystem service value (ESV), thereby affecting regional sustainability.
Objectives
We focused on understanding the impact of LULC changes on the landscape pattern and ESV of the PLB and used the Patch-generating Land Use Simulation model (PLUS) to predict LULC changes in 2050.
Methods
We evaluated landscape patterns using landscape metrics and calculated ESV using the ecosystem service equivalent factor method. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to analyze the correlation between landscape patterns and ESV from 1990 to 2020. Then, we combined the PLUS model and the ecosystem service equivalent factor method to calculate the ESV under multiple scenarios from 2020 to 2050.
Results
From 1990 to 2020, the LULC of the PLB changed to varying degrees. The PLB has undergone a rapid process of landscape fragmentation, and the total ESV of the PLB has decreased. The total ESV was positively correlated with the CONTAG index and negatively correlated with the SHDI index. Between 2020 and 2050, the ESV of the PLB is projected to decrease under the NDS (nature development scenario) and EDS (economic development scenario) and increase under the EPS (ecological protection scenario).
Conclusions
ESV responded to changes in landscape pattern. We recommend that the PLB should increase patch connectivity. Additionally, future development in the PLB should prioritize ecological protection to prevent further declines in ESV.
... To secure the sustainability of ecosystem-provided goods and services, the notion of ecosystem service value (ESV) has been developed (Ouyang et al., 1999;Ouyang et al., 2020). ESV is an objective reflection of the benefits humans derive from ecosystems. ...
Qilian Mountain National Park (QMNP) is a critical ecological barrier and water conservation area in northwestern China. Its diverse ecosystems provide significant ecosystem services, yet the valuation of these services and their dynamic responses to land use/cover (LULC) changes and ecological protection measures require detailed investigation. This study employs an improved equivalent factor method, tailored to the specific ecosystem types and LULC patterns of QMNP, to evaluate the ecosystem service value (ESV) across different LULC types. Using an elasticity analysis model, the sensitivity of ESV to LULC changes from 1990 to 2022 was quantitatively assessed. The results indicate that the ESV of QMNP increased from 46.13 billion RMB to 50.97 billion RMB between 1990 and 2022, mostly due to the growth of grassland and forest areas. The primary route for increasing the region's ESV is the conversion of desert to grassland, and this should be a major area of emphasis for next ecological conservation initiatives. Regulating services form the core of the ESV in QMNP, with climate and hydrological regulation contributing significantly to the overall ESV. Maintaining the stability of forest, wetland, and water body areas is crucial for sustaining the total ESV of QMNP. Through the application of carbon emission coefficients and ESV methods, the average range for long-term ecological compensation standards in QMNP is expected to be between 3.78 billion RMB and 28.28 billion RMB annually. Additionally, we explore the impacts of ongoing ecological protection mechanisms on enhancing ESV. There is a pressing need to formulate integrated policy frameworks that balance ecological conservation with sustainable economic development. The study also highlights the necessity of strengthening the protection and foundational research of grasslands and water bodies to enhance the ESV of QMNP. These insights serve as a foundation for potential planning and management strategies in QMNP, aiming to maintain and enhance its ecosystem functions and services, thereby contributing to broader regional and global ecological stability.
... There are abundant research results on water yield services, and scholars at home and abroad have analyzed the water yield services of ecosystems, forest ecological system water conservation, and the water resources of forests [10][11][12]. Additionally, researchers have investigated the water services of ecosystems and water conservation in forest ecosystems [13][14][15], and they have conducted quantitative assessments of ecosystem water yield services and water conservation in forest ecosystems, mostly adopting the material and value quantities [16,17] and the value [18,19] and value-quantity methods. ...
The Yellow River source area is an important eco-fragile and sensitive zone in the northeast of the Tibetan Plateau, where anthropogenic disturbances, climate change, and environmental problems have negatively affected the amount of water in the basin, which directly impacts the ecological security and high-quality sustainable development of the Yellow River Basin. Therefore, this study takes the Yellow River source area as its research area. Based on eight periods of land use from 1985 to 2020, topographic, soil, and meteorological data are combined, and a locally modified InVEST model and geological detector method are used to simulate watershed water production, evaluate the spatial differentiation characteristics of watershed water production, and analyze its spatial heterogeneity attribution. The results revealed that water production from 1985 to 2020 varied within the interval of 152.08–302.44 billion m3, with alternating decreases and increases and an overall upward trend. In the spatial distribution, the depth of water production is high in the east and low in the west, and the high-water-production area is concentrated in the counties of Maqin and Gande. In the vertical gradient, the water production capacity is strengthened with increasing altitudes. The spatial differentiation of the water production service and degree of influence is jointly determined by multiple factors. In this work, the parameter Z of the InVEST model was locally corrected to increase the applicability of the Z value to the Yellow River Basin to improve the accuracy of the simulation results, and the spatiotemporal differences in water yield from multiple perspectives were analyzed to provide a scientific basis for the ecological protection and high-quality sustainable development of the Yellow River Basin.
... Utilizing spatial simulation technology has become a popular approach for optimizing land use, offering a helpful framework for creating spatial planning. ESs are the aspects that are essential to human survival, and are created and preserved by ecosystems and ecological processes [19,20]. Scenario analysis can determine which scenarios maximize specific ESs and reveal potential differences in trade-offs between ESs at various temporal and geographical scales by setting up different reference scenarios that consider local conditions and incorporate the recommendations of researchers. ...
For a long time in the past, China has implemented a large number of “Grain for Green” projects (GFGPs) to improve the ecological environment. However, it is still unclear whether excessive GFGPs will exacerbate the trade-off of ecosystem services (ESs). Additionally, it is a great challenge to explore the response mechanism of the trade-off relationship to changes in land use and to mitigate the trade-offs by optimizing land use. Taking a typical GFGP basin in the central Yellow River basin as an example, we identified the trade-off areas and measured the nonlinear trade-offs between ESs under different scenarios. This was carried out based on the synergistic potential of the production possibility frontier (PPF) and the first-order derivative. We also identified the optimal scenario for mitigating the trade-offs of ESs. The results showed that excessive GFGPs have intensified the ES trade-offs. The differences in land use types lead to spatial heterogeneity in the relationship of ESs. When carbon storage (CS) is 9.58 t/km2 and habitat quality (HQ) is 0.4, the relationship with water yield (WY) changes from trade-off to synergy, respectively, and the trade-off area is mainly distributed in cropland and construction land. Compared with 2020, the EP scenario has the highest synergy potential and the lowest trade-off intensity, and can alleviate the ES trade-off to the greatest extent.
... Ecosystems provide essential goods and services for human wellbeing and social development (Daily, 1997, Ouyang et al., 1999. To summarize these nature-based benefits, Ouyang et al. (2013) proposed the concept of the gross ecosystem product (GEP), which is the aggregate value of final ecosystem goods and services produced within a given area. ...
Gross ecosystem product (GEP) is the aggregate economic value of the final goods and services of the ecosystem produced within a given area, providing a potentially effective means of linking nature protection and restoration to development.
In this study, we calculated the values and distribution of biodiversity, GEP and gross domestic product (GDP) in the 547 counties of Southwestern China, a biodiversity hotspot. We then divided the region into nine types of area based on spatial correlations between the three indicators.
Areas with high biodiversity, GEP per km² and GDP per capita were mainly found in and around the large cities of Kunming, Chengdu and Guiyang, reflecting a reasonably high degree of coupling coordination between ecosystems and the local economy.
Contrary to our hypotheses, areas with high biodiversity do not necessarily have high GEP, and regions with high GDP do not inherently have low biodiversity. This suggests that synergies exist between biodiversity conservation and economic development, and that increasing the value of material and non‐material services in GEP could improve this alignment.
Based on our findings, we argue that GEP can act as a bridge between biodiversity conservation and economic development. Understanding the interactions between biodiversity, GEP and GDP can inform the design of effective policies. In particular, we suggest that sustainable agricultural intensification and forestry along with ecotourism offer promising pathways for advancing nature‐positive development in this ecologically critical region.
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... Ecosystem services (ES) refer to the diverse range of benefits that people receive from the natural world and the environment (Zhiyun et.al., 1999;Grima et.al., 2017). The concept of ES is an anthropocentric and utilitarian view of natural resources focused on human well-being (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005;Bennet et.al., 2015). ...
The contingent valuation method (CVM) used for the study falls under the stated preference approach. In this method, respondents are asked regarding their WTP to obtain a good or service (Breidert, 2007). WTP is defined as the highest price that an individual is willing to pay for a good or service (Breidert, 2007). To elicit the WTP, respondents are given two scenarios: business-as-usual and an improved scenario. In the survey questionnaire, a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ question is asked regarding the willingness of the respondent to pay a certain amount for the implementation of an intervention that will enable the respondent to enjoy a certain good or service (Foreit & Foreit, 2004; Bateman et.al, 1995; Hanemann, 1999; Boyle, 2003).
... The different forms of well-being that ecosystems either directly or indirectly offer to humans are referred to as ecosystem services [14,15], and the strength of their capacity represents the health or otherwise of regional ecosystems [16], which are categorized into four types of services-namely, provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural-in mainstream academia [17][18][19]. Currently, the principal methodologies for evaluating ecosystem services encompass energy-value analysis [20], value-quantity assessment [21], and physical-quantity assessment [22]. Physical-quantity assessment is based on the ecological model used to quantify ecosystem processes and functions, but it cannot directly obtain the total value of various types of ecosystems. ...
The detrimental effects of accelerated urbanization on ecosystem services underscore the necessity of investigating the interactive coercion between the two. This paper employs multi-source data to analyze the urbanization subsystems and modified equivalent factors in order to calculate the urbanization level (UL) and ecosystem service value (ESV) of the Poyang Lake urban agglomeration (PYLUA) from 2005 to 2020 at the administrative, watershed, and grid scales. Bivariate spatial autocorrelation, multi-scale geographically weighted regression (MGWR), and others are applied to explore the interrelationships and impact effects between the two and to conduct zoning management studies. The results indicate that (1) the UL has significantly increased from 2005 to 2020, with a marginal expansion in its spatial distribution, while the ESV shows a generally smooth trend, with high-value and low-value areas present around Poyang Lake and in the metropolitan area, respectively; (2) the UL and ESV are negatively correlated at all the scales, and this negative effect has increased significantly over time; (3) in the OLS model, only land urbanization and population urbanization negatively affect the ESV at the 1% level of significance, while in the MGWR, all the urbanization subsystems negatively affect the ESV at the 1% level of significance and have their own optimal scales; and (4) the UL and ESV are interrelated and divide the PYLUA into five zones: Coordinated Development Zone, Co-Loss Zone, Development Lag Zone, Ecological Loss Zone and Development Potential Zone. These zones identify areas where negative effects are more pronounced and propose corresponding management strategies for each subzone. These results can serve as a foundation for coordinating regional urbanization and preserving the environment.
... The ecosystem provides both material and non-material benefits for human beings, supporting their survival and development [1,2]. Research on ecosystem services (ESs) and ecosystem services value (ESV) accounting has become a hot topic in current ecology and ecological economics research [3][4][5][6]. ...
The value of ecosystem regulation services (ERSV) is a crucial aspect of gross ecosystem product (GEP). Understanding and mastering the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics and driving factors of ERSV is essential for the efficient management of regional ecosystems. This study proposes an ERSV accounting model at the plot scale and uses the barycentric analysis method, the optimal parameters-based geographical detector model (OPGD), and the constraint line extraction method to analyze the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics, main driving factors, and constraint rules of ERSV in Yunyang District, Hubei Province in 2016, 2018, 2020, and 2021. The results show that (1) In the temporal dimension, the overall ERSV of the district increased by CNY 1.664 billion from 2016 to 2021, with an increase rate of 3.68%. The contribution values of climate regulation function and water retention function to ERSV was significant. (2) In the spatial dimension, the ERSV was high in the north and south and low in the middle, with high-value areas mainly located in woodland and wetland areas. The center of gravity of the ERSV increase shifted to the southwest by 12,455.42 m, while the center of gravity of the reduction shifted to the southwest by 3582.79 m from 2016 to 2021. (3) The interaction of any two driving factors had greater explanatory power for the spatial differentiation of ERSV than that of a single driving factor, and all of them showed nonlinear or double factor enhancement characteristics. The human active index (HAI) and construction land proportion (CLP) were the leading anthropogenic factors, while the land surface temperature (LST) and NDVI were the leading natural factors. (4) The ERSV could maintain a high and stable value output when the HAI was less than 0.3, CLP was less than 15%, LST was between 18 and 22 °C, and NDVI was greater than 0.5. These results can guide the practices of ecology, production, and life in Yunyang District and contribute to the high quality and sustainable development of the regional ecology and economy.
... There are many approaches to the study of ecosystems, and Costanza in 1997 proposed 17 classifications of ecosystem services and used these 17 ecosystem service functions to evaluate ESV (Ecosystem service value) globally [12]; Ouyang et al. followed Costanza's research progress and made a preliminary assessment of the value of ecosystem services in China using the shadow price method and alternative engineering method [13], demonstrating that terrestrial ecosystems in China contain huge economic benefits; Based on the research of foreign scholars [14,15], Xie et al. reduced ecosystem service functions into 9 categories and revised the value equivalent factor of ecosystem service assessment in combination with China's actual situation [16], laying a foundation for the research in China's ecological field. Other ecosystem assessment methods, such as the energy value assessment method, the value quantity assessment method and the object quality assessment method, are also widely used in various fields in China [17][18][19]. ...
Hebi is located in the northern part of China’s Henan Province and is a typical receiving area for China’s South-to-North Water Diversion Project. The assessment of habitat quality and water yield over a long time series is important for evaluating the stability of ecosystem services in Hebi and other receiving areas and for maintaining ecological security and promoting sustainable development. This paper aims to evaluate and dynamically analyse habitat quality and water yield in Hebi, and analyses the characteristics of changes in spatial and temporal patterns of land cover types, habitat quality and water yield in Hebi over the past 20 years, using 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2020 as horizontal years. The results indicate that: (1) During the study period, the overall land use type in Hebi City has been constantly changing, with the most significant conversion from arable land to other land types; combined with its landscape pattern index, Hebi City has a general characteristic of significant landscape fragmentation and complexity in land use. (2) Habitat quality in Hebi shows an overall trend towards better development, with water availability decreasing and then increasing; the zoning of ecosystem services in Hebi is divided into three classes: superior, good and general, with the area covered by the superior and general classes expanding year by year. (3) Correlation analysis by SPSS software shows that the correlation between habitat quality and landscape pattern index is greater than the correlation between habitat quality and climate change. Additionally, the correlation between water availability and climate change is greater than the correlation between water availability and landscape pattern index.
... Ecosystem services also provide goods and services [6], enabling people to enjoy the benefits of provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supportive services [7]. These services encompass all categories of unprocessed materials necessary for production and day-to-day functioning, as well as the components that establish and sustain the Earth's eco-support system, thereby shaping the environmental circumstances imperative for human survival [8]. Furthermore, ecosystem services include the products and services that directly or indirectly maintain life, facilitated in this task by their structure, processes, and functions [9]. ...
The value realization of ecological products is currently a rapidly evolving research topic; however, the definition of its concept, type, and operation mechanism remains relatively ambiguous. Operating in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, this review employs keyword retrieval and screening, utilizing VOSviewer and word cloud mapping for analysis, in order to reveal three primary research domains related to ecological product value realization. Based on thorough screening and the analysis of high-quality literature, this study comprehensively accomplished the following objectives: (1) clarifying the fundamental concepts of ecosystem services and ecological products, their interrelationships, and the scope of research on ecological products; (2) clarifying the basic connotation of realizing the value of ecological products; (3) demonstrating government-led approaches, market-driven approaches and collaborative pathways for realizing the value of ecological products; (4) reviewing international cases related to realizing the value of public ecological products, quasi-public ecological products, and operational ecological products. The academic contributions of this study are (1) expanding the theoretical framework for realizing the value of ecological products; (2) providing a Chinese perspective on global research on pathways to realize value from ecological products; and (3) offering a novel approach to revitalizing regional economies and improving local ecological environments. Based on this research, several shortcomings and future directions in this field are identified: (1) insufficient clarity, standardization, and uniformity in evaluation and measurement methods; (2) the absence of comparison between ecological products and urban economic products; (3) inadequate exploration of multi-stakeholder allocation and coordination mechanisms; (4) limited research on the role of capital markets in allocating ecological product resources.
... It is mainly applied to investigating the carbon sink potential of macro-scale green spaces. There has been a long history of sample plot measurement application, mainly in forestry and agricultural production, and it is a well suggested method by the IPCC for forest carbon sink assessment (Ouyang et al., 1999). This approach estimates the carbon sequestration of plants by harvesting and weighing all aboveground and belowground organic matter within sampling plots. ...
Along with urbanization and industrialization, carbon emissions have been increasing significantly, resulting in global warming. Green space has been widely accepted as a natural element in cities to directly increase carbon sinks and indirectly reduce carbon emissions. The quantification of carbon benefits generated by green space is an important topic. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the methods for measuring carbon sinks of green spaces. The results indicate that existing assessment methods can accurately estimate the carbon sinks in green spaces at large scales. However, existing methods are not fully applicable to studies of urban green spaces, due to the low precision of research results. The assimilation method is the most suitable method to study the carbon sequestration efficiency of plants and can project the carbon sinks of urban green spaces at large scales through macroscopic means. Even though, the results of assimilation experiments are unstable under different weather conditions. To address existing research challenges, this paper proposes a photosynthetic rate estimation method based on the light-response curve which is an efficient method to describe the relationship between light intensity and net photosynthetic rate in studying plant physiological characteristics. The newly proposed method, through integrating net photosynthesis-light response curves and urban light intensity associated with meteorological data, has advantages of short measurement time and ensuring standardized experimental environment for result comparability. Overall, this study is important to combine meteorology and plant physiology to propose a photosynthetic rate estimation method for optimizing carbon sink measurement in urban green spaces. The method is more convenient for application for its simple experimental process and result comparability. In practice, this study provides guidance for low-carbon urban green space planning and design, and helps to promote energy conservation and emission reduction through nature-based solutions.
... Concurrently, Costanza [9e12] spearheaded the comprehensive assessment of the global value of ecosystem services, revealing that their total value in 1994 was approximately USD 33 trillion. Subsequently, Ouyang et al. [13,14] introduced the Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) indicator, quantifying the final ecosystem services to human society. Jiang [15] and Ma [16e18] were the first to evaluate GEP for different countries globally and provinces within China. ...
The trade-off and synergy relationship of ecosystem services is an important topic in the current assessment. The value of each service provided by the ecosystem is substantially affected by human activities, and conversely, its changes will also affect the relevant human decisions. Due to varying trade-offs among ecosystem services and synergies between them that can either increase or decrease, it is difficult to optimize multiple ecosystem services simultaneously, making it a huge challenge for ecosystem management. This study firstly develops a global Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) accounting framework. It uses remote sensing data with a spatial resolution of 1 km to estimate the ecosystem services of forests, wetlands, grasslands, deserts, and farmlands in 179 major countries in 2018. The results show that the range of global GEP values is USD 112–197 trillion, with an average value of USD 155 trillion (the constant price), and the ratio of GEP to gross domestic product (GDP) is 1.85. The trade-offs and the synergies among different ecosystem services in each continent and income group have been further explored. We found a correspondence between the income levels and the synergy among ecosystem services within each nation. Among specific ecosystem services, there are strong synergies between oxygen release, climate regulation, and carbon sequestration services. A trade-off relationship has been observed between flood regulation and other services, such as water conservation and soil retention services in low-income countries. The results will help clarify the roles and the feedback mechanisms between different stakeholders and provide a scientific basis for optimizing ecosystem management and implementing ecological compensation schemes to enhance human well-being.
... Constanza valued the global ecosystem services in 1997 but did not value desert ecosystems (Costanza et al., 1997). In 1999, Ouyang et al. (Ouyang et al., 1999a). estimated the value of China's terrestrial ecosystem services which included the value of desert ecosystem. ...
Ecological products and ecosystem services are essential for human survival and development. Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP) is a method to combine the value of ecosystem services and can reflect the status of ecosystem and ecological conservation and restoration performance. The conservation and restoration of desert ecosystems play an important role in expanding global cultivated land, ensuring food security, and improving human wellbeing. However, ecosystem services and the value of GEP in deserts have been neglected. Taking the Kubuqi Desert ecosystem as an example, this study evaluated the pattens, GEP value, and its change in the Kubuqi Desert ecosystem from 2000 to 2020. Our study found that 1) over the past 20 years, the areas of wetlands, forests, grasslands, and shrubs in the Kubuqi desert ecosystem had increased by 100.65%, 6.05%, 2.24%, and 2.03%, respectively, while that of desert had decreased by 10.62%; 2) the GEP of Kubuqi in 2020 was 55.48 billion CNY, among which its sandstorm prevention value was the highest (39.39%); 3) The value of ecosystem services in the Kubuqi desert ecosystem were all increased over the 20-year period and the largest increase came from sandstorm prevention (increased by 195.09%). This study emphasizes how GEP accounting can promote desert conservation and restoration, quantifies the contribution of desert ecosystems to human wellbeing, and provides future GEP accounting suggestions for desert ecosystems. This study can provide scientific information on the conservation and restoration of global desert ecosystems.
... Ecosystem services encompass the products and functions of ecosystems that enhance human well-being and contribute to both survival and the overall quality of life [1], including provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services, and supporting services. Ecosystem service value is the ecological service benefits that humans derive from ecosystems [2], as well as the expression of ecosystem functions and utilities [3], which is abbreviated throughout as ESV. ...
Identifying the changes in landscape pattern and ecosystem service value (ESV) and clarifying their relationship in temporal changes and spatial variations can provide insight into regional landscape features and scientific support for regional landscape planning. Leveraging land use data from the Yihe River Basin, we quantitatively assessed the landscape pattern and ESV shifts spanning from 2000 to 2018 using the landscape pattern indexes and the equivalence factor method. We employed Pearson correlation metrics and the geographically weighted regression model to explore the interrelation of their spatiotemporal variations. Our results show the following: (1) Forestland represents the most expansive land cover category. Apart from construction land, all other types experienced a decline in area. The most notable change occurred in the area of construction land. (2) The aggregation of the overall landscape shows a downward trend. The levels of fragmentation, landscape diversity, and richness increased. (3) Throughout the entire study period, the overall ESV gradually decreased, and the land cover type with the greatest contribution to the ESV was forestland. (4) In terms of temporal changes, the patch density and edge density of the overall area are significantly negatively correlated with total ESVs. The largest values for the patch index, perimeter–area fractal dimension (PAFRAC), and aggregation are significantly positively correlated with total ESVs. (5) In terms of spatial variation, the contagion index (CONTAG), PAFRAC, and the Shannon diversity index (SHDI) were noticeably correlated with ESVs. The CONTAG is positively correlated with ESVs upstream, but negatively midstream and downstream. The SHDI is negatively correlated with ESVs upstream, but positively midstream and downstream. The PAFRAC exhibits a positive correlation with ESVs for the most part. The association between the landscape pattern indexes and ESVs exhibits temporal and spatial inconsistencies in most instances, suggesting a spatiotemporal scale effect in their relationship. This study recommends that the local government devises a long-term strategy for urban development and exercises stringent control over the unregulated expansion of construction land. Through reasonable territorial spatial planning, government departments could enhance the connectivity of the overall landscape pattern of the Yihe River Basin to achieve the reasonable allocation and sustainable development of regional resources.
... Costanza et al. were the first to systematically assess the functional value of global ESs using the unit area value assessment method in 1997 [1]. Overall, the present unit area value assessment methods for regional ESV estimation can be divided into two categories: the functional price per unit area service value method [15] and the method based on the unit area value equivalent coefficient [16]. The latter method has been favored by many scholars because of its advantages such as rapid assessment and intuitive and easy to understand results [11,12]. ...
... In 2011, China began to carry out the pilot construction of carbon emissions trading, and the total amount control of carbon emissions gradually formed the utility value of carbon sinks. Secondly, as an environmental resource, carbon sink has the attribute of public goods, and its positive externalities can not avoid the emergence of hitchhiking problem, that is, consumers pay less or even no corresponding remuneration to producers while increasing welfare, which leads to various resource elements (Liu, 2023;Zhou, Xiong, Wang, Tang, & Lin, 2022;Ouyang, Wang, & Miao, 1999;Xie, Zhen, Lu, Xiao, & Chen, 2008;Fu et al., 2009;Ouyang et al., 2020;Fan, Lu, Cai, Xu, Wang, Zeng, Xu, & Chen, 2023) (Figure 3). Finally, we should improve the compensation mechanism of forest ecological benefits, speed up vegetation restoration and improve the production capacity of carbon sinks (Yang, Song, Sun, & Peng, 2020) (Figure 4). ...
Under the background of carbon neutrality and common prosperity, the importance of carbon sinks is constantly highlighted. Realizing the value of carbon sink ecological products is not only conducive to the realization of the goal of carbon neutrality, but also an effective way to promote the endogenous development of rural areas and promote common prosperity. Broadening the value transformation channel of carbon sink ecological products and realizing the sustainable transformation from "green water and green hills" to "Jinshan and Yinshan" provide a new way to achieve the goal of carbon neutrality and common prosperity. Based on the theoretical analysis of the traditional connotation, formation mechanism and value of carbon sink ecological products, this paper summarizes the main ways and existing problems of realizing carbon sink ecological value in China, systematically analyzes the two-way promotion relationship between the double carbon target and the realization of carbon sink ecological product value, and emphasizes the important role of carbon sink ecological value realization and participation in carbon market transactions in carbon emission reduction. It also summarizes the experience of international typical cases. Finally, suggestions and reflections were put forward for redistributing the supply of ecological products based on carbon sinks, improving the basic system for calculating the value of ecological products, strengthening the government's guiding role, improving the ecological rights trading market, and innovating financial models, providing reference for optimizing the innovative mechanism and path for realizing the value of ecological products in China under the "dual carbon" goal.
... Paddy field, as one of the constructed wetlands, has better regulation service than dry field, while dry field has better soil conservation service. Some studies have quantified the services value of different ecosystems through questionnaire survey, data collection and expert scoring method (Ouyang et al. 1999;Xie et al. 2008;Yan and Zhang 2019). In this study, the value of ecosystem services per unit area (Additional file 1: Table S2) was used for further study. ...
Background
Farmland expansion has played a major role in wetland degradation in Heilongjiang Province, China in recent decades. Farmland expansion increases the demands for water, thereby affecting wetland water cycles, and promoting the shrinkage of wetland areas and degradation of ecosystem functions. As an open system, agricultural production is limited by both ecological and socioeconomic conditions. However, our understanding of wetland degradation caused by farmland expansion from the perspective of the ecology–economy nexus is limited.
Methods
A correlation between farmland expansion and agricultural economic activities was established, and wetland degradation driven by agroeconomic activities was inversely derived using a multi-regional input–output (MRIO) analysis. We developed an ecology–economy nexus framework to explore the ecological process of the area and water demand tradeoffs between wetland degradation and farmland expansion, the economic process of wetland degradation driven by food consumption, and the nexus between the two processes. We finally explored strategies to mitigate wetland degradation due to increased agricultural water demand.
Results
Farmland expansion contributed to 93.76% of the total degraded wetland area. There was a significant negative correlation between wetland area and the water consumption for crop production, but no significant correlation between wetland area and the ecological footprint of croplands. The direct wetland degradation caused by local final demand accounted for 63.02%, while the indirect degradation caused by non-local final demand accounted for 36.98%. Hebei, Shandong, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia, and Shanghai were the top five provinces contributing to indirect wetland degradation in Heilongjiang. Our findings indicated that a mixed scenario combining water footprint reduction per unit yield with food export reduction could maximize wetland restoration while reducing local farmland–wetland competition for water.
Conclusions
Our research highlights the effects of economic processes in the agricultural sector on wetland degradation, and showed that the adjustment of food trade patterns can effectively promote wetland restoration.
... Equivalent factors in different regions may affect the calculation of ESVs with the changes in surface cover types [8], regional resources, biodiversity, and distribution of ecological system types [9,10]. Scholars such as Ouyang Zhiyun accounted for terrestrial ecosystem service functions based on Constanza's calculations [11], and Xie Gaodi [12] developed the "Chinese terrestrial ecosystem service value equivalent factor table" using biomass parameters. This table has been continuously optimized and improved and has been adopted and promoted by more scholars. ...
Ecological and environmental degradation are among the major challenges facing humanity today. The analysis of ecosystem service value assessments can therefore serve as a means to guide ecosystem restoration, as well as provide indications for sustainable land use and land management decisions. The present study examines changes in land use and the associated ecosystem service values in the Yan River Basin in China for the period of 1990–2020. Based on high-resolution Landsat satellite data, we obtained detailed land type distribution data for the basin, allowing the analysis of the internal structure and the degree of influence of the land use by using information entropy and elasticity coefficient. We also explored the spatiotemporal differentiation of ESVs by applying the method of equivalent factors and hotspot analysis. Finally, we identified possible drivers for development patterns observed in the watershed using geodetector models. During the study period, the area of arable land dropped continuously, while the scope of forest land, grassland, and construction land increased. The land type layout developed in the direction of reduced uniformity. ESVs measured in monetary terms first rose and later fell, but nevertheless increased by 1.152 billion yuan overall. The decrease was mainly due to the accelerated urbanization construction in the later stage. Spatially, ESV distribution coincided with the land-use pattern, showing a growing pattern from north to south. The changes were due not to the role of a single factor but the joint interactions between multiple factors such as human activities, natural factors, and landscape patterns. The results can provide a basis for constructive suggestions to connect and promote the basin’s natural and socio-economic surroundings, and also reflect the effectiveness of the policy of systematically stopping cultivation and planting trees and grass on stunted cultivated land.
... After being introduced into the Yellow River Delta, Spartina alterniflora will grow rapidly and occupy part of the tidal flat [9], and natural factors will cause the LULC type to change. AGB is one of the important indices to measure net primary productivity [10]. The LULC type conversion caused by the introduction of Spartina alternifera increased the AGB of the wetland, that is, increased the net primary productivity of the wetland, and then increased the carbon sink of the Yellow River Delta. ...
Accurately estimating aboveground biomass (AGB) is essential for assessing the ecological functions of coastal wetlands, and AGB of coastal wetlands is affected by Land use/land cover (LULC) types of conversion. To address this issue, in the current study, we used the Boreal Ecosystem Productivity Simulator (BEPS) model to simulate the AGB of the Yellow River Delta during 2000–2015. Based on the LULC types transform, we analyzed the spatiotemporal dynamics of the AGB simulation results and their relationship with the human-nature driving process. At the same time, combined with the actual situation of LULC transformation in the Yellow River Delta, a new driving process (Replace) is introduced. The results show that from 2000 to 2015, 755 km2 of natural wetlands in the Yellow River Delta were converted into constructed wetlands, and AGB increased by 386,121 Mg. Both single and multiple driving processes contributed to the decrease in AGB, with 72.6% of the increase in AGB associated with single artificial (such as Restore) or natural (such as Accretion) driving processes and 27.4% of the increase in AGB associated with multiple driving processes. Naturally driven processes bring much more AGB gain than loss, and human-driven processes bring the largest AGB gain. LULC conversion brought on by anthropogenic and natural driving processes has a large impact on AGB in coastal wetlands, and exploring this impact has a significant role in planning coastal wetland land use and protecting blue carbon ecosystems.
... Terrestrial ecosystems cover approximately one third of the Earth's surface and are vital to the functioning of global ecosystems (Yang et al., 1999). However, due to their sensitivity and vulnerability to climate change (Li et al., 2018), the carbon cycling processes within these ecosystems have become a critical area of focus (Sun et al., 2019). ...
Purpose
Soil carbon cycling processes in terrestrial ecosystems are significantly influenced by global changes, and soil microorganisms play a crucial role in soil organic carbon (SOC) and its feedbacks to climate change.
Methods
To investigate the potential future changes in soil carbon dynamics under different scenarios in the Ziwuling Forest region, we collected soil data through field observation experiments at a long-term fixed observation sample site. By utilizing a microbial ecological model (MEND), we predicted the future dynamics of soil carbon under different scenarios in the area.
Results
We found that under the RCP2.6 scenario, SOC showed a rapid increase. By 2100, the SOC values in topsoil are projected to be higher than whole soil SOC values for the three RCP scenarios. SOC under the RCP2.6 scenario will be significantly higher than those under the RCP4.5 scenario and RCP8.5 scenario. Furthermore, the positive correlation between total litter carbon (LC) and SOC under the RCP2.6 scenario highlights the potential role of total litter carbon in driving SOC dynamics. We also found that the low greenhouse gas (GHG) emission scenario favors the accumulation of SOC in the study area, while the high GHG emission scenario leads to greater soil carbon loss.
Conclusions
Our results underscore the importance of considering the impact of climate change(especially global warming)on soil ecosystems in the future. Protecting the soil ecosystem of the Loess Plateau is critical for maintaining soil carbon sinks, preventing soil erosion, and improving and regulating the surrounding environmental climate.
... These factors are closely related to the forest ecological functions and become accurate and reliable data sources for the comprehensive evaluation of FEF at the regional scale [26]. On the basis of establishing a forest survey database, we selected factors closely related to the FEF to construct an ecological function index which could reflect the comprehensive ecological quality of each forest stand (sub-compartment), in order to explore a scientific and applicable method for regional FEF evaluation [27]. Therefore, with the multi-period forest resources planning and design survey data as the main information source, under the support of geographic information (GIS), and combined with the ecological function index, the Gini coefficient, it was possible to analyze the spatial changes of urban suburban FEF and their impact on the ecological equity. ...
After the transformation of counties in urban suburbs into districts, the rapid urbanization and industrialization process in China’s developed regions had a huge impact on the spatial distribution and equity of the suburban forest ecological functions. Accurately describing this impact could provide an important reference for the construction of suburban forest engineering and for ecological environmental planning. Jiangning District of Nanjing City, China, was selected as the research area, while the forest resource planning and design survey data in 2007 and 2017, together with the demographic data of the study area, were collected as the main information sources. Following the establishment of the forest ecological function evaluation indicators and the analysis of the spatial change of the forest ecological functions, the Gini coefficient was calculated to analyze the changes of the regional ecological function equality. The results showed that: (1) Compared with 2007, the proportion of areas with low forest ecological functions (abbreviated as FEF) in the study area in 2017 showed a downward trend, and the proportion of areas with medium and high FEF showed an increasing trend; (2) Compared with 2007, the forest landscape in the study area in 2017 was severely fragmented, the spatial aggregation of the FEF showed a significant decline, and the FEF developed towards a direction of spatially balanced distribution; (3) During 2007–2017, the sub-compartments with high-value FEF in the study area (hot spots) shifted to the northwest, where the economy was developed and the population density was higher, and the sub-compartments with low-value (cold spots) shifted to the south, where the economy is underdeveloped and with lower population density; (4) From 2007 to 2017, the Gini coefficient of the FEF in the study area decreased, indicating that the regional ecological equity had initially improved. The urbanization and industrialization process of the urban suburbs is a double-edged sword. On the one hand, the process has caused the fragmentation of forest landscape, the decline of the forest area, and the unbalanced spatial distribution of the population. On the other hand, the huge material wealth and human capital accumulated through industrialization have promoted regional ecological equity and improved the living environment of the local residents.
... In this stage, the relevant scholars conducted research and exploration independently, laying a solid foundation for the valuation of ecological products based on domestic and foreign research on ecosystem services. Ouyang Zhiyun et al. [30] evaluated the value of China's terrestrial ecosystem services using modeling methods. Earlier, Xie Gaodi et al. [31] established a table of equivalent factors for the unit area value of China's ecosystem services based on Costanza's research, and Fu Bojie et al. [32] systematically analyzed the spatial pattern and evolution characteristics of different ecological types and services in China, and the scope of valuation was further expanded from the national scale to the regional scale. ...
Establishing a mechanism for realizing the value of ecological products is important for implementing the concept of an ecological society in China. It is a key means of acting upon the idea that green mountains and clear waters are as valuable as gold and silver, and it is a necessary requirement to promote sustainable green development and encourage harmonious coexistence between humans and nature. This article summarizes the connotations of ecological products, the accounting of ecological product value, and the progress made nationally and in Shandong province in promoting the mechanisms for realizing the value of ecological products. Based on the analysis of Shandong’s practice in various means of realizing ecological product value, such as the “forest chief system +”, “two mountain banks”, “mining ecological restoration”, “health tourism”, “ecological agriculture, culture, and tourism”, and “forest ecological compensation”, this article summarizes and proposes three types of ecological product value realization paths: government-led, government + market, and market paths. It also proposes four types of ecological product value realization modes: ecological resource indicators and equity exchanges, ecological governance and value enhancement, ecological industrial operations, and ecological protection compensation. Furthermore, this article puts forward targeted suggestions and methods for value realization in four areas: policy, technology, industry, and markets, providing an experiential reference for exploring diversified ecological product value realization in various regions of China.
... In order to establish the relationship between major function accounting and natural resource accounting, we synthesized the relevant studies on the evaluation of major functions, natural resource accounting, environmental accounting, ecosystem services, and assets accounting [36]. Chinese scholars systematically studied ecosystem service functions [37], introduced the "ecosystem service valuation" proposed by Costanza et al. [38] and established a unit area value table for terrestrial ecosystem services in China [39]. This method has been widely used to assess ecosystem service at regional scales in China by determining standard equivalence factors and establishing equivalence factor tables for different ecosystem services [40,41]. ...
The current insufficient quantification and evaluation of major functions fundamentally affected regional sustainable management and policy implementation. This study focused on the problem that no effective quantitative accounting relationship has been established between development activities and resource utilization. In order to establish the relationship between major function accounting and natural resource accounting, we analyzed the relevant studies on the evaluation of major functions, natural resource accounting, environmental accounting, ecosystem services, and assets accounting. The efficiency comparison of different functions was completed using the equivalent factor method for ecosystem service value measurement and the input–output method for water footprint measurement. We found that the accounting of major functions and resources can guide regional sustainable management by using function positioning and resource comparative advantages. In addition, administrative units were linked to functional units, providing the possibility of cross-regional comparison of total functional resources, efficiency, and structure of major functions.
... Compared with foreign countries, the research on the value of ecosystem services in China started relatively late, but it has achieved rapid development in recent years. Ouyang et al. (1999) conducted a preliminary study on the economic value of terrestrial ecosystems in China using shadow prices, alternative engineering, and profit-and-loss analysis, initiating the first study of ecosystems in China. Xie et al. (2003) used some of the results of Costanza's assessment of global ecosystem service values as a reference, and also integrated the results of ecological questionnaire surveys conducted on Chinese professionals to develop a table of ecological service values per unit area of different terrestrial ecosystems in China, and assessed the ecosystem service values of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, so that the study of Chinese ecosystems began to mature and diversify. ...
A study on the evolution of ecosystem service values (ESV) in the South–North Water Transfer Central Line Water Replenishment Area was conducted to reveal the mechanism of ESV evolution in the study area, which is of great value to regional ecological environmental protection. Taking Anyang County as the research object, based on LUCC (land use and land cover change) and GIS technology, the spatial and temporal changes in land use change and ESV in Anyang County from 2008 to 2021 were quantitatively assessed using the equivalent factor method, revealing the evolutionary characteristics of ESV in Anyang County. The results show that the total value of ecosystem services in the study area showed an overall upward trend from 2008 to 2021, with a cumulative increase of RMB 834 million, and the increase in water surface area was the main driver of its ESV increase; the spatial pattern of ESV in Anyang County remained basically stable from 2008 to 2021, with a general trend of high in the west and low in the east. The ESV of hydrological regulation in the study area increased from 1.147 billion yuan to 1.613 billion yuan in 2008–2021, which contributed the most to the change of total ESV. Forest land and water area have great influence on the change of ESV in the study area, and are sensitive factors of ESV change. Combined with the results of the 2025 simulation, the value of ecosystem services in Anyang County will rise further in the future.
... Ecosystem services can effectively guarantee human ecological security and reduce environmental risks. Ecosystem services refer to all the benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems, including material supply services (such as providing food and water), regulation services (such as flood regulation, carbon fixation, water conservation, etc.), cultural services (such as landscape value enhancement, tourism, health care, etc.), and supporting services (such as biodiversity maintenance) [14][15][16][17][18][19]. Many studies have confirmed that ecosystem services can guarantee the ecological security of cities. Denis Maragno [20] and A. Rizzo [21] respectively took Dolo and Gorla Maggiore in Italy as case areas, and studied the positive effects of urban ecological space's flood reduction service on overall urban ecological security; in addition, Chae Yeon Park [22] also found that a reasonable urban green space planning scheme can play a more effective cooling role, so that residents can avoid the torment of extremely high temperatures. ...
In the context of increasing urbanization and worsening environmental pollution, nonpoint source pollution during high-frequency rainfall has become a major ecological problem that endangers residents in cities. This study takes Shenzhen as an example. On the basis of a large number of soil sample test data, and combined with relevant environmental variables, it has drawn the high-resolution, high-precision spatial distribution maps of soil attributes within the city. In addition, this paper combines the revised universal soil loss equation and the GeoDetector model to evaluate the supply capacity of nonpoint source reduction services in the city’s ecological space and the main driving factors of spatial distribution characteristics for different types of land. The study found that increasing soil point density and combining environmental variables can help improve the accuracy of spatial mapping for soil attributes. The ME, MSE, ASE, RMSE, and RMSSE of spatial mapping all meet the accuracy evaluation criteria and are better than many existing studies; the spatial distribution characteristics of soil attributes and nonpoint source reduction services show significant differences among the whole city, secondary administrative regions, and different types of land; the GeoDetector results show that among the three main types of land use (forested land, industrial land, and street town residential land), topographic factors, habitat-quality factors, and ecosystem types have the greatest impact on the spatial differentiation characteristics of nonpoint source reduction services. Among climate factors, only precipitation factors have the greatest impact on the spatial differentiation characteristics of services. Facing the above factors, the q-values calculated by the GeoDetector are all higher than 10%. The results of this study can provide information for making better decisions on regional ecological system management and soil protection and on restoration work aimed at improving nonpoint source reduction services.
... The premise of the value realization of ecological products requires the accounting and assessment of the value of ecosystem services. In terms of functional currency-value assessment and the accounting of ecosystem services, Coztanza [23] evaluated the world-wide ecological value; Ouyang Zhiyun et al. [24] studied the indirect economic value of terrestrial ecosystem services in China, and this is the earliest landmark in measuring the monetary value of ecosystem services at home and abroad. The release of the specifications for the assessment of the forest-ecosystem service in China (LY/T 1721-2008) [25] and the application of (GB/T 38582-2020) [26] marks the further perfection and standardization of the assessment and accounting of our country's forest-ecosystem service. ...
Measuring the profit contribution of ecological benefits is an important prerequisite for the operation of the value-realization mechanism of ecological products. Based on the theory of ecological benefits and ecosystem services, combined with system dynamics and the project cost-benefit method, a forest-ecosystem-service capitalization of the resources and assets value and the realization of an ecological product-benefit system is constructed. The value-realization project of the national reserve-forest ecological products in Nan-ping City, Fujian Province, the National Ecological Civilization Pilot Zone, was selected to calculate the cost and income during the 30-year operational period of the project, and to calculate the profitability of the forest-ecosystem ecological benefits in the project, using different scenarios. Scenario 1: The project income will only be enough to cover the costs of the project operation, and the cost will be recovered at the end of the project operation. Scenario 2: With policy-based ecological compensation, compared with scenario 1, the total project-input line-of-revenue breakthrough and total project-cost line were advanced by 3 years and 2.5 years, respectively. Scenario 3: With the additive effect of the ecological benefit of the ecosystem, compared with scenario 2, the total project-input line-of-revenue breakthrough and total project-cost line were advanced by 3.5 years and 6 years, respectively. It is suggested that the guiding role should be that of policy-based ecological compensation, expanding the scope of ecological-market access, and attracting social investors to participate in the development of ecological products by means of diversified ecological compensation such as market-oriented tools, so as to fully realize the profit contribution of ecological benefits to the project through the realization of the value of ecological products.
... Xie (Xie et al., 2003) referred to some results of global ecosystem service value evaluation by Constanza et al. and integrated questionnaire surveys to establish a service value table per unit area, which has been widely used. However, considering different research angles, scales, and the complexity of estimation, the value evaluation method has been questioned a lot, and different theoretical frameworks and evaluation methods have been formed (Ouyang et al., 1999;Sukhdev et al., 2010). In terms of material quality evaluation, it is generally assessed by combining observed data and ecological models (Fu and Zhang, 2014), and it also has different evaluation methods on large and small scales (Feng et al., 2010). ...
Evaluating the ecosystem service value is an important step to promote the sustainable development and the construction of ecological civilization of the Yangtze River Economic Belt, the related research is already very rich. However, they neglect the evaluation of coastal areas and lack the deeper thinking of ecological value. To improve these deficiencies, this study takes the coastal area of Jiangyin as the study area, constructs the evaluation method system of ecosystem service value based on the land use data in 2016 and 2020, explores the temporal and spatial variation characteristics of land use and ecosystem service value in the study area, and analyzes reasons for these changes. The results show that: (1) Cultivated land is the main land type in the coastal area, with an area change rate of -15.89%, forest land increases rapidly, with a growth rate of 281.62%, followed by water area with a growth rate of 55.98%, garden land decreases the most, with a decrease rate of 86.36%, followed by construction land of 62.19%. Land use mainly presents the characteristics of changes from construction land to other land, construction land and green space, and cultivated land to cultivated land, water area and forest land. (2) The net increase of ecosystem service value in the coastal area is 483 million, with a growth rate of 137.27%. Among them, the value of forest land accounts for the largest proportion, with a net increase of 264 million yuan and a growth rate of 109.54%. In terms of single function, flood regulation and storage accounts for the main ecosystem service value, reaching more than 65%, with a net increase of 394 million yuan. (3) In terms of spatial distribution, the ecosystem service value of water conservation, flood regulation and storage has a spatial distribution characteristic of being high in the east and low in the west, while the distribution of ecosystem service value of wind prevention and sand fixation is both high and low in the west. In addition, this study further explores the response mechanism of ecological value to the protection measures along the river and the transformation path of ecosystem service value, which provides a new path for the study of government-led evaluation of ecological protection effects in important coastal areas and ecologically sustainable development with regional multi-subject participation.
The northern karst region is an important area for the implementation of China's sustainable development strategy, and at the same time, it is also an area with extremely fragile ecological environment and concentrated distribution of soil erosion, but the research on the mechanisms and paths of realizing the value of ecological products in the northern karst region has been less involved. Taking the Zunhua study area in Hebei and the Wolf Tooth Mountain study area as an example, we constructed an ecological product value accounting index system based on different types of ecosystems and quantitatively analyzed the GEP of the two study areas. The results show that the GEP of Zunhua study area in Hebei Province in 2022 is 76.575 million yuan, of which the value of regulating services is the highest, accounting for 93.89 % of the total value of GEP; the value of cultural services is the lowest, accounting for 0.41 % of the total value of GEP; and the value of material services accounts for 5.70 % of the total value of GEP. In 2022, the GEP of the Langyashan Study Area in Hebei Province was 122,408,000 yuan, with the highest value of regulating services, accounting for 89 % of the total value of the GEP; the lowest value of material goods, accounting for 1 % of the total value of the GEP; and the value of cultural services, which accounted for 10 % of the GEP. suggests that the regulating services provided by ecosystems in the two study areas contribute the most to human well-being and are the most significant components of the GEP. And closely around the karst ecological products value accounting, value realization mechanism and path of basic cutting-edge research for the whole chain design, integrated deployment, module to promote systematic research, for the northern karst ecological restoration areas and ecological protection areas to practice the theory of the “two mountains”, to promote the formation and optimization of the ecological industry, and to promote the revitalization of the countryside to provide scientific references. Scientific reference.
Ecosystem service value (ESV) represents the benefits that people obtain directly or indirectly from ecosystems. Based on the land use/land cover (LULC) data of Qinghai Province in 2000, 2010, and 2018, combined with the equivalent factor method, land use dynamic degree, land use transition matrix, and coefficient of sensitivity (CS), the ESV of Qinghai Province is calculated. This study found that ESV in Qinghai Province exhibited significant variations. It has increased from CNY 750.77 billion to CNY 772.4 billion from 2000 to 2018. The results show that grassland and unused land are the main land use types, with a total coverage of more than 88% in the study area. The land use dynamic degree result demonstrates that the dynamic degree of built-up land is the highest. The CS analysis found that the CSs of the ESV of each land use type in Qinghai Province were less than 1 during 3 periods indicating that the ESV in the area lacks elasticity and the result is reliable. This study can provide scientific support for the sustainable development of ecosystems and land use planning in Qinghai Province under global climate change.
The Rice–Fish Symbiotic System in the Longxian village is the first Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) in Asia. This paper examined the value transformation mechanism of the Longxian Rice–Fish Symbiotic System from the micro perspective of material cycle and energy flow and quantified its economic value using the gross ecosystem product (GEP). Using the InVEST model and ArcGIS tools, the GEP was estimated to be approximately CNY 116.51 million (approx. CNY 252,624 per hectare per year). The ecosystem regulating service value occupied more than 80% of the GEP. Within the regulating ecosystem services, the climate regulation value was the highest (CNY 55.72 million) followed by flood storage value (CNY 32.77 million). These two categories contributed 94.44% of the total value of regulating ecosystem services. The paper recommends employing GEP to evaluate the value of commodities and services provided by an ecosystem. The methodology and approach of the research can serve as an important reference for other GIAHS programs and provides a scientific and rigorous framework for accessing the economic value of agricultural heritage systems.
As the most widely distributed and largest terrestrial ecosystem in the world, grasslands play an important role in supporting global livestock production and maintaining ecosystem services. In light of the accelerated global socio-economic development and sustained population growth, grassland ecosystems are increasingly subjected to anthropogenic disturbances. However, there is a paucity of research examining the impact of such disturbances on plant–soil–microorganism interactions in grassland systems, particularly from the perspectives of grazing and tourism. Accordingly, this study presents a comprehensive analysis of the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance on grassland ecosystems over the past two decades, employing a dual perspective of grazing and tourism and utilizing econometric analysis of the existing literature through software such as CiteSpace. The results of this study demonstrate the following: (1) The current research focus is primarily concentrated in the fields of ecology and environmental sciences, particularly on the topics of plant diversity, abundance, and diversity, as well as the intensity of grazing. These areas may represent key development direction of future research. (2) The impact of anthropogenic disturbances on grassland ecosystems is primarily associated with grazing activities. Moderate grazing disturbances can facilitate the healthy development of grassland ecosystems. However, the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH) may not fully account for the effects of grazing intensity on grassland ecology. At present, there is still a paucity of systematic research to determine the ecological indicators of grassland under a dual-disturbance scenario. It is recommended that future research be carried out to investigate the compound effects of trampling by tourism activities on plant–soil–microorganism interactions in grassland ecosystems. (3) The mutual feedback mechanism may represent a potential mechanism by which anthropogenic disturbances affect the coupled relationship between the plant, soil, and microbial systems in grassland ecosystems. Furthermore, the interaction among these three systems has the potential to exert direct or indirect impacts on the structure and function of grassland ecosystems in the context of disturbances. The present study aims to provide an overview of the structure and function of grassland ecosystems under anthropogenic disturbances. The objective is to identify a balance between the rational use of grassland and ecological protection under anthropogenic disturbance and to provide scientific reference for the sustainable use of grassland worldwide.
Coastal areas are among the most densely populated areas globally and are crucial components of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Investigating the interplay between population distribution and the ecosystem service value (ESV) in coastal regions, along with their spatial and temporal dynamics, is crucial for safeguarding coastal ecological security, fostering regional sustainable development, and facilitating a harmonious coexistence between humans and nature. This study focuses on China’s coastal areas, utilizing land use and population data from 2000 to 2020 at the county-level scale. Several methods, such as geographic concentration, spatial autocorrelation, and the spatial mismatch index, are employed to reveal the relationships and spatial and temporal characteristics between population and the ESV. The main findings are as follows: (1) The population in China’s coastal areas increased from 580.6632 million to 700.7265 million, with a rising population density. The population distribution core is concentrated in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Urban Agglomeration, the Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration, and the Pearl River Delta Urban Agglomeration, with secondary cores forming near provincial capitals. (2) The ecological geographic concentration in China’s coastal areas is lower than that of the population, displaying a distribution pattern of “low–high–low” from north to south. The ESV in these areas has increased by CNY 121.66 billion, with a significant decline in the per capita ESV. Low values of ecological geographic concentrations are concentrated in the northern part of the research area, particularly across the North China Plain. (3) The correlation between the ESV and population in China’s coastal areas is negative, with relatively good overall coordination. Increased human activities and urbanization in the Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta have led to the degradation of ecological functions.
Currently, mining is one of the largest organized human activities that change land use patterns and damage terrestrial ecosystems, resulting in many ecological and environmental problems. To address these issues, it is crucial to restore the original ecological balance of the mining area. This requires us to attach great importance to the improvement of ecosystem service functions while promoting physical restoration in mining areas, that is, to deeply explore and enhance the value of ecological products. Currently, the relevant research is insufficient in quantifying the value of intangible ecological products; moreover, it is lacking in the standardization of evaluation methods and marketization mechanisms. Therefore, this study aims to develop scientific value accounting methods and discuss value realization mechanisms. This study focused on the rehabilitated land in the Pingshuo mining area in Shanxi Province of China, and improves the connotation and concept of ecological products of rehabilitated land in mining areas. In this study, the replacement market method was used to value the various services and products provided by the ecosystem. The value of ecological products in the study area was conducted a spatiotemporal dynamic evaluation using the Mann-Kendall non-parametric test. Moreover, the application of the results of ecological products accounting in the ecological environment construction of mining area was evaluated, and the mechanism for realizing the value of ecological products in mining areas was explored. From 2000 to 2019, the value of ecological products in the Pingshuo mining area rose from ¥351.03 million to ¥508.56 million, exceeding local GDP. Water retention (WR) and climate regulation (CR) ecological products were the most prominent contributors, and the overall value of ecological products in the mining area consistently demonstrated a growth trend. Nevertheless, the values of carbon sequestration (CS), oxygen release (OR), and CR experienced fluctuations in certain years. This study underscores the need to establish a theoretical framework and standardized accounting method for ecological products, and integrate their value into national economic statistics. Additionally, it highlights the importance of creating a new performance evaluation mechanism centered on ecological products and exploring value realization mechanisms. These efforts aim to enhance the ecological health and sustainability of the mining area.
Exploring the relationship between land use cover/change (LUCC) and ecosystem service value (ESV) under different future scenarios can provide guidance for selecting future development patterns and for the scientific utilization of land resources in the region. In this study, LUCC under different scenarios in the North Slope of Tianshan Mountain (NSTM) was simulated using the PLUS model. The ESV coefficients were adjusted for regional differences and social development factors to better reflect the actual situation in the study area. The interactions between LUCC, landscape pattern (LSP), and ESV were systematically analyzed, while at the same time, ESV and the level of economic development were fitted to the Ecological Kuznets Curve, which was then used to determine its trend and inflection point. The following conclusions were drawn: (1) Cropland and unused land are the main types of land use change in the NSTM, both historically and in the future. Cropland shows an increase in the natural development scenario and a decrease in the ecological protection scenario. Unused land shows an increase in the different development scenarios, indicating that unused land has higher development potential in the NSTM. NSTM shows a continuous decrease in ESV in the natural development scenario and a continuous increase in ESV in the ecological protection scenario. (2) LSP in both historical and future NSTM have evolved to show fragmentation, heterogeneity, and complexity in patch forms. However, this trend is slower in the ecological protection scenario than in the natural development scenario. LUCC, LSP, and ESV form an integrated framework of interactions, where LUCC influences ESV through LSP, and changes in ESV feedback to LUCC through LSP, which acts as a bridging mediator. (3) The Ecological Kuznets Curve of NSTM exhibits an N-shape, showing a clear overall rightward trend across different development scenarios at the annual level. At the interannual level, the curves for the natural development scenario are situated in the middle of the declining phase of the N-shape, with no ecological inflection point occurring during the study period. In contrast, the curves for the ecological protection scenario display a declining-ascending trend, with the ecological inflection point occurring when per capita GDP reaches 2.5 × 10^6 CNY.
The Sanmenxia Reservoir wetland (SRW) serves as a critical ecological buffer in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. Ongoing population growth and changes in land use have placed significant pressure on the wetland’s ecosystems. However, existing research has yet to establish a spatiotemporal analysis method to assess the impact of land use change on the ecosystem service value (ESV). This gap hinders the precise regulation and sustainable development of land resources. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the land use dynamics and ecological functions of the SRW, this study introduced a refined ESV evaluation method. This method revised the equivalent factors from spatial, temporal, and hydrological perspectives, with an emphasis on the impact of sediment discharge. Furthermore, the Patch-level Land Use Simulation (PLUS) model was employed to project the land use structure in 2030, and the corresponding ESV was analyzed. The study revealed the following: (1) Cropland constituted the primary land type in the SRW. Over the last two decades, the build-up area exhibited the most significant single land use dynamics, with the transformation of bare land to cropland spanning the widest range and largest area. (2) From 2000 to 2020, the ESV increased by 0.64 billion CNY, with the water body contributing almost all the increase. (3) The projected ESV for 2030 is 2.94 billion CNY, indicating an increase in ecological functions in the near future. Policy makers should recognizethe impact of land use change on ESV and implement measures to rebalance land use structure. While ensuring the preservation of cropland and the protection of lives and property, it is advisable to consider expanding the water body area to facilitate comprehensive sustainable development within SRW.
Exploring the mechanisms and processes of land-use transitions (LUTs) and their impact on ecosystem services can effectively elucidate the intricate interactions between human and natural systems, which is pivotal for advancing the sustainable development of regional economies and enhancing ecological environments. However, the existing literature lacks comprehensive analysis regarding the spatial and temporal evolution of LUTs, with insufficient integration of the “spatial pattern” and “time process”. Moreover, traditional assessments of the ecosystem services value (ESV) often overlook their negative costs. To address these gaps, this study first utilized the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud platform and employed the random forest algorithm to conduct supervised classification on Landsat remote-sensing images from the years 2000, 2010, and 2020 within the research area, thereby obtaining land-use data for three distinct periods. And then, we investigated the geographic features of LUTs and their ecological effects in the Ningde City of China from 2000 to 2020. The geo-informatic Tupu model and a newly revised method of benefit transfer were primarily employed for this purpose. The findings indicate the following: (1) Over the study period, the land-use structure of Ningde City predominantly comprised cultivated land and forest land, with continuous decreases in both types and a concurrent increase in built-up land. (2) Significant disparities exist in the spatial distribution of Tupu units, notably with “forest land → cultivated land” and “cultivated land → built-up land” as crucial units influencing ESV changes. (3) The ESV in Ningde City decreased from CNY 1105.54 × 108 to CNY 1020.47 × 108 over 2000–2020, while the ecosystem dis-services value exhibited an opposing trend, rising from CNY 12.68 × 108 to CNY 20.39 × 108. (4) The net ESV in Ningde City showed a decline over the same period, indicating a certain vulnerability in the city’s ecological system structure. This study aims to enhance our understanding of the influence of land-use patterns on ESV, offering valuable insights for regional ecological–environment management and land-use policy formulation, thereby fostering sustainable development in ecological, environmental, and socio-economic dimensions. Furthermore, the results serve as a reference for evaluating net ecosystem services value in other countries/regions.
Guilin is a typical representative of karst landform in South China. Because of its unique geographical landform and hydrological environment, Lijiang River Basin has received a certain degree of attention in field of ecology and sustainable development. Explore and visualize the hotspots and frontiers of Guilin Lijiang River Basin Ecology and Sustainable Development (GLRBESD) by using bibliometrics, CiteSpace, and VOSviewer. Results showed that number of published papers was in a fluctuating upward trend from 1992 to 2022 and from 2011 to 2022, respectively. Work of scholars in this field has been continuously strengthened and deepened, and overall scientific research results show an increasing trend. Research objects and topics are mainly aimed at the water resources, climate, and environment of GLRB Landscape ecology and SDG index construction. Research of GLRBESD-published documents has the characteristics of multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary integration. High-frequency keywords in research field focus on ecotourism, ecological restoration, and sustainable development, mainly based on the research of ecotourism development. Impact of environmental factor changes and human activities on land use change in different periods is an important research topic. Core research field of GLRBESD on macro-scale can be divided into ESV and function, ecological compensation and ecotourism, ecological environment and ecological restoration, ecological network and ecological risk assessment, and sustainable development. This research provides systematic scientific research basis for enhancing sustainable development ability and ecosystem functions and services of World Natural Heritage Site.
Understanding the dynamics and relationships among ecosystem services value (ESV) and land use change (LUCC) has great importance to achieve sustainable development. In this study, taking Jishishan County as the research area, based on land use and socio-economic data from 2010 to 2020, estimate the ESV and explore the impact of LUCC on the ESV at the grid scale. The results indicate that:(1) From 2010 to 2020, Jishishan County was deeply affected by urbanization, resulting in a continuous decrease in arable land and forest land. (2) The Ecosystem Service Value (ESV) of Jishishan County showed a trend of decreasing firstily and then increasing over the past 10 years; Grassland is the main contributor to ESV.(3) The spatial differentiation of ESV is obvious, showing a pattern of low in the middle and high in the periphery. (4) The growth of ESV during the research period comes from the increase of grassland and water area, and the loss of ESV and the impact of urbanization expansion are related to the reduction of forest area.
Forests are essential for the provision of water, financial resources, food, and carbon, and offer immense ecosystem service values. The accurate, quantitative, and objective evaluation of forest ecosystem service (FES) values can help uncover methods for realizing ecological product value, which in turn supports forest conservation and ecological benefit enhancement. In China, FES valuation methods are diverse and tailored to specific objectives, encompassing matter quantity assessment, value quantity assessment, energy value analysis, and landscape ecological modeling methods. The “Forest Ecosystem Service Function Assessment Specification” guideline plays a crucial role in fostering standardized valuation. Carbon-related ecosystem services have been increasingly studied in China; however, valuation challenges remain, including data accuracy, the double counting of ecosystem services, methodological limitations, and the incomplete assessment of non-use values. Regarding value realization, the development of payment for ecosystem services (PES), ecological product benefit trading (EPBT), ecological premiums, and ecological industries has seen gradual progresses in recent years. However, realization approaches still depend on government support, and the establishment of market-oriented strategies requires further reinforcement. Enhancing FES valuation necessitates the integration of interdisciplinary and multi-method approaches, as well as the creation of an accounting and assessment mechanism. Realization approaches must not only be continuously expanded but also consistently innovated over time. It is essential to consider the impact of market development on FES valuation; establish robust realization approaches; reinforce promotional and guarantee mechanisms; and increase the efficacy of policy management.
Guilin is a typical representative of karst landform in South China. Because of its unique geographical landform and hydrological environment, Lijiang River Basin has received a certain degree of attention in field of ecology and sustainable development. In order to understand the hot spots, research frontiers and literature overview in the research field of Guilin Lijiang River Basin Ecology and Sustainable Development (GLRBESD), and clarify current and future research directions. Results showed that number of published papers was in a fluctuating upward trend from 1992 to 2022 and from 2011 to 2022, respectively. Work of scholars in this field has been continuously strengthened and deepened, and overall scientific research results show an increasing trend. Research objects and topics are mainly aimed at the water resources, climate and environment of GLRB Landscape ecology and SDGs index construction. Research of GLRBESD published documents has the characteristics of multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary integration. High-frequency keywords in research field focus on ecotourism, ecological restoration and sustainable development, mainly based on the research of ecotourism development. Impact of environmental factor changes and human activities on land use change in different periods is an important research topic. Core research fields of GLRBESD on macro-scale can be divided into ESV and function, ecological compensation and ecotourism, ecological environment and ecological restoration, ecological network and ecological risk assessment, sustainable development. This research provides systematic scientific research basis for enhancing sustainable development ability and ecosystem functions and services of World Natural Heritage Site.
With the development of the social economy, human demand for forest ecosystem service functions is increasing, and at the same time, higher requirements are being put forward for forest ecosystems. Therefore, a more comprehensive and scientific evaluation of forest ecosystem service functions is needed. In order to understand the current status and trends of research on forest ecosystem service functions and value assessment, this study used bibliometric methods and CiteSpace visual analysis to organize and summarize the relevant research. The results show that current research focuses on three aspects: the formulation of forest ecosystem service assessment issues, the classification of ecosystem service functions, and ecosystem service assessment methods. The focus of future research on forest ecosystem services can be summarized as follows: refining the indicators and methods for assessment, extending the research area and scope, analyzing the spatial and temporal dynamics, conducting research on mechanisms of forest ecosystem service functions, and transforming the evaluation results. This study provides an initial insight into the study of forest ecosystem services and a reference for future scholarly research.
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