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Effects of environmental pollutants on gut microbiota
Abstract
Environmental pollutants have become an increasingly common health hazard in the last several decades. Recently, a number of studies have demonstrated the profound relationship between gut microbiota and our health. Gut microbiota are very sensitive to drugs, diet, and even environmental pollutants. In this review, we discuss the possible effects of environmental pollutants including antibiotics, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, pesticides, nanomaterials, and food additives on gut microbiota and their subsequent effects on health. We emphasize that gut microbiota are also essential for the toxicity evaluation of environmental pollution. In the future, more studies should focus on the relationship between environmental pollution, gut microbiota, and human health.
... Animal experiments conducted on mice have shown that exposure to As leads to a significant decrease in the abundance of Firmicutes and a significant increase in the abundance of Bacteroidetes. 46 Reports suggest that exposure to As is associated with various diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancers. 46 Cd is used in the production of various products, including batteries, metal plating, pigments, and plastics. ...
... 46 Reports suggest that exposure to As is associated with various diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and cancers. 46 Cd is used in the production of various products, including batteries, metal plating, pigments, and plastics. High concentrations of Cd have been observed in water systems and soil in developing countries. ...
... Studies have shown that lead exposure can cause a decrease in the ratio of Bacteroidetes to Firmicutes in the intestines, while Desulfovibrionaceae, Barnesiella, and Clostridium XIVb increased. 46 In mice, lead poisoning has been found to disrupt energy production and other metabolic processes, potentially contributing to the development of obesity. 49 ...
... Previous studies proposed the strong association between environmentally induced perturbation and human disease risk, that the structure and function of gut microbiota could affected by environmental exposure and results in a series of adverse health outcomes (Tu et al. 2020). Gut microbiota are considered essential for the toxicity evaluation of environmental pollution (Jin et al. 2017). Given the gut microbiota's role in processing environmental pollutants and the regulatory effect of berries on microbiota, berries could offer protective benefits against environmentally related diseases, as summarized in Table 5. ...
... Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, arsenic (Ar), mercury, and so on, are a common type of environmental exposure. They are proved to have adverse effects on human health, including immune system disorders, oxidative stress, DNA damage, CVD, organ dysfunction, and carcinogenesis (Jin et al. 2017). Berry polyphenols are widely recognized to have biological antioxidation effects, including natural antioxidant and metal chelating, are capable of reducing the risk of diseases related to environmental exposure to genotoxic xenobiotics (Ouahhoud et al. 2022). ...
Berries are widely regarded as beneficial foods, rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, and other bioactive compounds that could positively influence human health. Although the gut microbiota plays a crucial role in metabolism and physiology of humans, the interaction between berries and human gut microbiota activity remains unclear. This review systematically summarizes the antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, and gut microbiota‐regulating effects of various berries. It focuses on the impact of berries on several related metabolic diseases in addition to adverse outcomes associated with environmental exposures from the perspective of modulation of the gut microbiota. Overall, berries may actively modulate the gut microbiota, influencing the composition of the microbiota especially production of bioactive metabolites, thereby conferring health effects. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of health impact of berries via interactions with the gut microbiota, offering insights into the potential application of berries in maintaining human health.
... The gut microbiota, a vital component of fish gut health, has garnered attention in recent research focusing on its relationship with heavy metals such as Cd [95]. This study revealed the toxicity of Cd on the structure and functions of the intestinal bacterial community of L. rohita. ...
... Our study results further emphasized a decline in dominant phyla such as Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Actinobacteriota, and specific genera like ZOR0006, Pseudomonas, and Tetragenococcus in the fish gut following Cd exposure. These declines resulted in disruptions to energy metabolism, nutrient absorption, and immune function, consistent with previous studies [95]. Cadmium toxicity further decreased Bacteroidetes abundance, affecting fermentative metabolism Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
The detrimental effects of cadmium (Cd), a hazardous heavy metal, on fish have triggered global concerns. While the ecotoxicity of Cd on fish has been investigated, the impact of Cd on muscle quality and its correlation with the gut microbiota in fish remains scarce. To comprehensively uncover Cd effects based on preliminary muscle Cd deposition, relevant studies, and ecological Cd pollution data, we exposed Labeo rohita to Cd under concentrations of 0.00 (control), 0.05, and 0.40 mg/L for 30 days and assessed fish health, muscle quality, and intestinal bacterial diversity. We observed significant Cd bioaccumulation in the fish muscle and intestine at 0.40 mg/L treatment, adversely impacting fish health with lower growth indices, higher mortality, behavioral aberrations, and clinical anomalies. More interestingly, Cd exposure decreased muscle quality by reducing nutrient levels, including fat, protein, iron, zinc, mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and increasing free amino acids and saturated fatty acids. Elevated oxidative stress markers, including total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), catalase (CAT), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), were detected in the muscles, indicating degraded quality as a result of damage to cellular structures including proteins, lipids, and DNA. Simultaneously, we found Cd exposure altered fish intestinal microbial diversity, impairing muscle nutrient assimilation, thereby influencing muscle quality. Functional predictions suggested a decrease in pathways related to fermentation and chemoheterotrophy in the exposed groups. Overall, this study highlights how Cd toxicity jeopardizes fish health and deteriorates muscle quality which needs to be addressed for human benefit.
Graphical Abstract
... The balance of these metabolites is crucial for preventing inflammation, metabolic disorders, and other chronic diseases [44]. Environmental pollutants, such as heavy metals, airborne particulate matter, pesticides, and plastic particles, can significantly impact the composition of the gut microbiota [45]. These pollutants enter the body through various routes, disrupting the normal microbial balance. ...
Background
Micro-/nanoplastics (MNPLs) are widely found in the environment and have toxic effects on various organs and systems. However, the role of the gut-cardiac axis in cardiotoxicity induced by MNPLs has not yet been elucidated through research.
Results
In this study, we examined the effects of 80 nm polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) on the heart and human cardiomyocytes (AC16) cells. Histopathological examination showed that NPs caused impaired cardiac function and increased myocardial collagen deposition. In view of the potential influence of gut microbiota and its metabolites on cardiac function, we conduct this study to investigate the specific effects they have on cardiac function. Analysis of cecal contents by 16 s ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) revealed that colonic tissue damage, intestinal flora disorder, and reduction of propionic acid induced by PS-MPs were closely related to cardiac function. Further transcriptomic analysis of heart and colon tissues indicated that propionic acid may reduce cardiac function by reducing the expression of fructose-1, 6-biphosphatase 1 (FBP1). The hypothesis was further verified by in vitro intervention experiments with sodium propionate and FBP1 activator (BML-275).
Conclusions
In summary, our study systematically demonstrated the role of gut-heart axis in NPs-induced cardiac injury, and the specific process was that NPs exposure reduced propionate level, which in turn inhibited FBP1 expression to impair cardiac function. These findings provide new insights into NPs-induced cardiotoxicity and identifie potential therapeutic targets, providing clues for the prevention and treatment of NPs-induced cardiac injury in the future.
Graphical Abstract
... The intestinal microbiota is recognized as a vast and intricate ecosystem within the body, constituting a "superorganism" (Amenyogbe et al., 2021). As indicated by existing literature, environmental factors, physiological state, and genetic factors can induce changes in the intestinal microbiota of fishes (Yang et al., 2021;Jin et al., 2017). Variations in the feeding habits of aquatic animals contribute to differences in fish intestinal microbiota (Ma et al., 2019a). ...
Fish farming plays a crucial role in aquaculture, providing protein and livelihoods to millions worldwide. Research on fish intestinal microbiota has gained increasing importance in recent years due to its critical roles in fish health, growth, disease resistance, and production. However, advanced aquaculture research, such as studying fish intestinal microbiota, faces significant challenges in Africa due to inadequate technologies, complexity, and high costs. As a result, researchers are unable to fully explore the intricate interactions between fish gut microbiota and their hosts. The absence of advanced technologies in Africa has impeded research in crucial aquaculture areas like probiotics, prebiotics, and metagenomics. Although these beneficial microorganisms can enhance fish growth, health, and disease resistance, their application necessitates advanced technologies for characterization and formulation. Consequently, Africa's dearth of advanced technologies stands as a significant obstacle to progressing advanced aquaculture research, including the study of fish intestinal microbiota. This limitation curtails the potential of African aquaculture to contribute to global food security and obstructs the development of sustainable aquaculture practices. To tackle this challenge, both African and international research institutions must invest in infrastructure, capacity building, and collaborative partnerships.
Keywords: Technologies, fish intestinal microbiota, advance aquaculture research, Africa
... Studies have reported the impact of different dietary patterns on the gut microbiome, and dietary interventions have been explored as a strategy to modulate microbial communities (Sonia and María Ángeles 2021;Solch et al. 2022). Additionally, environmental factors, including pollution, occupational environment, and residential location, can also influence individual health and microbial composition (Yuanxiang et al. 2017). These factors represent potential confounders in our analysis. ...
The influence of gut microbes on aging has been reported in several studies, but the mediating pathways of gut microbiota, whether there is a causal relationship between the two, and biomarker screening and validation have not been fully discussed. In this study, Mendelian Randomization (MR) and Linkage Disequilibrium Score Regression (LDSC) are used to systematically investigate the associations between gut microbiota, three aging indicators, and 14 age‐related diseases. Additionally, this study integrates machine learning algorithms to explore the potential of MR and LDSC methods for biomarker screening. Gut microbiota is found to be a potential risk factor for 14 age‐related diseases. The causal effects of gut microbiota on chronic kidney disease, cirrhosis, and heart failure are partially mediated by aging indicators. Additionally, gut microbiota identified through MR and LDSC methods exhibit biomarker properties for disease prediction (average AUC = 0.731). These methods can serve as auxiliary tools for conventional biomarker screening, effectively enhancing the performance of disease models (average AUC increased from 0.808 to 0.832). This study provides evidence that supports the association between the gut microbiota and aging and highlights the potential of genetic correlation and causal relationship analysis in biomarker discovery. These findings may help to develop new approaches for healthy aging detection and intervention.
... The gut microbiota are highly responsive to external influences, including drugs, diet, and environmental pollutants. Factors such as antibiotics, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, pesticides, nanomaterials, and food additives can significantly alter the composition and functionality of the gut microbial community, potentially disrupting its balance and contributing to health disorders [42]. ...
Inflammaging, characterized by chronic, low-grade inflammation associated with aging, is a key contributor to age-related diseases, including cardiovascular disorders, neurodegenerative conditions, and metabolic syndromes. The intricate interplay between inflammaging and the human microbiota-a diverse ecosystem of microorganisms regulating immune, metabolic, and neurological functions-is crucial in understanding these processes. Aging leads to significant shifts in microbiota composition, resulting in dysbiosis, which fosters pro-inflammatory states and systemic inflammation. Age-related changes in the gut microbiota and microbial me-tabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids and secondary bile acids, influence inflammation through pathways like Toll-like receptor signaling and cytokine production. Microbial dysbiosis impacts immune responses and gut barrier integrity, contributing to inflammaging and its associated pathologies. Interventions targeting gut health, including dietary modifications, probiotics, prebiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation, offer potential strategies to mitigate these effects. Advances in bioinformatics and microbiota research enable the development of targeted treatments aimed at improving longevity and reducing chronic inflammation. Intestinal epithelial cells play a central role as physical and antimicrobial barriers, while also mediating microbiota-host immune signaling. Aging-related changes to intestinal epithelial cells, microbiota composition, and immune function disrupt immune homeostasis and exacerbate inflammaging. Environmental factors, including diet and medications, further influence gut microbiota and immune function, either preventing or promoting inflam-maging. Lifestyle and pharmacological interventions are suggested to promote healthy aging and reduce the adverse effects of chronic inflammation.
... These concentrations fall within the subinhibitory range, which is significantly lower than the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). However, numerous studies indicate that even exposure to such low concentrations promotes the selection of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains [75][76][77]. This means that in the presence of antibiotics, only mutated bacterial cells that have acquired resistance survive, while susceptible bacteria perish. ...
The impact of tetracycline on the soil and rhizosphere microbiome of lettuce was analyzed. Soil was collected from an agricultural field regularly fertilized with manure, and tetracycline was added at two concentrations (5 mg/kg and 25 mg/kg). In untreated soil, dominant bacteria included Proteobacteria (43.17%), Bacteroidota (17.91%), and Firmicutes (3.06%). Tetracycline addition caused significant shifts in the microbiome composition, notably increasing Actinobacteriota (22%) and favoring Mycobacterium tuberculosis (low concentration) and Mycobacterium holsaticum (high concentration). Proteobacteria decreased by 21%, possibly indicating antibiotic resistance development. An increase in Firmicutes, particularly Bacillales, suggested a selection for resistant strains. In the lettuce rhizosphere, tetracycline-induced changes were less pronounced than in soil. Proteobacteria remained dominant, but taxa like Burkholderiales and Chitinophagales increased in response to tetracycline. The rise in chitin-degrading bacteria might result from fungal overgrowth linked to the bacteriostatic effects of tetracycline. Pathogens such as M. tuberculosis, observed in the soil, were not detected in the lettuce rhizosphere.
... Eventually, two lipid radicals react with lipid peroxyl radicals to form a stable lipid [4]. The intestinal microflora is the primary target of heavy metals, which disturb the composition and synthesis of metabolites [70]. Heavy metals can lead to neurotoxicity by reducing neurotransmitters or accumulating in the mitochondria of neurons, disrupting DNA synthesis [4]. ...
Background and Aims
Probiotics usually have beneficial effects on the absorption of trace elements and detoxification of toxic metals in human. Hence, the aim of the systematic review was to evaluate various aspects of the effect of the combination of probiotics and heavy metals in human clinical trial studies.
Methods
Nine databases were searched for clinical trials up to June 2024 investigating probiotics for heavy metal exposure in humans. Two reviewers independently screened records and extracted data on study characteristics, interventions, outcomes, and results. Risk of bias was assessed.
Results
The analysis included 31 clinical trials with a total of 4,611 participants, focusing on the effects of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics. Among the trials, 23 investigated probiotics, five looked at prebiotics, and three explored synbiotics, with probiotic doses ranging from 10⁷ to 2.5 × 10¹⁰ CFU/day. Results indicated that probiotics combined with zinc significantly reduced the time to resolution of vomiting and diarrhea compared to zinc alone, improved the treatment efficacy of antibiotic‐associated diarrhea linked to pneumonia, and shortened hospital stays relative to probiotics alone. Probiotics did not show significant effects on blood parameters compared to placebo; however, prebiotic galactooligosaccharides enhanced iron absorption in women and children. The addition of probiotics to bismuth quadruple therapy did not improve Helicobacter pylori eradication rates but reduced side effects like diarrhea and vomiting. One trial reported a decrease in toxic metal levels in pregnant women due to probiotics, but no similar effects were observed in children.
Conclusions
Probiotics are one of the new methods employed to improve or eliminate the adverse effects of heavy metals in the body. Although many studies have investigated the effects of probiotics on heavy metals, there is still a need for more in‐depth and extensive studies.
... Studies have shown the effect of IMI on its toxic accumulation in P. clarkii, revealing that among the examined tissues-muscle, intestine, gill, hemolymph, and hepatopancreas-the intestine exhibited the highest IMI concentration, with the exception of muscle tissue [11]. Numerous studies have shown that since the gut is the main area of absorption of environmental pollutants (including pesticides, fungicides, heavy metals, etc.), the toxicity of environmental pollutants is commonly evaluated through the assessment of gut health [12][13][14]. IMI was found to cause pathological features such as swelling, necrosis, and degeneration of the digestive gland cells of Asian Freshwater Clams (Corbicula fluminea) and significantly up-regulated the expression levels of hsp90, gsts1, and gstm1 genes related to digestive antioxidant stress, thus disrupting the digestive antioxidant system and causing oxidative stress effects [15]. Similarly, IMI could reduce the intestinal villus height, the expression levels of tight link protein genes Ocln-, Caln-, Muc2.1-, and Muc2.2-related genes of intestinal mucus secretion in zebrafish (Danio rerio) and cause intestinal oxidative stress. ...
Imidacloprid (IMI), a widely used neonicotinoid insecticide, has raised environmental concerns due to its potential impact on non-target aquatic organisms. This study investigates the effects of IMI exposure on the intestinal immune function of red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii, P. clarkii), focusing on oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and autophagy. The P. clarkii was exposed to different doses of IMI (0, 10.93, 21.86, 43.73, 87.45 μg/L) for 96 h. Our findings reveal that IMI exposure leads to a survival rate of less than 70% when the concentration was 87.45 μg/L at 96 h. Hemolymph LZM and AKP contents were significantly decreased at the medium and high concentrations, and the expressions of hsp70 and nf-κb genes were significantly up-regulated. The expression of the lysozyme gene was significantly down-regulated. Additionally, the activities of SOD, CAT, and GPX were significantly decreased, the contents of MDA were significantly increased, and the gene expressions of CuZnsod, mMnsod, cat, and gpx in the gut were significantly down-regulated after exposure to medium-high IMI. The expression of autophagy-related genes showed that the expressions of beclin1, atg5, atg13, and lc3c genes in the medium- and high-concentration groups were significantly up-regulated. In summary, this study elucidates that medium-high levels of IMI exposure impair intestinal immune function in P. clarkii through mechanisms involving oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and autophagy.
... Gut microbiota plays a vital role in regulating host energy metabolism, secretion, and immune responses, while also contributing to the pathogenesis of multiple diseases [29,59]. Environmental pollutants can disrupt the composition of gut microbiota, leading to intestinal epithelium dysfunction and serious consequences [33]. Liu et al. (2020Liu et al. ( , 2022 suggested that OA can disrupt the intestinal epithelial microenvironment, lead to the imbalance of gut microbiota, and it can directly affect the abundance of some bacterial genera [9,10]. ...
As emerging contaminants, microplastics (MPs) may pose a threat to human health. Their co-exposure with the widespread phycotoxin okadaic acid (OA), a marine toxin known to cause gastrointestinal toxicity, may exacerbate health risk and raise public safety concern. In this study, the toxicity mechanisms of MPs and OA on intestinal microenvironment was explored using human Caco-2 cells as the model, which was combined with an in vitro fecal fermentation experiment. Our results showed that co-exposure to MPs (80 μg/mL) and OA (20 ng/mL) significantly decreased cell viability, increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, elevated lactate dehydrogenase release, impaired ABC transporter activity, promoted OA accumulation, and triggered inflammatory response compared to the control, MPs, and OA groups, indicating that co-exposure directly compromises intestinal epithelial integrity. In vitro fermentation experiments revealed that co-exposure disrupted gut microbial composition, decreasing the relative abundance of some bacteria, such as Parasutterella and Adlercreutzia, while increasing opportunistic pathogens, such as Escherichia-Shigella, increased. These findings provide new insights into the impact and underlying mechanisms of MPs and OA co-exposure on intestinal homeostasis, highlighting the potential health risks associated with MPs.
... One instance of OPs affecting GM composition involves the prevalent herbicide glyphosate (GLP), frequently detected in agricultural products. Studies have demonstrated that GLP decreases GM diversity in both animal models and human populations [57,58]. According to research conducted by , exposure to GLP led to a reduction in beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, and an increase in potentially harmful bacteria such as Clostridia. ...
Studying the relationship between organic pollutants (OPs) and the gut microbiome (GM) reveals an intricate connection with important consequences for human health and environmental sustainability. OPs are widely present in the environment because of various human activities and they have been found to disrupt the balance and operations of the GM. Research has shown that being exposed to OPs like pesticides, heavy metals, etc. can change the makeup and variety of the GM. These pollutants can enhance the growth of specific bacteria while suppressing others, which can result in dysbiosis and disturbance of microbial balance. Moreover, OPs may affect the gut barrier's integrity, resulting in higher permeability and the movement of harmful substances into the bloodstream. Research has linked this disturbance in gut barrier function to a range of health issues, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, metabolic disorders, and systemic inflammation. Aside from impacting gut barrier function, OPs have the potential to trigger inflammatory reactions in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Research has indicated that exposure to pollutants may induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, resulting in tissue damage and inflammation. Long-term inflammation in the gut is associated with the onset of GI disorders, autoimmune conditions, and specific forms of cancer. Delving into the mechanisms that drive OPs-GM interactions is crucial for devising ways to reduce the negative impacts of pollutants on gut health and overall well-being. Research suggests that interventions like probiotics, prebiotics, and dietary changes could help rebalance the GM and reduce toxicity caused by OPs.
... In contrast, external toxicants had a strong effect on the microbial community composition of planarians. Both the heavy metal cadmium and the carcinogenic alkylating agent MMS lowered the abundance of Firmicutes and Gammaproteobacteria with a concomitant increase in Bacteroidetes (Fig. 3F), which was consistent with reports in rodents 51 . While the specific links between the changing microbiome and physiological responses remain to be elucidated, detailed descriptions of the induced physiological responses are already available for most of the tested compounds. ...
To fully comprehend host-microorganism interactions, it is crucial to understand the composition and diversity of the microbiome, as well as the factors that shape these characteristics. We investigated microbiome variation using the freshwater planarian Schmidtea mediterranea, an invertebrate model in regeneration biology and (eco-)toxicology, by exposing the organisms to various controlled conditions. The microbiome composition exhibited high variability, with most of the bacteria belonging to the Betaproteobacteria. Among the diverse microbial communities, a few genera, such as Curvibacter, were consistently present, but exhibited significant alterations in response to changing conditions. The relative abundance of Curvibacter fluctuated during the regeneration process, initially increasing before returning to a composition similar to the beginning situation. After applying external stress, the relative abundance of Curvibacter and other genera decreased. Variation over time, between different origin laboratories and between individuals, showed that additional, yet to-be-identified, factors of variation are present. Taking all results together, our study provides a solid basis for future research focusing on bacterial functionality in planarians and other invertebrates.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-86920-0.
... 6 The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in the healthy development of fish by regulating gastrointestinal development, supporting nutrient metabolism, and enhancing immune response. [7][8][9] Feed is the main factor affecting the composition of fish gut microbiota. The active ingredients in the feed can regulate the intestinal flora and improve the balance of gut microecology. ...
In this study, the effect of the diet with lutein and ferrous fumarate on Yellow River carp ( Cyprinus carpio ) was studied, aiming to evaluate skin pigmentation, intestinal digestive enzymes, intestinal microbial diversity, and growth performance. Three experimental diets, including a control group, a lutein group (150mg/kg lutein), and a lutein and ferrous fumarate mixture group (150mg/kg lutein and 100mg/kg ferrous fumarate), were designed. The carp (N=135; 25.0±2.0g) were fed with experimental diets for 42 days. The results showed that the intestosomatic index (ISI) and viscerosomatic index (VSI) of the carp fed with lutein and ferrous fumarate were increased, accompanied by significant changes in body color, with the higher value of blue (b ), color difference (ΔE) and chroma (Ch ) compared with control group (P <0.05). Meanwhile, the higher activity of amylase, lipase, and trypsin were observed in the mixture group (P<0.05). High-throughput sequencing and Venn diagrams revealed that lutein or ferrous fumarate has obvious effects on the intestinal microbiota community of carp. The abundance of Actinobacteria and Flavobacterium was significantly increased in the carp fed with the mixture group compared with the control group. In conclusion, the addition of lutein and ferrous fumarate to the feed can change the skin pigmentation and intestinal microbial composition of Yellow River carp, thereby enhancing the coloring effect and digestive function of the fish. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing feed formulation and aquaculture management, which can contribute to the improvement of the quality and farming efficiency of Yellow River carp.
... However, this symbiotic relationship can be disrupted by external stressors, including environmental contaminants and pharmaceuticals (e.g., Bernardini et al., 2023;Bernardini et al., 2022;Li et al., 2021;Kong et al., 2023;Claus et al., 2016;Evariste et al., 2019;Peruzza et al., 2023;Liu et al., 2023;William et al., 2023;Milan et al. 2018;Iori et al. 2020), leading to alterations in microbial composition that may have lasting impacts on the host's fitness (Evariste et al., 2019). Other studies have demonstrated that impaired host health status following chemical exposure reduces the animal's ability to regulate its microbiota, ultimately leading to imbalances in microbial communities (Gaulke et al., 2016;Jin et al., 2017;Bernardini et al., 2023;Milan et al., 2018). Accordingly, understanding how pharmaceutical exposure influences host-microbiota dynamics is essential for gaining a broader and more detailed understanding of the potential effects of PPCPs. ...
... There is a growing interest in combining different omics to study the underlying mechanisms of obesity development [15] . Relevant studies have suggested that intestinal flora unintentionally becomes a recipient for pesticides-induced toxicity, causing a disorder in the host's intestinal flora as well as metabolic disorders [16][17][18] . ...
... Exposure to environmental pollutants is a significant factor that can negatively impact gut health (58). Various chemical pollutants, such as pesticides, heavy metals, and endocrinedisrupting chemicals (EDCs), are prevalent in the environment. ...
... Numerous harmful pollutants, including heavy metal ions, anions, organic compounds, dyes, drugs, pesticides, bacteria, viruses, gases, and others, have an impact on the water, air, and earth environments due to the rapid advancements in industry and agriculture, as well as the high consumption of synthetic drugs in human lifestyles [100,101]. Even irreparable harm to humans and ecological hazards can result from minute levels of toxicity [102,103]. Thus, it is important to determine harmful contaminants in natural habitats in a timely, sensitive, and selected manner. ...
Color is a captivating aspect of our perception, profoundly influencing how we interact with and interpret the world. As a fundamental element of visual experience, it shapes emotions, preferences, and even physiological responses. Beyond its esthetic and emotional impact, color serves practical purposes across various fields, including medicine for diagnostics and therapeutic applications and in industrial sectors for quality control and product identification. Colorimetric sensors that are user-friendly, portable, instrument-free, and low cost, yet provide sensitive and selective detection for various analytes, are essential for point-of-need and point-of-care applications. This book chapter will discuss smart materials and approaches used in colorimetric measurement-based biosensor methods for biomedical, diagnostic, food safety, and environmental pollution applications.
... The largest source of MPs (84%) in the atmosphere comes from the road (Brahney et al., 2021). It is reported that the median concentration of MP fibers is 5.4 fibers/m 3 in the outdoor air and 0.9 fibers/m 3 in the indoor air in Paris (Jin et al., 2017). The average concentration of MPs is 1.42 particles/m 3 in the outdoor air in Shanghai, and the size range is 23-5000 mm . ...
Microplastics (MPs), defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, are increasingly recognized as environmental contaminants with potential health risks. These emerge as breakdown products of larger plastics and are omnipresent in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems. They are primarily composed of polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and additives that enhance their performance. MPs also adsorb harmful environmental chemicals like persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals, posing risks to human and environmental health. Human exposure to MPs occurs mainly through ingestion and inhalation, with MPs detected in food products, water, and even the air. MPs have been shown to accumulate in the gastrointestinal tract, disrupting the gut microbiome, and causing dysbiosis-a harmful imbalance between beneficial and harmful bacteria. This disruption has been linked to various health issues, including gastrointestinal disorders, systemic inflammation, and chronic diseases. Furthermore, the gut-brain axis may be affected, with potential neuroinflammatory consequences. As research continues to unravel the health impacts of MP exposure, understanding the mechanisms of accumulation and the broader implications on human health is crucial. This review highlights the effects of MPs on human health, emphasizing their impact on the gut microbiome. We discuss the potential connections between MP exposure and cardiometabolic and inflammatory diseases, and disorders related to the Gut-Brain Axis. By synthesizing the latest research, this work sheds light on the silent yet pervasive threat posed by MPs and underscores the importance of further studies to understand their health impacts fully.
... 16 As new materials for preventing and controlling environmental a Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, pollution, the future development of COFs and their derivatives has important strategic significance for addressing global environmental pollution and environmental change [17][18][19][20] and protecting human health. [21][22][23][24] Normally, the pollutants in the environment can be divided into the atmospheric, 25 water system, 26 and soil or earth system pollutants. 27 Fig. 1 compares the performance of COFs and existing materials in environmental pollution control from four dimensions: sustainability of raw materials, environmental impact of the synthesis processes, recyclability of materials, and biodegradability. ...
Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have gained considerable attention due to their design possibilities as the molecular organic building blocks that can stack in an atomically precise spatial arrangement. Since the inception of COFs in 2005, there has been a continuous expansion in the product range of COFs and their derivatives. This expansion has led to the evolution of three-dimensional structures and various synthetic routes, propelling the field towards large-scale preparation of COFs and their derivatives. This review will offer a holistic analysis and comparison of the spatial structure and synthesis techniques of COFs and their derivatives. The conventional methods of COF synthesis (i.e., ultrasonic chemical, microwave, and solvothermal) are discussed alongside the synthesis strategies of new COFs and their derivatives. Furthermore, the applications of COFs and their derived materials are demonstrated in air, water, and soil pollution management such as gas capture, catalytic conversion, adsorption, and pollutant removal. Finally, this review highlights the current challenges and prospects for large-scale preparation and application of new COFs and the derived materials. In line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the needs of digital-enabled technologies (AI and machine learning), this review will encompass the future technical trends for COFs in environmental pollution control. Key learning points (1) This review summarizes the research status of COFs and their derived materials in the field of environmental pollution control, which has never been summarized in detail. The application of COFs and derived materials in environmental pollution control was elaborated from three aspects of pollution. (2) It emphasizes the significance of AI and machine learning for COF research in the context of the rapid development of digitalization and IT. (3) Not only does it emphasize the strong research potential of COFs in the field of sustainable environment, but it also points out the future development direction of COFs, combining the UN SDG strategy and global policy development.
... Due to the toxicity of dyes and their difficulty in being completely degraded, dye wastewater poses a serious threat to the environment and human health. [1][2][3] At present, dye-containing wastewater is mainly treated through conventional methods to remove or degrade dyes in it, which include coagulation, pyrocatalysis, microbial degradation, adsorption and membrane filtration. It has to be pointed out that these methods all have some shortcomings and fail to effectively solve the problem of water pollution. ...
As a newly emerging catalysis, tribocatalysis is receiving more and more attention with regard to the criteria to fabricate or choose materials as catalysts for it. In this study, two different commercial silicon (Si) powders, Si30 and Si300, were adopted as catalysts in tribocatalytic degradation of organic dyes. Only round nanoparticles from 30 to 100nm were observed in Si30, while some highly large and irregular particles, as large as 1000nm × 500nm and with a roughly flat major surface, could be observed in Si300. Stimulated through magnetic stirring using Teflon magnetic rotary disks, as much as 95% of 20 mg/L rhodamine B (RhB) solution and 97% of 20 mg/L methyl orange (MO) solution were degraded by Si300 after 3h and 50min, respectively; while only 73% of RhB and 83% of MO were degraded by Si30 after 5h and 4h, respectively. EPR spectra showed that more superoxide and hydroxyl radicals were generated by Si300 under magnetic stirring. It is proposed that in those large particles in Si300, their large flat major surfaces dramatically enhance their absorption of mechanical energy through friction and there are much less lattice defects to hinder electrons and holes from diffusing to the surface, which both results in the contrasting tribocatalytic degradations of organic dyes between Si300 and Si30. These findings reveal a huge difference in tribocatalytic performance among different materials of the same composition.
... Comparando la afinidad de la enzima entre los sustratos (Km), se obtuvo que la CPO requiere menos peróxido para alcanzar la velocidad máxima con la cloroquina (0.03778 μM), seguida por la hidroxicloroquina (0.0789 μM) y por último el albendazol (1.14984 μM). Debido a la afinidad de la CPO por los grupos aromáticos, se han realizado diversos ensayos enfocados en la catálisis de colorantes en agua, destacando el uso de inmovilizadores para incrementar el rango de actividad, estabilidad y almacenamiento(Jin et al., 2017).La eficiencia catalítica de la enzima (kcat/Km) mostró una tendencia similar a la descrita en el parámetro Km, siendo la cloroquina el fármaco que encabezó la eficiencia catalítica, teniendo la mayor constante de especificidad (259x10 3 μM -1 min -1 ), seguido por el albendazol (21x10 3 μM -1 min -1 ) y por último la hidroxicloroquina (2x10 3 μM -1 min -1 ). Este parámetro es importante porque es un indicador de afinidad y velocidad máxima que permite analizar el funcionamiento de la enzima en condiciones donde la concentración del sustrato sea baja, ejemplo de la importancia de la eficiencia catalítica es en el desarrollo de catalizadores que asemejen su afinidad y especificidad como las enzimas naturales(Korendovych & DeGrado, 2014).En la búsqueda bibliográfica no se encontraron reportes de catálisis de los antiparasitarios ensayados en la presente con el uso de peroxidasas, sin embargo, sí existen reportes con el uso de otros procesos biológicos y químicos. ...
The surge in the global population has tripled since 1950, owing to various scientific and technological advancements, particularly those focused on enhancing public health. Nevertheless, concurrent with the population growth, environmental issues have arisen, with one of them being the contamination of environmental compartments with chemical compounds utilized in human health prevention. These compounds in the environment are categorized as emerging contaminants (CE), which are not yet considered in legal matters, leading to their exclusion from the removal processes in the majority of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). This situation poses an environmental health problem, necessitating the implementation of technologies aimed at eliminating these CE in WWTPs.
Numerous technologies are available for eliminating contaminants in water, with enzymatic catalysis being one of the biological alternatives that offers the advantage of operating at low concentrations of the contaminant, degrading various substrates, and reducing energy costs compared to other environmental technologies. The present work proposes the enzymatic degradation of antiparasitic agents for human and veterinary use using the chloroperoxidase enzyme isolated from the marine fungus Leptoxyphium fumago. The compounds examined in this study include albendazole (ABZ), chloroquine (CQ), and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ).
The degradation of the mentioned antiparasitics was conducted in an aqueous matrix at pH 3 with 1 mM hydrogen peroxide. The degradation of each compound was individually monitored using fluorescence spectroscopy for ABZ and high-performance liquid chromatography for CQ and HCQ. The results obtained under these conditions revealed that, after 10 minutes of reaction, albendazole exhibited the highest degradation rate (100%), followed by chloroquine (36.44%), and finally, hydroxychloroquine (34.45%).
Schizophrenia is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by cognitive, emotional, and behavioral impairments. The microbiota-gut-brain axis is crucial in its pathophysiology, mediating communication between the gut and brain through neural, immune, endocrine, and metabolic pathways. Dysbiosis, or an imbalance in gut microbiota, is linked to neuroinflammation, systemic inflammation, and neurotransmitter disruptions, all of which contribute to the symptoms of schizophrenia. Gut microbiota-derived metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids, influence brain function, including immune responses and neurotransmitter synthesis. These findings suggest that microbial imbalances exacerbate schizophrenia, providing a novel perspective on the disorder’s underlying mechanisms. Emerging microbiota-targeted therapies—such as probiotics, prebiotics, dietary interventions, and fecal microbiota transplantation—show promise as adjunctive treatments, aiming to restore microbial balance and improve clinical outcomes. While further research is needed, targeting the microbiota-gut-brain axis offers an innovative approach to schizophrenia management, with the potential to enhance patient outcomes and quality of life.
Background: Despite its omnipresence, paediatric pain remains poorly understood and documented, especially in low-income countries. Such pain can be a symptom of long-term subclinical conditions such as systemic chronic inflammation (SCI). The latter can be related to malnutrition. Aim: To explore a potential association between paediatric pain and malnutrition in low-income countries. Methods: Narrative review, including a literature search in the PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science and Scopus databases (update 24 March 2025). The search query comprised controlled terminology and free text words relating to ‘Malnutrition’, ‘Pain’, ‘SCI’ and ‘Paediatric’. Results: To comprehend the complex relation between malnutrition and paediatric pain, associations between (1a) malnutrition, and nociceptive brain development, (1b) malnutrition, the gut microbiome and SCI, and (2) SCI and pain were explored. (1a) Early noxious exposure (e.g. malnutrition-related SCI) can cause long-term alterations in pain perception, brain function and structures. The consequences of malnutrition on the nociceptive brain depend on the life-cycle. (1b) Moderate acute malnutrition causes chronic inflammation and exaggerated inflammatory responses. Such responses could indicate hyper-inflammatory phenotypes. (2) Systemic-induced inflammation causes a widespread increase in musculoskeletal pain sensitivity. Conclusion: Malnutrition could contribute to the development of a nociceptive brain and SCI. Malnutrition-related SCI could induce changes in pain perception/thresholds, and predispose to developing chronic pain. If a relation between malnutrition and SCI predisposes children to develop pain, the prevailing biophysical approach needs revision. A multidimensional interdisciplinary approach seems more relevant. Such approach includes social, cognitive, socioeconomic, lifestyle, nutritional (e.g. integrating nutritional and microbiome-targeted interventions) and environmental dimensions.
The Chinese seabass (Lateolabrax maculatus) is one of the most popular and valuable aquaculture species in China. Recently, the disease caused by Vibrio anguillarum has brought huge economic losses in the L. maculatus industry. However, the immune response of L. maculatus after V. anguillarum infection remains unknown. In this study, the blood homeostasis, gut microbiota and transcriptomic profiling of L. maculatus after V. anguillarum infection were investigated. Our results indicated that the levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and total bilirubin (TBIL) increased, while the levels of blood glucose (BG), total protein (TP) and albumin (ALB) decreased after V. anguillarum infection. The analysis of the gut microbiota composition revealed that the dominant phyla was Firmicutes and Proteobacteria, and the relative abundance of genus Vibrio increased after V. anguillarum infection. Subsequently, the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the kidney and spleen after V. anguillarum infection were analyzed by transcriptome sequencing. The results indicated that immunity-related genes like TLR5, TLR8, TLR9, IL-1β, CCL3, IFNγ, CXCL11 and TNFα were affected and the NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and Toll-like receptor signaling were activated. Thus, an effective immune and pro-flammatory response can help resist V. anguillarum infection. Our results provide a theoretical support for improving the disease resistance ability of L. maculatus.
Recent research highlights a significant link between the gut microbiome and mental health, particularly regarding
depression. Termed the 'second brain,' the gut is inhabited by trillions of microorganisms that regulate
neurotransmitters and produce compounds impacting emotional well-being. This complex interplay between gut
microbes and the brain influences mood, anxiety, and depression. Studies suggest probiotics and dietary changes as
potential therapeutic strategies for managing depression by fostering a healthy gut microbiome. This emerging field
emphasizes the gut microbiome's crucial role in mental health, offering new avenues for treating depression and
enhancing overall well-being.
İnsan vücudunda yararlı, zararsız ve zararlı mikroorganizmalar bulunur; bunların tümüne mikrobiyom denilmektedir. Çoğunlukla mikrobiyota ile mikrobiyom kelimeleri aynı anlamda kullanılsa da mikrobiyom kelimesi daha çok belirli bir alanda yaşamını sürdüren mikrobiyotanın kalıtımsal havuzu ve bunun çevreyle olan arasındaki ilişkiyi tanımlamaktadır (Güner ve Çınar, 2017). Mikrobiyota denildiğinde genel olarak ilk gastrointestinal sistem düşünülse de deri, akciğerler, ağız boğluğu, genitoüriner sistem ile amniyon sıvısında mikrobiyomlar yaşamaktadır (Kalip ve Atak, 2018). Bu dokularda bulunan mikroorganizmalar, vücut hücreleri ile birbirlerine karşılıklı yarar sağlayan bir ilişki içerisinde yaşamını sürdürmekte insan fizyolojisinin şekillendirilmesi, devamının sağlanması ve homeostazda aktif bir şekilde görev alarak adeta bir organ görevini üstlenmektedir (Güner ve Çınar, 2017). Sağlıklı mikrobiyotanın ne olduğu henüz tartışma konusudur. Yapılan araştırmalarda, hastalık halinde ortaya çıkan sağlıksız mikrobiyota için “disbiyozis” terminolojisi kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Sağlıklı mikrobiyota için ise “öbiyozis” terminolojisi kullanılmaya başlanmıştır (Alagöz, 2017). Pekçok yeni araştırma, mikrobiyal bozukluğun;anksiyete, depresyon ve nörodejenerasyon gibi bazı nörolojik hastalıklara neden olduğunu belirtmektedir. Bağırsak mikrobiyotasının; merkezi sinir sistemi ve kronik inflamasyon arasındaki ilişkisine bakıldığında, mikrobiyal disbiyosizin beynin fonksiyonlarını etkileyeceği ve dolayısıyla bilişsel-davranışsal anomalilere neden olabileceği öngörülür (Oriach vd., 2016). Serotonin; depresyon ve saldırganlık gibi durumların kontrol altına alınmasında görev alan ve barsak-beyin mikrobiyota aksında etkili bir sinyal mokelüldür. Gastrointestinal Sistem sekresyonları ve sinyallerinde etkin görev alır (O’Mahony vd., 2015). Bağırsakta ve kan beyin bariyerinin yapılarında sıkı bağlantı proteinleri bulunmaktadır. Bu proteinler hücreler arasındaki geçirmezliğe yardımcı olur. Kan beyin bariyerindeki bu proteinler bağırsakta bulunan proteinler ile aynıdır (Hawkins ve Davis, 2005). Yapılan çalışmalar bağırsakta bulunan mikrobiyotanın özellikle disbiyozis durumunda, nörolojik hastalıkların hem gelişimini etkileyebileceğini hem de hastalığın oluşumunu başlatabileceğini düşündürmektedir. Bağırsak mikrobiyotası yaşlandıkça çeşitliliği azalmaktadır ve bu durum nörodejenerasyon gelişiminde önemli bir faktör olmaktadır. Bilişsel davranış bozukluğu; Alzheimer Hastalığı (AH)’nın bir özelliğidir ve bağırsak mikroorganizmalarının bilişsel davranış kabiliyeti üzerindeki etkisi, AH’nın patogenezinde bağırsak mikroorganizmalarının rolünü ortaya koymuştur (Alagöz, 2017). Bağırsak bariyer fonksiyonunda bir bozukluk olması ve geçirgenliğin artması bağırsak mikrobiyotasının Alzheimer Hastalığı’nın patofizyolojik sürecine katılabileceğini göstermektedir (Zhu vd., 2017). Alman nöropatolog Alois Alzheimer tarafından 1906 yılında tanımlanan Alzheimer Hastalığı; nöral yapılarda ilerleyici hücre kaybıyla karakterize bellek kaybı tablosudur (Bıyıklı ve Şanlıer, 2014). Demans sendromları içinde en çok görülen Alzheimer Hastalığı, bellekte ağır bozukluk ile beraber iradede, karar vermede, dikkat etmede, oryante olmada ve kişilikteki bozukluklarla kendini belli eden sürekli ilerleme gösteren ve ölümle sonuçlanabilen nörodejenerasyona neden olan bir hastalıktır (Alzheimer, 2015). Kazanılmış entelektüel işlevsellik azalmıştır (Yalçın ve Rakıcıoğlu, 2018). Bağırsak Mikrobiyotası; metabolitleri, beyinsel süreçler ve davranışların modülasyonu, stres cevabını, depresyon davranışını, ağrı modülasyonunu, sindirim sürecini ve beyin biyokimyasal yapısını da etkilemektedir. Hayvan çalışmaları; duygusal davranış, stres, ağrı regülasyonu ve beyin nörotransmitterleri ile ilgili tüm sistemlerde bağırsak mikrobiyotasının önemli bir rol oynadığını göstermektedir. Aynı zamanda bağırsak mikrobiyotasının duygusal davranış, öğrenme ve bellek, sosyal etkileşimler ve yeme davranışlarında da etkili olduğu belirtilmektedir (Mayer vd., 2015). Yapılan araştırmalarda Alzheimer Hastalığının beslenmeyle olan ilişkisi, koroner kalp hastalıklarının beslenmeyle olan ilişkisine benzer çıkmıştır. Yüksek miktarda alkol tüketimi, doymuş yağ asitleri ve yüksek kalorili diyet Alzheimer hastalığı ve demans riskini artırırken omega-3 yağ asitleri ve antioksidantlar ise AH ‘na karşı koruyucu etki sağlamaktadır (Bıyıklı ve Şanlıer, 2014). Yaşlı bireylerin mikrobiyotasında, yaşla birlikte oluşan değişikliklerde, diyetin önemli bir faktör olabileceği düşünülmektedir (Kumar, 2016). Bu derlemenin amacı; mikrobiyota ile Alzheimer hastalığı arasındaki mekanizmaları incelemek, mikrobiyotanın Alzheimer hastalığını nasıl etkileyebileceğini açıklamaktır.
The human body is influenced by different factors, like genetical, physiological, and external factors. It is necessary to mark that the constituents of the intestinal microbes significantly affects health, which involved the harmful microorganisms in a variety of practices that affect physical functions by promoting or reducing their existence. The GI- microbiome, a complex community of trillions of microbes that live in the GIT, contributes the principal role in digestive and overall health. This review examines the complex connections between the GI- microbes and multiple areas of human health, digestion, nutrient absorption, immune support, and mental well- being. This chapter also demonstrates the effects of microbial dysbiosis in host health, and the possibility of dietary intervention to regulate the intestinal microbes for the purpose of being probiotics, prebiotics, and intestinal microbes. Additionally, the complexities of the GI- microbiome in understanding of its important role in maintaining health and preventing disease are also discussed.
Both microplastics (MPs) and kaolin are marine suspended particles capable of influencing the physiology of
bivalve mollusks. However, the current research on MPs lacks the analysis of their own physical and chemical
toxicity, and the comparative study of the toxicity of microplastics and natural suspended particles (NSPs) in
aquatic environment. In this work, three experiments are layered, with Experiment 1 directly comparing polyvinyl
chloride MPs (PVC MPs) and kaolin and showing that MPs have greater deleterious effects on thick-shelled
mussels than kaolin, with the exception of physical damage and effects on gut microorganisms. As the presence
or absence of chemicals may be the main difference between MPs and kaolin, in Experiment 2 the toxicity drivers
of PVC MPs itself were investigated, demonstrating that the chemicals in MPs are indeed toxic and that the
harmful effects of MPs on mussels may be due to the superposition of their own physical and chemical toxicity.
Finally, in Experiment 3 mussels were exposed to the chemicals in PVC MPs and kaolin in a composite and found
that the toxicity of the composite exposure was greater than that of the single exposure to kaolin, suggesting that the chemicals may be the main factor contributing to the difference in toxicity between PVC MPs and kaolin. In
conclusion, this work addresses the lack of a natural particle control group in current studies of MPs, confirms
that the toxicity drivers of MPs are due to both physical and chemical factors, highlights the role of NSPs in the
environment, and provides new insights for evaluating the toxic effects of MPs in the natural marine
environment.
Recent studies in humans have shown that certain pesticides could affect the composition and functions of gut microbiota, an essential modulator of vertebrate physiology, leading to potential dysbiosis. However, this relationship remains largely unknown in wild birds despite the implications of pesticides in the current decline of farmland species. The present study sought to fill this gap by providing data on the association between pesticide concentrations in blood and gut microbiota characteristics in relation to individual traits in a farmland raptor, the Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus). Results showed that females with higher body condition and higher pesticide load harboured a higher gut bacterial richness and diversity, while the relationship was opposite in males with higher body condition. Regarding taxonomic composition, Proteobacteria was the main phylum found in all nestlings. Differences in certain phylum and genus abundance according to pesticide load were found, with more Bacteroidota, Leifsonia and less Bulkholderia in nestlings with higher pesticide concentrations in their blood. Thus, this study highlights differences in microbiota and contamination by several pesticides according to the phenotypic characteristics of a wild raptor, and shows that farmland birds can represent relevant bio-sentinels for assessing the health/proper functioning of ecosystems (One Health approach).
Nesta coletânea de fôlego, os organizadores e autores oferecem uma poderosa ferramenta de trabalho aos pesquisadores e interessados na epidemiologia nutricional brasileira. Ampliando os horizontes tradicionais desse campo de estudo, o livro vai além de avaliação de dietas e da relação entre alimentação e doenças crônicas não transmissíveis. Os 38 capítulos desta segunda edição revista e ampliada contemplam métodos e análises que abrangem antigos e atuais problemas nutricionais brasileiros, com engajamento propositivo na solução de problemas. Simultaneamente, manual técnico da complexa área da avaliação nutricional e rigorosa enciclopédia nutricional brasileira, este compêndio de enfoque amplo e multidisciplinar reúne os principais investigadores na área de nutrição e saúde pública no Brasil e surge como leitura fundamental para os estudos de nutrição e saúde coletiva.
An increasing body of evidence has shown the important role of the gut microbiome in mediating toxicity following environmental contaminant exposure. The goal of this study was to determine if the adverse metabolic effects of chronic 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) exposure would be sufficient to exacerbate hyperglycemia, and to further determine if these outcomes were attributable to the gut microbiota alteration. Adult male CD-1 mice were exposed to TCDD (6 μg/kg body weight biweekly) by gavage and injected (i.p.) with STZ (4 × 50 mg/kg body weight) to induced hyperglycemia. 16S rRNA sequencing was used to characterize the changes in the microbiome community composition. Glucose monitoring, flow cytometry, histopathology, and organ characterization were performed to determine the deleterious phenotypic changes of TCDD exposure. Chronic TCDD treatment did not appear to exacerbate STZ-induced hyperglycemia as blood glucose levels were slightly reduced in the TCDD treated mice; however, polydipsia and polyphagia were observed. Importantly, TCDD exposure caused a dramatic change in microbiota structure, as characterized at the phylum level by increasing Firmicutes and decreasing Bacteroidetes while at the family level most notably by increasing Lactobacillaceae and Desulfovibrionaceae, and decreasing Prevotellaceae and ACK M1. The changes in microbiota were further found to be broadly associated with phenotypic changes seen from chronic TCDD treatment. In particular, the phylum level Bacteroidetes to Firmicutes ratio negatively correlated with both liver weight and liver pathology, and positively associated with %CD3+ NK+ T cells, a key mediator of host-microbial interactions. Collectively, these findings suggest that the dysregulated gut microbiome may contribute to the deleterious effects (e.g., liver toxicity) seen with TCDD exposure.
Heavy metal pollution in urban soil has become a serious environmental issue in China since the last three decades. Attention has been given to the investigation of soil contamination; however, there is little information available on the variation of heavy metal pollution in soils. To resolve this problem and provide references on similar regions, 18 topsoil (0∼20 cm) samples were collected from identical sites of districts that with different functions in Kaifeng City in 1994 and 2012. Total contents of As, Cd, Hg, and Pb were determined by standard methods. The variation of heavy metal pollution was evaluated by using geoaccumulation index and pollution load index. Results show a descending trend in heavy metal pollution of soil in Kaifeng City that demonstrated over the last 20 years, though there are still some contaminations in 2012. The highest concentration of soil metal was observed in industrial district, followed by the cultural and educational district, administrative business district, and entertaining district in turn. Concentrations of Pb in all soils and As in most soils were higher in 2012 than that in 1994, which mainly due to the rapid increase of motor vehicles and domestic garbage. Meanwhile, the concentrations of Hg and Cd in most soils were lower in 2012 than that in 1994, as the relocation and shutdown of industry and the wide development of environmental facilities. Land use and land cover change in urban areas can effect on soil metal pollution. When farmland transforms into urban land, the concentrations of soil metals would be increased, and also, the soil pollution will increase severely.
Alteration of the gut microbiota through diet and environmental contaminants may disturb the mammalian digestive system, leading to various diseases. Because most exposure to environmentally pyrethroid pesticides such as permethrin (PERM) occurs through the diet, the commensal gut microbiota is likely to be exposed to PERM. The study aimed at evaluating the effect of low-dose exposure to PERM in early life on the composition of fecal microbiota in rats. Over a 4-month follow-up period, fecal microbiota and short-chain fatty acids were measured in order to identify possible differences between PERM-treated rats and controls. Further in vitro antimicrobial experiments were conducted to establish the antibacterial activity of PERM against different strains to obtain Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations. The main finding focused on the reduced abundance of Bacteroides-Prevotella-Porphyromonas species, increased Enterobacteriaceae and Lactobacillus in PERM-treated rats compared to controls. Changes of acetic and propionic acid levels were registered in PERM-treated group. From in vitro studies, PERM showed higher antibacterial activity against beneficial bacteria such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus paracasei, while to inhibit potential pathogens as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli PERM concentration needed to be increased. In summary, exposure to PERM could affect the fecal microbiota and could be a crucial factor contributing to the development of diseases.
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator deficient mouse models develop phenotypes of relevance to clinical cystic fibrosis (CF) including airway hyperresponsiveness, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and an altered intestinal microbiome. As dysbiosis of the intestinal microbiota has been recognized as an important contributor to many systemic diseases, herein we investigated whether altering the intestinal microbiome of BALB/c Cftrtm1UNC mice and wild-type littermates, through treatment with the antibiotic streptomycin, affects the CF lung, intestinal and bone disease. We demonstrate that streptomycin treatment reduced the intestinal bacterial overgrowth in Cftrtm1UNC mice and altered the intestinal microbiome similarly in Cftrtm1UNC and wild-type mice, principally by affecting Lactobacillus levels. Airway hyperresponsiveness of Cftrtm1UNC mice was ameliorated with streptomycin, and correlated with Lactobacillus abundance in the intestine. Additionally, streptomycin treated Cftrtm1UNC and wild-type mice displayed an increased percentage of pulmonary and mesenteric lymph node Th17, CD8 + IL-17+ and CD8 + IFNγ+ lymphocytes, while the CF-specific increase in respiratory IL-17 producing γδ T cells was decreased in streptomycin treated Cftrtm1UNC mice. Bone disease and intestinal phenotypes were not affected by streptomycin treatment. The airway hyperresponsiveness and lymphocyte profile of BALB/c Cftrtm1UNC mice were affected by streptomycin treatment, revealing a potential intestinal microbiome influence on lung response in BALB/c Cftrtm1UNC mice.
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been used as antimicrobials in a number of applications, including topical wound dressings and coatings for consumer products and biomedical devices. Ingestion is a relevant route of exposure for AgNPs, whether occurring unintentionally via Ag dissolution from consumer products, or intentionally from dietary supplements. AgNP have also been proposed as substitutes for antibiotics in animal feeds. While oral antibiotics are known to have significant effects on gut bacteria, the antimicrobial effects of ingested AgNPs on the indigenous microbiome or on gut pathogens are unknown. In addition, AgNP size and coating have been postulated as significantly influential towards their biochemical properties and the influence of these properties on antimicrobial efficacy is unknown. We evaluated murine gut microbial communities using culture-independent sequencing of 16S rRNA gene fragments following 28 days of repeated oral dosing of well-characterized AgNPs of two different sizes (20 and 110 nm) and coatings (PVP and Citrate). Irrespective of size or coating, oral administration of AgNPs at 10 mg/kg body weight/day did not alter the membership, structure or diversity of the murine gut microbiome. Thus, in contrast to effects of broad-spectrum antibiotics, repeat dosing of AgNP, at doses equivalent to 2000 times the oral reference dose and 100-400 times the effective in vitro anti-microbial concentration, does not affect the indigenous murine gut microbiome.
Goldfish (Carassius auratus) was exposed to 0-100 μg/L pentachlorophenol (PCP) for 28 d to investigate the correlations of fish gut microbial community shift with the induced toxicological effects. PCP exposure caused accumulation of PCP in fish intestinal tract in time and dose-dependent manner, while hepatic PCP reached the maximum level after 21-d exposure. Under the relatively higher PCP stress, fish body weight and liver weight were reduced and hepatic CAT and SOD activities were inhibited, demonstrating negative correlations with the PCP levels in liver and gut content (R < -0.5, P < 0.05 each). Pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA gene indicated that PCP exposure increased Bacteroidetes abundance in fish gut. Within Bacteroidetes phylum, Bacteroides genus had the highest abundance, which was significantly correlated with PCP exposure dosage and duration (R > 0.5, P < 0.05 each). Bioinformatic analysis revealed that Bacteroides showed quantitatively negative correlations with Chryseobacterium, Microbacerium, Arthrobacter and Legionella in fish gut, and Bacteroidetes abundance, Bacteroides abundance and Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio played crucial roles in the reduction of body weight and liver weight under PCP stress. The results may extend our knowledge regarding the roles of gut microbiota in ecotoxicology.
Inflammation and metabolic abnormalities are linked to each other. At present, pathogenic inflammatory response was recognized as a major player in metabolic diseases. In humans, intestinal microflora could significantly influence the development of metabolic diseases including atherosclerosis. Commensal bacteria were shown to activate inflammatory pathways through altering lipid metabolism in adipocytes, macrophages, and vascular cells, inducing insulin resistance, and producing trimethylamine-N-oxide. However, gut microbiota could also play the atheroprotective role associated with anthocyanin metabolism and administration of probiotics and their components. Here, we review the mechanisms by which the gut microbiota may influence atherogenesis.
Carbendazim (CBZ) has been considered as an endocrine disruptor that caused mammalian toxicity in different endpoints. Here, we revealed that oral administrations with CBZ at 100 and 500 mg/kg body weight for 28 days induced hepatic lipid metabolism disorder which was characterized by significant increases of hepatic lipid accumulation and triglyceride (TG) levels in mice. The serum cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) levels also increased after CBZ exposure. Correspondingly, the relative mRNA levels of some key genes related to lipogenesis and TG synthesis increased significantly both in the liver and fat. Moreover, the increase in serum IL-1β and IL-6 levels by the treatment of CBZ indicated the occurring of inflammation. Furthermore, the levels of bioaccumulation of CBZ in the liver and gut were very low as compared in the faeces, indicating that most of CBZ stayed in gastrointestinal tract and interacted with gut microbiota until excreted. At phylum level, the amounts of the Bacteroidetes decreased significantly in the faeces after 5 days CBZ exposure. High throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene V3-V4 region revealed a significant reduction in richness and diversity of gut microbiota in the cecum of CBZ-treated mice. UniFrac principal coordinates analysis observed a marked shift of the gut microbiota structure in CBZ-treated mice away from that of the controls. More deeply, operational taxonomic units (OTUs) analysis identified a total of 361 gut microbes were significant changed. In CBZ-treated groups, the relative abundance of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria increased and that of Bacteroidetes decreased. Our findings suggested that CBZ could lead hepatic lipid metabolism disorder and gut microbiota dysbiosis in mice.
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Insulin-dependent or type 1 diabetes is a prototypic autoimmune disease whose incidence steadily increased over the past decades in industrialized countries. Recent evidence suggests the importance of the gut microbiota to explain this trend. Here, non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice that spontaneously develop autoimmune type 1 diabetes were treated with different antibiotics to explore the influence of a targeted intestinal dysbiosis in the progression of the disease. A mixture of wide spectrum antibiotics (i.e. streptomycin, colistin and ampicillin) or vancomycin alone were administered orally from the moment of conception, treating breeding pairs, and during the postnatal and adult life until the end of follow-up at 40 weeks. Diabetes incidence significantly and similarly increased in male mice following treatment with these two antibiotic regimens. In NOD females a slight yet not significant trend towards an increase in disease incidence was observed. Changes in gut microbiota composition were assessed by sequencing the V3 region of bacterial 16S rRNA genes. Administration of the antibiotic mixture resulted in near complete ablation of the gut microbiota. Vancomycin treatment led to increased Escherichia, Lactobacillus and Sutterella genera and decreased members of the Clostridiales order and Lachnospiraceae, Prevotellaceae and Rikenellaceae families, as compared to control mice. Massive elimination of IL-17-producing cells, both CD4+TCRαβ+ and TCRγδ+ T cells was observed in the lamina propria of the ileum and the colon of vancomycin-treated mice. These results show that a directed even partial ablation of the gut microbiota, as induced by vancomycin, significantly increases type 1 diabetes incidence in male NOD mice thus prompting for caution in the use of antibiotics in pregnant women and newborns.
Polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), which adversely affect human fetal and infant development, are endocrine disrupter and cause neurological disorders. They may also be carcinogenic. It is not known whether these effects are due to whole PCBs or to its metabolites, produced by the human gastrointestinal system primarily the liver and/or by intestinal microbes such as Clostridium sp. The available data show that Clostridium perfringens, the most prominent species of Clostridium occurs in the human gut. C. beijerinckii is a special type of Clostridium present in the gut of autistic children with late onset autism. Since mixed cultures are better PCB metabolizers than single cultures, mixed cultures of Clostridium were used in this work. The first step in PCB degradation is the removal of the chlorine atoms and then the breaking open of the phenyl ring leading to the final degradation product: CO2. In this study, GC-MS analyses were done to examine the effect of Clostridium sp. on PCB-153 and PCB-77 and the metabolites obtained with Clostridium sp. therein. In this paper, we report that the unlike human liver cells which cannot produce any PCB metabolites. Mixed Clostridium spp. can degrade these PCBs. Clostridium spp. and were able to dechlorinate PCB 153 (hexachlorobiphenyl) to pentachlorobiphenyl and PCB 77 (tetrachlorobiphenyl) to trichlorobiphenyl. Despite considerable absorption of PCB 153 (40%) and PCB 77 (50%) in 30 minutes and 1.5 hours respectively by human liver (HepG2) cells, they can not dechlorinate PCBs. It has been observed that slight differences in chemical structures of PCBs such as coplanar (PCB-77) vs. non-coplanar (PCB-153) has significant metabolic effects.
Alteration of the gut microbiota through diet and environmental contaminants may disturb physiological homeostasis, leading to various diseases including obesity and type 2 diabetes. Since most exposure to environmentally-persistent organic pollutants (POPs) occurs through the diet, the host gastrointestinal tract and commensal gut microbiota are likely to be exposed to POPs.
We report that 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran (TCDF), a persistent environmental contaminant, profoundly impacts the gut microbiota and host metabolism in an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR)-dependent manner.
Six-week-old male wild-type and Ahr(-/-) mice on the C57BL/6J background were treated with 24 µg/kg TCDF in the diet for five days. 16S rRNA gene sequencing, (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) metabolomics, targeted ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triplequadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-TQMS) and biochemical assays were used to determine the microbiota compositions and the physiological and metabolic effects of TCDF.
Dietary TCDF altered the gut microbiota by shifting the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes. TCDF-treated mouse cecal contents were enriched with Butyrivibrio spp., but depleted in Oscillobacter spp. in comparison with vehicle-treated mice. These changes in the gut microbiota were associated with altered bile acid metabolism. Further, dietary TCDF inhibited the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) signaling pathway, and triggered significant inflammation and host metabolic disorders as a result of activation of bacterial fermentation, and altering hepatic lipogenesis, gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, in an AHR-dependent manner.
These findings provide new insights into the biochemical consequences of TCDF exposure involving the alteration of the gut microbiota, modulation of nuclear receptor signaling, and disruption of host metabolism.
The intestinal tract is inhabited by a large and diverse community of microbes collectively referred to as the gut microbiota. While the gut microbiota provides important benefits to its host, especially in metabolism and immune development, disturbance of the microbiota-host relationship is associated with numerous chronic inflammatory diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease and the group of obesity-associated diseases collectively referred to as metabolic syndrome. A primary means by which the intestine is protected from its microbiota is via multi-layered mucus structures that cover the intestinal surface, thereby allowing the vast majority of gut bacteria to be kept at a safe distance from epithelial cells that line the intestine. Thus, agents that disrupt mucus-bacterial interactions might have the potential to promote diseases associated with gut inflammation. Consequently, it has been hypothesized that emulsifiers, detergent-like molecules that are a ubiquitous component of processed foods and that can increase bacterial translocation across epithelia in vitro, might be promoting the increase in inflammatory bowel disease observed since the mid-twentieth century. Here we report that, in mice, relatively low concentrations of two commonly used emulsifiers, namely carboxymethylcellulose and polysorbate-80, induced low-grade inflammation and obesity/metabolic syndrome in wild-type hosts and promoted robust colitis in mice predisposed to this disorder. Emulsifier-induced metabolic syndrome was associated with microbiota encroachment, altered species composition and increased pro-inflammatory potential. Use of germ-free mice and faecal transplants indicated that such changes in microbiota were necessary and sufficient for both low-grade inflammation and metabolic syndrome. These results support the emerging concept that perturbed host-microbiota interactions resulting in low-grade inflammation can promote adiposity and its associated metabolic effects. Moreover, they suggest that the broad use of emulsifying agents might be contributing to an increased societal incidence of obesity/metabolic syndrome and other chronic inflammatory diseases.
Two C57BL/6 mice colonies maintained in two rooms of the same specific pathogen-free (SPF) facility were found to have different gut microbiota and a mucus phenotype that was specific for each colony. The thickness and growth of the colon mucus were similar in the two colonies. However, one colony had mucus that was impenetrable to bacteria or beads the size of bacteria—which is comparable to what we observed in free-living wild mice—whereas the other colony had an inner mucus layer penetrable to bacteria and beads. The different properties of the mucus depended on the microbiota, as they were transmissible by transfer of caecal microbiota to germ-free mice. Mice with an impenetrable mucus layer had increased amounts of Erysipelotrichi, whereas mice with a penetrable mucus layer had higher levels of Proteobacteria and TM7 bacteria in the distal colon mucus. Thus, our study shows that bacteria and their community structure affect mucus barrier properties in ways that can have implications for health and disease. It also highlights that genetically identical animals housed in the same facility can have rather distinct microbiotas and barrier structures.
The gastrointestinal tracts of mammals are colonized by hundreds of microbial species that contribute to health, including colonization resistance against intestinal pathogens. Many antibiotics destroy intestinal microbial communities and increase susceptibility to intestinal pathogens. Among these, Clostridium difficile, a major cause of antibiotic-induced diarrhoea, greatly increases morbidity and mortality in hospitalized patients. Which intestinal bacteria provide resistance to C. difficile infection and their in vivo inhibitory mechanisms remain unclear. Here we correlate loss of specific bacterial taxa with development of infection, by treating mice with different antibiotics that result in distinct microbiota changes and lead to varied susceptibility to C. difficile. Mathematical modelling augmented by analyses of the microbiota of hospitalized patients identifies resistance-associated bacteria common to mice and humans. Using these platforms, we determine that Clostridium scindens, a bile acid 7α-dehydroxylating intestinal bacterium, is associated with resistance to C. difficile infection and, upon administration, enhances resistance to infection in a secondary bile acid dependent fashion. Using a workflow involving mouse models, clinical studies, metagenomic analyses, and mathematical modelling, we identify a probiotic candidate that corrects a clinically relevant microbiome deficiency. These findings have implications for the rational design of targeted antimicrobials as well as microbiome-based diagnostics and therapeutics for individuals at risk of C. difficile infection.
The ISME Journal: Multidisciplinary Journal of Microbial Ecology is the official Journal of the International Society for Microbial Ecology, publishing high-quality, original research papers, short communications, commentary articles and reviews in the rapidly expanding and diverse discipline of microbial ecology.
Due to a long history of improper and excessive use, Penicillin G (Pen G) and erythromycin (Ery) are regularly detected in environmental samples and pose a great threat to human health. Here, we set out to investigate effects of Pen G, Ery or their mixture on lipid metabolism and gut microbiota in order to better understand their toxicological mechanisms. Male C57BL/6J mice were exposed either to 60 μg/mL Pen G, Ery or a half mixture of both for 6 weeks or to 10 μg/mL Pen G, Ery or a half mixture of both for 14 weeks. In a recovery experiment, male mice were exposed to 60 μg/mL Pen G or Ery for 2 weeks and then maintained without antibiotics for up to 8 weeks. It was observed that oral exposure to Pen G, Ery or their mixture induced lipid metabolism dysfunction, characterized by significantly increased lipid accumulations, triglycerides (TG) levels and expression of key genes involved in free fatty acid (FFA) synthesis, FFA transport and TG synthesis in the liver. In addition, Pen G and Ery exposure induced an inflammatory response as indicated by the increase of serum lipopolysaccharide levels and the up-regulation of key genes that regulate immune responses in the liver, fat, colon and ileum. Moreover, Pen G and Ery exposure rapidly and dramatically altered the composition of the microbiota in feces and cecum. Furthermore, high throughput sequencing of V3-V4 region of bacterial 16S rRNA gene revealed additional significant changes in the cecal microbiota of antibiotics-treated mice. Importantly, it took a very long time to reconstitute the normal composition of the gut microbiota after it was imbalanced by antibiotics exposure. Orally-administered Pen G and Ery (especially to the latter) can induce gut microbiota dysbiosis, which may indirectly link antibiotic exposure to host metabolic disorders and inflammation.
The fungicide imazalil (IMZ) is used extensively in vegetable and fruit plantations and as a post-harvest treatment to avoid rot. Here, we revealed that ingestion of 25, 50 and 100 mg IMZ kg(-1) body weight for 28 d induced gut microbiota dysbiosis and colonic inflammation in mice. The relative abundance of Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria in the cecal contents decreased significantly after exposure to 100 mg kg(-1) IMZ for 28 d. In feces, the relative abundance in Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria decreased significantly after being exposed to 100 mg kg(-1) IMZ for 1, 14 and 7 d, respectively. High throughput sequencing of the V3-V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene revealed a significant reduction in the richness and diversity of microbiota in cecal contents and feces of IMZ-treated mice. Operational taxonomic units (OTUs) analysis identified 49.3% of OTUs changed in cecal contents, while 55.6% of OTUs changed in the feces after IMZ exposure. Overall, at the phylum level, the relative abundance of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria increased and that of Bacteroidetes decreased in IMZ-treated groups. At the genus level, the abundance of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium decreased while those of Deltaproteobacteria and Desulfovibrio increased in response to IMZ exposure. In addition, it was observed that IMZ exposure could induce colonic inflammation characterized by infiltration of inflammatory cells, elevated levels of lipocalin-2 (lcn-2) in the feces, and increased mRNA levels of Tnf-α, IL-1β, IL-22 and IFN-γ in the colon. Our findings strongly suggest that ingestion of IMZ has some risks to human health.
It is widely accepted that obesity and associated metabolic diseases, including type 2 diabetes, are intimately linked to diet. However, the gut microbiota has also become a focus for research at the intersection of diet and metabolic health. Mechanisms that link the gut microbiota with obesity are coming to light through a powerful combination of translation-focused animal models and studies in humans. A body of knowledge is accumulating that points to the gut microbiota as a mediator of dietary impact on the host metabolic status. Efforts are focusing on the establishment of causal relationships in people and the prospect of therapeutic interventions such as personalized nutrition.
The microbiome has an important role in human health. Changes in the microbiota can confer resistance to or promote infection by pathogenic bacteria. Antibiotics have a profound impact on the microbiota that alters the nutritional landscape of the gut and can lead to the expansion of pathogenic populations. Pathogenic bacteria exploit microbiota-derived sources of carbon and nitrogen as nutrients and regulatory signals to promote their own growth and virulence. By eliciting inflammation, these bacteria alter the intestinal environment and use unique systems for respiration and metal acquisition to drive their expansion. Unravelling the interactions between the microbiota, the host and pathogenic bacteria will produce strategies for manipulating the microbiota against infectious diseases.
In the mucosa, the immune system's T cells and B cells have position-specific phenotypes and functions that are influenced by the microbiota. These cells play pivotal parts in the maintenance of immune homeostasis by suppressing responses to harmless antigens and by enforcing the integrity of the barrier functions of the gut mucosa. Imbalances in the gut microbiota, known as dysbiosis, can trigger several immune disorders through the activity of T cells that are both near to and distant from the site of their induction. Elucidation of the mechanisms that distinguish between homeostatic and pathogenic microbiota-host interactions could identify therapeutic targets for preventing or modulating inflammatory diseases and for boosting the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy.
The intestinal microbiome is a signalling hub that integrates environmental inputs, such as diet, with genetic and immune signals to affect the host's metabolism, immunity and response to infection. The haematopoietic and non-haematopoietic cells of the innate immune system are located strategically at the host-microbiome interface. These cells have the ability to sense microorganisms or their metabolic products and to translate the signals into host physiological responses and the regulation of microbial ecology. Aberrations in the communication between the innate immune system and the gut microbiota might contribute to complex diseases.
A series of white emitting phosphor of KMgLa (PO4)2:Dy3+ were synthesized via high temperature solid-state method, and the luminescence properties were systematically investigated. Under the 349 nm ultraviolet excitation, KMgLa(PO4)2:Dy3+ shows the 481 nm (blue) and 575 nm (yellow) emission peaks, which are assigned to the 4F9/2-6H15/2 and 4F9/2-6H13/2 transitions of Dy3+. The emission intensities of KMgLa(PO4)2:Dy3+ are influenced by the Dy3+ concentration, and the concentration quenching effect is observed, and the corresponding mechanism is the dipole-dipole (d-d) interaction, and the critical distance is calculated to be 1.136 nm. The CIE chromaticity coordinates of KMgLa(PO4)2:Dy3+ are close to that of standard white light. According to the emission intensity with different temperatures, the sample should have the good thermal stability. The results indicate that KMgLa(PO4)2:Dy3+ may be a potential application to white LEDs.
A compelling set of links between the composition of the gut microbiota, the host diet, and host physiology has emerged. Do these links reflect cause-and-effect relationships, and what might be their mechanistic basis? A growing body of work implicates microbially produced metabolites as crucial executors of diet-based microbial influence on the host. Here, we will review data supporting the diverse functional roles carried out by a major class of bacterial metabolites, the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). SCFAs can directly activate G-coupled-receptors, inhibit histone deacetylases, and serve as energy substrates. They thus affect various physiological processes and may contribute to health and disease.
The occurrence and removal of 19 antibiotics (including four macrolides, eight sulfonamides, three fluoroquinolones, three tetracyclines, and trimethoprim) were investigated in two ecological (constructed wetland (CW) and stabilization pond (SP)) and two conventional wastewater treatment processes (activated sludge (AS) and micro-power biofilm (MP)) in a county of eastern China. All target antibiotics were detected in the influent and effluent samples with detection frequencies of >90%. Clarithromycin, ofloxacin, roxithromycin and erythromycin-H2O were the dominant antibiotics with maximum concentrations reaching up to 6524, 5411, 964 and 957 ng/L, respectively; while the concentrations of tiamulin, sulfamerazine, sulfathiazole, sulfamethazine, sulfamethizole and sulfisoxazole were below 10 ng/L. Although the mean effluent concentrations of target antibiotics were obviously lower than the influent ones (except ciprofloxacin), their removals were usually incomplete. Principal component analysis showed that the AS and CW outperformed the MP and SP processes and the AS performed better than the CW process in terms of antibiotics removal. Both the AS and CW processes exhibited higher removal efficiencies in summer than in winter, indicating biological degradation could play an important role in antibiotics removal. Because of the incomplete removal, the total concentration of detected antibiotics increased in the mixing and downstream sections of a local river receiving the effluent from a typical wastewater treatment facility practicing AS process. Nowadays, ecological wastewater treatment processes are being rapidly planned and constructed in rural areas of China; however, the discharge of residual antibiotics to the aquatic environment may highlight a necessity for optimizing or upgrading their design and operation.
Urban wastewater treatment plants (UWTPs) are among the main hotspots of antibiotic resistance (AR) spread into the environment and the role of conventional and new disinfection processes as possible barrier to minimise the risk for AR transfer is presently under investigation. Accordingly, the aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of an advanced oxidation process (AOP) (specifically UV/H2O2) on AR transfer potential. UV/H2O2 disinfection experiments were carried out on real wastewater samples to evaluate the: i) inactivation of total coliforms, Escherichia coli and antibiotic resistant E. coli as well as ii) possible removal of target antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) (namely, blaTEM, qnrS and tetW). In particular, DNA was extracted from both antibiotic resistant E. coli bacterial cells (intracellular DNA), grown on selective culture media, and the whole water suspension (total DNA) collected at different treatment times. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was performed to detect the absence/presence of the selected ARGs. Real Time quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR) was used to quantify the investigated ARGs in terms of copiesmL(-1). In spite of the bacterial inactivation and a decrease of ARGs in intracellular DNA after 60min treatment, UV/H2O2 process was not effective in ARGs removal from water suspension (total DNA). Particularly, an increase up to 3.7×10(3)copiesmL(-1) (p>0.05) of blaTEM gene was observed in total DNA after 240min treatment, while no difference (p>0.05) was found for qnrS gene between the initial (5.1×10(4)copiesmL(-1)) and the final sample (4.3×10(4)copiesmL(-1)). On the base of the achieved results, the investigated disinfection process may not be effective in minimising AR spread potential into the environment. The death of bacterial cells, which results in DNA release in the treated water, may pose a risk for AR transfer to other bacteria present in the receiving water body.
The occurrence of seven trace elements and forty three antibiotics was investigated in manure-based fertilizers from the Zhejiang province of China. These trace elements included copper, zinc, arsenic, chromium, mercury, lead and cadmium. The targeted antibiotics included four groups: sulfonamides, tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones and chloramphenicols. The median amounts of copper, zinc, arsenic, chromium, mercury, lead and cadmium in the analyzed samples were 160, 465, 7.9, 21.2, 0.3, 8.1 and 0.6mg·kg(-1), respectively. Seventeen antibiotics were detected. Enrofloxacin was the most frequently detected compound, with a detection rate of 39.3% and concentrations ranging from 6.7μg·kg(-1) to 4091μg·kg(-1). Based on the referred loading rates in agricultural soil, 10% of the collected manure-based fertilizer samples might pose a high potential ecological risk due to the presence of antibiotics.
The gut microbiota influences essential human functions including digestion, energy metabolism, and inflammation by modulating multiple endocrine, neural, and immune pathways of the host. Its composition and complexity varies markedly across individuals and across different sites of the gut, but provides a certain level of resilience against external perturbation. Short-term antibiotic treatment is able to shift the gut microbiota to long-term alternative dysbiotic states, which may promote the development and aggravation of disease. Common features of post-antibiotic dysbiosis include a loss of taxonomic and functional diversity combined with reduced colonization resistance against invading pathogens, which harbors the danger of antimicrobial resistance. This review summarizes the antibiotic-related changes of the gut microbiota and potential consequences in health and disease.
Although the importance of human genetic polymorphisms in therapeutic outcomes is well established, the role of our 'second genome' (the microbiome) has been largely overlooked. In this Review, we highlight recent studies that have shed light on the mechanisms that link the human gut microbiome to the efficacy and toxicity of xenobiotics, including drugs, dietary compounds and environmental toxins. Continued progress in this area could enable more precise tools for predicting patient responses and for the development of a new generation of therapeutics based on, or targeted at, the gut microbiome. Indeed, the admirable goal of precision medicine may require us to first understand the microbial pharmacists within.
Heavy metal pollution is a principle source of environmental contamination. Epidemiological and animal data suggest that early-life
lead (Pb) exposure results in critical effects on epigenetic gene regulation and child and adult weight trajectories. Using
a mouse model of human-relevant exposure, we investigated the effects of perinatal Pb exposure on gut microbiota in adult
mice and the link between gut microbiota and bodyweight changes. Following Pb exposure during gestation and lactation via
maternal drinking water, bodyweight in Avy strain wild-type non-agouti (a/a) offspring was tracked through adulthood. Gut microbiota of adult mice were characterized by deep DNA sequencing of bacterial
16S rRNA genes. Data analyses were stratified by sex and adjusted for litter effects. A Bayesian variable selection algorithm
was used to analyze associations between bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and offspring adult bodyweight. Perinatal
Pb exposure was associated with increased adult bodyweight in male (P<0.05) but not female offspring (P=0.24). Cultivable
aerobes decreased and anaerobes increased in Pb-exposed offspring (P<0.005 and P<0.05, respectively). Proportions of the two
predominant phyla (Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes) shifted inversely with Pb exposure, and whole bacterial compositions were significantly
different (AMOVA, P<0.05) by Pb exposure without sex bias. In males, changes in gut microbiota were highly associated with
adult bodyweight (P=0.028, effect size=2.59). Thus, perinatal Pb exposure results in altered adult gut microbiota regardless
of sex and these changes are highly correlated with increased bodyweight in males. Adult gut microbiota can be shaped by early
exposures and may contribute to disease risks in a sex-specific manner.
Identifying interventions that more effectively promote healthy growth of children with undernutrition is a pressing global health goal. Analysis of human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) from 6-month-postpartum mothers in two Malawian birth cohorts revealed that sialylated HMOs are significantly less abundant in those with severely stunted infants. To explore this association, we colonized young germ-free mice with a consortium of bacterial strains cultured from the fecal microbiota of a 6-month-old stunted Malawian infant and fed recipient animals a prototypic Malawian diet with or without purified sialylated bovine milk oligosaccharides (S-BMO). S-BMO produced a microbiota-dependent augmentation of lean body mass gain, changed bone morphology, and altered liver, muscle, and brain metabolism in ways indicative of a greater ability to utilize nutrients for anabolism. These effects were also documented in gnotobiotic piglets using the same consortium and Malawian diet. These preclinical models indicate a causal, microbiota-dependent relationship between S-BMO and growth promotion.
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We demonstrated that pretreatment with chromium (Cr) significantly alters inflammatory responses of mice or macrophage cell lines. The mice were pretreated with 50 and 200 mg L(-1) of Cr dissolved in drinking water for 7 or 21 d, respectively. Then, the mice were challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or saline for 3 h. The body and liver weights significantly decreased after exposure to 200 mg L(-1) of Cr for both 7 and 21 d. Serious infiltration of inflammatory cells around the artery was found in the liver treated with 200 mg L(-1) of Cr for 7 and 21 d. The levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) and interleukin-6 (IL6) in peritoneal macrophage significantly increased after the treatment with 200 mg L(-1) of Cr for 7 d. Moreover, LPS-induced increases in the serum levels and the transcriptional status of some cytokine genes were amplified by the Cr pretreatment. In the in vitro test, the RAW264.7 cell line was pretreated with Cr for 3, 6, 12, and 24 h, followed by stimulation with LPS (1 μg mL(-1)) for 6 h. LPS-induced the increases in TNFα, IL6, Interleukin-1α (IL1α), Interleukin-1β (IL1β), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) mRNA levels were significantly promoted by the pretreatment with Cr for 3, 6, and 12 h, whereas they were weakened by the pre-exposure to Cr for 24 h in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, LPS-induced the release of TNFα and IL6 in the medium was also significantly enhanced or suppressed by the different Cr pretreatment. The results suggested that Cr had the potential to induce immunotoxicity by altering the inflammatory responses.
Gut microbiota(GM) plays an important role in drug metabolism and absorption. Ever-increasing antibiotic use could result in high accumulation of antibiotic resistance genes(ARGs) in GM, which will reduce the recovery rate of many infectious diseases. The foci of this study is to unravel ARGs distribution in GM of 1267 subjects from four countries in three continents, by annotation with ARDB(Antibiotic Resistance Genes Database) and ARG-ANNOT database. Analysis results showed that all three continents had similar ARGs composition, but Chinese had the highest ARGs relative abundance, followed by American and European. This is possibly attributed to delayed policies on antibiotic use in China, and restrict legislation in Europe. Delivery time and application scope is proportional to ARGs enrichment in GM. Findings in this study indicate that ARGs accumulation could be associated with government policies on antibiotic use, and corresponding delivery time and application scope,which will be a significant reference to control antibiotic abuse.
Cadmium (Cd) is one of the major transitional metals that have toxic effects on aquatic organisms. To investigate the effects of dietary cadmium on growth, salinity stress, hepatotoxicity in juvenile Pacific white shrimp (L. vannamei) and potential protective effect of Zn(II)-curcumin, five experimental diets (control, 100mg/kg Zn(II)-curcumin, 30mg/kg Cd, 30mg/kg Cd+100mg/kg Zn(II)-curcumin, 30mg/kg Cd+200mg/kg Zn(II)-curcumin) were formulated. The results showed that Cd at 30mg/kg induced significant increase in weight gain, specific growth rate and visible alterations to the hepatopancreas structures of L. vannamei. Compared with control diet, 100mg/kg Zn(II)-curcumin added diet had no effect on growth performance or feed utilization, while healthier hepatopancreas and less plasma ALT, AST production was found. Moreover, 200mg/kg dietary Zn(II)-curcumin significantly ameliorated the Cd induced hepatotoxicity while 100mg/kg dietary Zn(II)-curcumin slightly ameliorated. Cd accumulation in the whole body was decreasing and Metallothioneins like was increasing in hepatopancreas with increasing dietary Zn(II)-curcumin level. The shrimp fed with dietary Zn(II)-curcumin showed higher survival rate after acute salinity change. Therefore, it can be demonstrated that hepatotoxicity and hormesis could be induced by Cd when Cd levels were 30mg/kg, Zn(II)-curcumin could mitigate the effects of dietary Cd on L. vannamei.
Chronic exposure to arsenic in drinking water causes cancer and non-cancer diseases. However, mechanisms for chronic arsenic-induced pathogenesis, especially in response to lower exposure levels, are unclear. In addition, the importance of health impacts from xeniobiotic-promoted microbiome changes is just being realized and effects of arsenic on the microbiome with relation to disease promotion are unknown. To investigate impact of arsenic exposure on both microbiome and host metabolism, the stucture and composition of colonic microbiota, their metabolic phenotype, and host tissue and plasma metabolite levels were compared in mice exposed for 2, 5, or 10 weeks to 0, 10 (low) or 250 (high) ppb arsenite (As(III)). Genotyping of colonic bacteria revealed time and arsenic concentration dependent shifts in community composition, particularly the Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes, relative to those seen in the time-matched controls. Arsenic-induced erosion of bacterial biofilms adjacent to the mucosal lining and changes in the diversity and abundance of morphologically distinct species indicated changes in microbial community structure. Bacterical spores increased in abundance and intracellular inclusions decreased with high dose arsenic. Interestingly, expression of arsenate reductase (arsA) and the As(III) exporter arsB, remained unchanged, while the dissimilatory nitrite reductase (nrfA) gene expression increased. In keeping with the change in nitrogen metabolism, colonic and liver nitrite and nitrate levels and ratios changed with time. In addition, there was a concomitant increase in pathogenic arginine metabolites in the mouse circulation. These data suggest that arsenic exposure impacts the microbiome and microbiome/host nitrogen metabolism to support disease enhancing pathogenic phenotypes.
The heavy metal lead (Pb) has a deleterious effect on skeletal health. Because bone mass is maintained through a balance of bone formation and resorption, it is important to understand the effect of Pb levels on osteoblastic and osteoclastic activity. Pb exposure is associated with low bone mass in animal models and human populations; however, the correlation between Pb dosing and corresponding bone mass has been poorly explored. Thus, mice were exposed to increasing Pb and at higher levels (500 ppm), there was unexpectedly an increase in femur-tibial bone mass by 3 months of age. This is contrary to several studies alluded to earlier. Increased bone volume was accompanied by a significant increase in cortical thickness of the femur and trabecular bone that extended beyond the epiphyseal area into the marrow cavity. Subsequent evaluations revealed an increase in osteoclast numbers with high Pb exposure, but a deficiency in osteoclastic activity. These findings were substantiated by observed increases in levels of the resorption-altering hormones calcitonin and estrogen. In addition we found that pro-osteoclastic nuclear factor-kappa beta (NF-κB) pathway activity was dose dependently elevated with Pb, both in vivo and in vitro. However, the ability of osteoclasts to absorb bone was depressed in the presence of Pb in media and within test bone wafers. These findings indicate that exposure to high Pb levels disrupts early life bone accrual that may involve a disruption of osteoclast activity. This study accentuates the dose dependent variation in Pb exposure and consequent effects on skeletal health.
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Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental contaminant that poses serious risks to human and wildlife health. The oxidative stress and inflammatory responses induced by Cd were evaluated in RAW264.7 cells. A significant decrease in the cell viability was observed in the group treated with 3 µM Cd for 24 h. The mRNA levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL6), interleukin-1α (IL1α) and Interleukin-1β (IL1β) were generally increased or decreased by Cd exposure for 6 and 24 h, respectively. Moreover, pretreatment of the RAW264.7 cells with Cd for 24 h inhibited the transcriptional status of TNFα, IL6, IL1α and IL1β and the release of these cytokines in response to a 6-h lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the Cd exposure elicited oxidative stress not only by disturbing the transcriptional status of genes including superoxide dismutase (Sod), catalase (Cat), glutathione peroxidase(Gpx), glutathione S-transferase 1 a (Gst1a),
Nad(p)h:
quinone oxidoreductase 1(Nqo1), heme oxygenase 1(Ho-1) but also the enzyme activities of SOD, CAT and glutathione S-transferase (GST). The effects of Cd on the mRNA levels and activities of anti-oxidative enzymes were dependent on the exposure period and dose. These results suggested that Cd exposure generated oxidative stress and decreased the inflammatory responses in a murine macrophage cell line. Furthermore, oxidative stress may be a possible mechanism to explain the dysregulation of the immune function caused by heavy metals in this in vitro system.
Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental pollutant known to cause liver damage, however, the mechanisms of its hepatotoxicity remain poorly understood. In this study, the effects of sub-chronic exposure in mice to low doses of Cd on energy metabolism and the gut microbiome were evaluated. The exposure of mice to 10 mg/L Cd supplied in drinking water for 10 weeks increased hepatic triacylglycerol (TG), serum free fatty acid (FFA) and TG levels. The mRNA levels of several key genes involved in both de novo FFA synthesis and transport pathways and in TG synthesis in the liver also increased significantly in the Cd-treated mice, indicating that alterations of these genes may be a possible mechanism to explain sub-chronic Cd exposure induced hepatic toxicity at a molecular level. As for the gut microbiome, at the phylum level, the amounts of Firmicutes and γ-proteobacteria decreased significantly in the feces after 4 weeks of Cd exposure, and the quantity of Firmicutes decreased significantly in the cecum contents after 10 weeks of Cd exposure. In addition, 16S rRNA gene sequencing further revealed that Cd exposure significantly perturbed the gut microflora structure and richness at family and genus levels. The alteration of gut microbiome composition might result in an increase in serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and induce hepatic inflammation, which may indirectly cause perturbations of energy homoeostasis after Cd exposure. Taken together, the present study indicated that sub-chronic Cd exposure caused the dysregulation of energy metabolism and changed the gut microbiome composition in mice.
The gastrointestinal (GI) tract contains much of the body's serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), but mechanisms controlling the metabolism of gut-derived 5-HT remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the microbiota plays a critical role in regulating host 5-HT. Indigenous spore-forming bacteria (Sp) from the mouse and human microbiota promote 5-HT biosynthesis from colonic enterochromaffin cells (ECs), which supply 5-HT to the mucosa, lumen, and circulating platelets. Importantly, microbiota-dependent effects on gut 5-HT significantly impact host physiology, modulating GI motility and platelet function. We identify select fecal metabolites that are increased by Sp and that elevate 5-HT in chromaffin cell cultures, suggesting direct metabolic signaling of gut microbes to ECs. Furthermore, elevating luminal concentrations of particular microbial metabolites increases colonic and blood 5-HT in germ-free mice. Altogether, these findings demonstrate that Sp are important modulators of host 5-HT and further highlight a key role for host-microbiota interactions in regulating fundamental 5-HT-related biological processes.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
The gut microbiome is essential for human health due to its effects on disease development, drug metabolism and the immune system. It may also play a role in the interaction with environmental toxicants. However, the effect of epoxiconazole, a fungicide active ingredient from the class of azoles developed to protect crops, on the abundance and composition of the gut microbiome has never been studied. We put forward the hypothesis that changes in gut microbiota may be early signs of toxicity induced by epoxiconazole.
In this study, female rats were fed with epoxiconazole-adulterated diets (0, 4 and 100 mg/kg/day) for 90 days. The gut microbiome was determined by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Body and organ weight, and blood biochemistry were also measured after 90 days of oral epoxiconazole exposure.
Interestingly, the abundance of gut Firmicutes decreased, and Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria increased. At family level, Lachnospiraceae and Enterobacteriaceae were selectively enriched following epoxiconazole exposure. Our results indicate that epoxiconazole exposure may induce changes in the gut microbiome and potential liver toxicity.
Changes in the gut microbiome may be used as early indicators for monitoring the health risk of the host. © 2015 S. Karger AG, Basel.
Pesticide exposure via residues in food may be especially harmful when it takes place in the developing child. This study was designed to assess the impact of perinatal exposure to chlorpyrifos (CPF, insecticide known to cross the placental barrier).
Female rats were exposed to oral CPF (1 or 5 mg/kg/day vs vehicle controls) from gestation onset until weaning of the pups which were individually gavaged (CPF or vehicle) thereafter. Two developmental time points were studied: weaning (D21) and adulthood (D60). After sacrifice, samples from the intestinal tract and other organs underwent microbiological and histological analyses.
Rat pups exposed to 5 mg/kg/day CPF were both significantly smaller (body length) and lighter than controls. Exposure to CPF was associated with changes in the histological structures (shorter and thinner intestinal villosities), an intestinal microbial dysbiosis and increased bacterial translocation in the spleen and liver. These significant microbial changes in the gut were associated with impaired epithelium protection (mucin-2) and microbial pattern recognition receptors (toll-like 2 and 4) genes expression.
Exposure to CPF during gestation and development affected the pups' intestinal development, with morphological alteration of the structures involved in nutrient absorption, intestinal microbial dysbiosis, alteration of mucosal barrier (mucin-2), stimulation of the innate immune system and increased bacterial translocation. Perinatal exposure to CPF may therefore have short- and long-term impacts on the digestive tract.
Antibiotics have been proposed as supplements in re-feeding programs for malnourished children. A review of pediatric literature showed that growth promotion by antibiotics, when it was observed, was mostly mediated by its anti-infective properties. Despite the widespread use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal rearing, the available evidence again points to the suppression of infections as the underlying mechanism. Under controlled hygienic conditions, growth promotion was frequently not observed. Models for “sub-inhibitory” antibiotic effects on gut bacteria have been proposed, and direct antibiotic effects on host physiology are accumulating. Human gut microbiota analyses in malnourished children (restricted to stool as convenience samples) displayed developmental immaturity of the gut microbiota and growth deficits that were only transiently ameliorated by nutritional interventions. These studies need to be complemented by microbiota analysis in the upper small intestine where bacterial overgrowth, frequently reported in people of the developing world, may directly compete with nutrient absorption by the human host. So far, however, the available medical and veterinary literature suggests that the growth promoting effect of antibiotics mostly works through prevention of infection and a concomitant decrease of the caloric burden of an inflammatory response.
Cadmium (Cd) and chromium (Cr) are considered as the main environmental contaminants which have serious risks for health. Firstly, we observed that the hatchability was significantly decreased by exposure to 10μM Cd for 60 and 96h post fertilization (hpf). And some abnormalities in embryos and larvae were observed especially in the 10μM Cd treated group. Moreover, the free swimming activities and the swimming behaviors of the larval zebrafish in response to the stimulation of light-to-dark photoperiod transition were significantly influenced by both Cd and Cr treatments. Secondly, Cd and Cr exposure induced the changes in oxidative stress of the larval zebrafish. The malondialdehyde (MDA) levels increased and the glutathione (GSH) contents decreased significantly after the exposure to Cd or Cr for 96hpf. Cd or Cr affected not only the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and glutathione S-transferase (GST), but also the transcriptional levels of their respective genes. Thirdly, with regard to the immune response, the mRNA levels of the main cytokines including tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1 β (IL-1β) in the larvae increased significantly after the exposure to Cd and Cr for 96hpf. Our results suggested that Cd and Cr have the potential to cause behavior alterations, oxidative stress and immunotoxicity in the larval zebrafish.
Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier Inc.