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Enhancing the Force–
Velocity Profile of
Athletes Using Weight-
lifting Derivatives
Timothy J. Suchomel, PhD, CSCS*D,
1
Paul Comfort, PhD, CSCS*D,
2
and Jason P. Lake, PhD
3
1
Department of Human Movement Sciences, Carroll University, Waukesha, Wisconsin;
2
Directorate of Sport, Exercise
and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Greater Manchester, United Kingdom; and
3
Department of Sport and
Exercise Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, United Kingdom
ABSTRACT
WEIGHTLIFTING MOVEMENTS AND
THEIR DERIVATIVES MAY BE IM-
PLEMENTED IN A SEQUENCED
PROGRESSION THROUGHOUT
THE TRAINING YEAR TO OPTIMIZE
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATH-
LETE’S STRENGTH, RATE OF
FORCE DEVELOPMENT, AND
POWER OUTPUT. WEIGHTLIFTING
MOVEMENTS AND THEIR DERIVA-
TIVES CAN BE PROGRAMMED
EFFECTIVELY BY CONSIDERING
THEIR FORCE–VELOCITY CHAR-
ACTERISTICS AND PHYSIOLOGI-
CAL UNDERPINNINGS TO MEET
THE SPECIFIC TRAINING GOALS
OF RESISTANCE TRAINING PHA-
SES IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE
TYPICAL APPLICATION OF PERIO-
DIZED TRAINING PROGRAMS.
INTRODUCTION
Weightlifting movements (i.e.,
full lifts including the snatch,
clean and jerk) and their de-
rivatives (i.e., variations that omit part
of the full lift) have been shown to pro-
vide a superior lower extremity train-
ing stimulus compared with other
forms of training including jumping
(106), powerlifting (51), and kettlebell
exercise (71). This is likely due to the
similarities between the rate and pat-
tern of hip, knee, and ankle triple exten-
sion that occur during weightlifting
movements and sport skills such as ver-
tical jumping (7,8,36,52,53,81), sprint-
ing (52), and change of direction
tasks (52), as well as the ability to pro-
vide an overload stimulus (95). In addi-
tion, it has been suggested that
weightlifting movements may be used
to train the muscular strength that is
required during impact tasks, such as
jump landing (68). As a result, many
practitioners implement weightlifting
movements and their derivatives into
resistance training programs for ath-
letes (95). The proper implementation
and progression of resistance training
exercises throughout the training year
facilitates the optimal development of
the force–velocity profile of athletes
(22,23), which has been suggested to
be an important aspect regarding ath-
letic performance (4,69,83). Thus,
information that may assist practi-
tioners when it comes to programming
exercises to optimally develop these
characteristics would be beneficial.
Previous research has investigated
the training effects of various resis-
tance training methods; however,
limited information exists beyond
the manipulation of the sets and rep-
etitions. Ebben et al. (31,32) investi-
gated the effects of a 6-week
plyometric training program on the
development of lower-body explo-
siveness. In addition to the manipula-
tion of sets and repetitions, these
studies programmed exercises within
periodized programs to vary the
intensity of the training stimulus.
Regarding squat movements, the
exercise stimulus may be varied based
on the depth and variation of the
squat (49) as well as the load that is
prescribed. Ultimately, this will mod-
ify the force–velocity characteristics
of the training stimulus, but may
enable the full development of the
athlete’s force–velocity profile. Pre-
vious literature has indicated that the
combination of heavy and light loads
with different exercises, and during
work sets, warm-up sets, and warm-
down sets with the same exercise,
enables the full development of the
athlete’s force–velocity profile (38).
Although information on how to
impact an athlete’s force–velocity
profile using plyometrics and other
Address correspondence to Dr. Timothy J.
Suchomel, timothy.suchomel@gmail.com.
KEY WORDS:
resistance training; rate of force devel-
opment; power output; periodization;
power clean; snatch
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Copyright ªNational Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
forms of resistance training exists
(3,10,20,64), less information exists
on the implementation of weightlift-
ing movements and their derivatives.
Traditionally, weightlifting movements
and their derivatives are programmed
into resistance training programs
where the athletes usually perform
the catch phase of the movement.
Although previous research supports
the notion that weightlifting catching
derivatives may train an athlete’s ability
to “absorb” a load during impact activ-
ities (68), more recent studies indicate
that weightlifting pulling derivatives
that exclude the catch phase may pro-
duce a similar or greater load absorp-
tion stimulus (i.e., loading work, mean
force, and duration) following the sec-
ond pull compared with weightlifting
catching derivatives (17,99). Moreover,
further research has demonstrated that
weightlifting pulling derivatives pro-
duce comparable (11,12) or greater
(60,102,104,105) force, velocity, and
power characteristics during the sec-
ond pull compared with weightlifting
movements that include a catch ele-
ment. Although the complete removal
of weightlifting catching derivatives is
not being suggested, the integration of
weightlifting pulling derivatives into
resistance training programs should
be considered for the comprehensive
development of an athlete’s force–
velocity profile, as elimination of the
catch phase permits the use of greater
loads (i.e., greater forces) (14,16,39)
and potentially greater velocities
(95,101). By using higher loads (i.e.,
.100% 1 repetition maximum [RM]
clean/snatch) during the pulling de-
rivatives, it is likely that greater in-
creases in strength may occur (2,88,89).
Although the use of weightlifting
movements typically results in a low
injury rate (44), previous literature
indicated that training exclusively with
the full weightlifting movements
involving the catch may result in
a greater potential for injury (63,82).
An additional benefit of the pulling
derivatives is the reduced technical
demand (i.e., removal of the catch
phase), which may (a) make the
movements easier for athletes to learn
due to fewer technical components and
(b) may reduce injury potential due to
the relatively neutral position of the
shoulders, elbows, and wrists during
the second pull phase (89). To properly
program weightlifting movements and
their derivatives, additional informa-
tion is needed. The purpose of this
review is to discuss the sequenced
implementation of weightlifting de-
rivatives in resistance training pro-
grams based on their force–velocity
characteristics for the optimal devel-
opment of the rate of force develop-
ment (RFD) and power characteristics
of athletes.
WEIGHTLIFTING DERIVATIVE
FORCE–VELOCITY CURVE
Figure 1 illustrates the theoretical
relationship between force and veloc-
ity with special consideration to
weightlifting derivatives. The high
force end of the force–velocity
curve features weightlifting de-
rivatives that develop the largest
forces due to the loads that can be
used. For example, previous literature
has indicated that the midthigh
pull (14,16,26,55), countermovement
shrug (25), pull from the knee (29),
and pull from the floor (27,39,110)
tend to enable the use of loads in
excess of the athlete’s 1RM power or
hang power clean/snatch. This is due
to the decreased displacement of the
external load during each movement.
In contrast, the high velocity end of
the force–velocity curve features
weightlifting derivatives that are
more ballistic in nature and typically
use lighter loads. The placement of
the jump shrug and hang high pull on
the force–velocity curve is supported
by previous research demonstrating
that the jump shrug (104,105) and the
hang high pull (104) produced higher
velocities compared with the hang
power clean. Moreover, previous
research also indicates that these
exercises may be best prescribed
using lighter loads to maximize
power and velocity (60,92,94,102–
105). Additional research also sup-
ports the placement of the power
clean, power clean from the knee, and
midthigh power clean based on the
1RM (i.e., greater force or less force)
that may be achieved for each
exercise (56).
Although Figure 1 displays the general
force–velocity characteristics of
weightlifting catching and pulling de-
rivatives, the load used during each
exercise may influence its position on
the force–velocity curve. For example,
the midthigh pull is highlighted as the
weightlifting derivative that enables the
use of the heaviest loads (e.g., 140%
Figure 1. Force–velocity (power) curve with respect to weightlifting derivatives.
Enhancing Athlete Force–Velocity Profiles
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2
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1RM of power clean) as indicated by
Comfort et al. (14,16). However, the
same studies indicated that velocity
was maximized with the lightest load
(i.e., 40% 1RM power clean), demon-
strating that by manipulating the load,
the exercise may change its position on
the force–velocity curve. On the
opposite end of the force–velocity
curve, the jump shrug is highlighted
as the weightlifting derivative that
maximizes velocity (92,104). Despite
its potential to produce greater peak
forces compared to the hang high pull
and hang power clean (102,104), using
the jump shrug to develop speed–
strength characteristics may be pref-
erential to other exercises considering
that higher velocities have been re-
ported at the same or similar loads
compared with the hang high pull,
hang power clean, clean pull from the
floor, and midthigh pull. Concurrently,
using the midthigh pull to develop
maximal strength qualities may be
preferential to other exercises as
research has examined loads upward to
140% 1RM (14,16), which would
enhance high force production capac-
ity. Although the previous information
outlines just 2 examples, additional
literature has described the versatility
of weightlifting derivatives through
a properly developed training plan
using seamless and sequential pro-
gramming (21,24). Figure 2 presents
a more detailed proposal of how load
may affect the force–velocity charac-
teristics of the weightlifting derivatives
described in Figure 1 that may aid
strength and conditioning practitioners
when it comes to implementing them
in training.
PERIODIZATION MODEL FOR
WEIGHTLIFTING DERIVATIVES
Previous literature has suggested that
a seamless and sequential progression
of training phases facilitates the optimal
development of the athlete’s force–
velocity profile (22,23,38,67,84,85,112).
This approach, which utilizes phase
potentiation, is often found in models
that use conjugate sequential pro-
gramming (i.e., sequenced develop-
ment and emphasis of fitness
characteristics through block periodi-
zation) (21,24,84,85). Using similar
concepts described in the literature
(67,112), increases in work capacity
and muscle cross-sectional area pro-
duced during a strength–endurance
phase will enhance an athlete’s abil-
ity to increase their muscular strength
in subsequent training phases. From
here, increases in muscular strength
will then enhance an athlete’s potential
to improve their RFD and power
output. A similar approach may be
taken when prescribing weightlifting
derivatives. Because certain weight-
lifting derivatives place greater
emphasis on either force or velocity, it
seems that a sequential progression
and combination of weightlifting de-
rivatives may benefit the athlete when
it comes to developing RFD and
power. Moreover, the technique
learned/refined during earlier training
phases may facilitate increases in the
load used for each exercise.
While much of the comparative litera-
ture indicates that a true block period-
ization model may provide superior
training outcomes for individual sport
athletes (22), it should be noted that
weightlifting derivatives may also be im-
plemented effectively with team sport
athletes using a multilevel block model
such as those discussed by Zatsiorsky
(113), Verkhoshansky and Tatyan
(109), and Bondarchuk (6). Using these
training models, various attributes of
athletes may be developed simulta-
neously while avoiding any potential in-
creases in training volume that may
result in an accumulation in fatigue.
RESISTANCE TRAINING PHASIC
PROGRESSION
Each resistance training phase has
its own unique characteristics that
Figure 2. Proposed guidelines for the force–velocity characteristics of weightlifting derivatives with respect to load. Blue 5studied
loads; red 5hypothetical loads; gray area 5comparable force–velocity characteristics at given load ranges.
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include specific goals, set and repeti-
tion schemes, and loads. However,
another aspect that must be consid-
ered is the selection of exercises to
meet the training goals of each resis-
tance training phase. Although core
exercises such as squatting, pressing,
and pulling movements may be pre-
scribed in every training phase, the
characteristics of each weightlifting
derivative depicted in Figure 1 may
lead practitioners to prescribe cer-
tain derivatives in specific training
phases. Specifically, the biomechan-
ical and physiological characteristics
of each weightlifting derivative may
indicate that certain derivatives
should be prescribed during certain
training phases to meet the training
goals of each phase. A recent article
discussed the implementation of
weightlifting derivatives when devel-
oping sprint speed (21). The authors
noted that specific derivatives
should be implemented during the
general preparation, special prepara-
tion, early–midseason, and mid–late-
season phases of training to achieve
optimal adaptations of strength,
RFD, and power while training
through specific joint angles that are
characteristic to different phases of
sprinting.
The following paragraphs will discuss
the characteristics of strength–
endurance, maximal strength, absolute
strength, strength–speed, and speed–
strength resistance training phases
and the recommended weightlifting
derivatives to prescribe in each training
phase for the optimal development of
an athlete’s force–velocity profile based
on the biomechanical and physiologi-
cal characteristics of each exercise.
Examples of strength and power
development programming using
phase potentiation are displayed in
Tables 1–5. It should be noted that the
loads displayed in each table represent
relative intensities based on the specific
set and repetition configurations as
described by previous literature (23,86).
Using this method of load prescription,
the load percentage is based off of
a RM for each individual exercise. For
example, performing 3 sets of 10 rep-
etitions of the back squat at 90% is
based on 90% of the athlete’s 10RM
back squat. It should also be noted that
lighter intensities were prescribed on
day 3 of each table to allow for ade-
quate recovery and the reduced chance
of accumulated fatigue and over-
training (23), but also to ensure that
a variety of power outputs would be
used resulting in positive adaptations to
the power–load spectrum (48,72).
Lastly, practitioners should note that
the example training blocks may follow
a return to fitness training period
(typically 1–2 weeks), where large
emphases are placed on exercise
technique and recovery in preparation
for the subsequent training blocks.
STRENGTH–ENDURANCE
The strength–endurance phase is
characterized by a high volume of
repetitions (usually 8–12) in exercises
that use moderately heavy loads (;55–
75% 1RM) (86). The goals of this
Table 1
Example strength–endurance training block using relative intensities
based on attainable loads for sets and repetitions
Week Objective Volume Day 1 (%) Day 2 (%) Day 3 (%)
1 Strength–endurance 3 310 85 85 75–77.5
2 Strength–endurance 3 310 90 90 80
3 Strength–endurance 3 310 92.5 92.5 80–82.5
The loads prescribed represent relative intensities based on the set and repetition config-
urations as discussed by Stone and O’Bryant (86) and DeWeese et al. (23).
Day 1 (push emphasis): back squat, overhead press, barbell lunges, and bench press.
Day 2 (pull emphasis): clean grip pull to knee (clean grip pull to knee performed for 3 35
throughout block to maintain technique integrity; clean grip/snatch grip pull from the floor
may be substituted with advanced athletes using cluster sets of 2 or 5 repetitions to maintain
technique integrity), clean grip shoulder shrug, stiff-legged deadlift, and pull-ups.
Day 3 (push–pull combo): snatch grip shoulder shrug, front squat, incline bench press, and
dumbbell step-ups.
Table 2
Example maximal strength training block using relative intensities based on
attainable loads for sets and repetitions
Week Objective Volume Day 1 (%) Day 2 (%) Day 3 (%)
4 Maximal strength 3 35 87.5 87.5 75–77.5
5 Maximal strength 3 35 90 90 77.5–80
6 Absolute strength 3 35 95 95 80–82.5
7 Maximal strength 3 35 82.5 82.5 75–77.5
The loads prescribed represent relative intensities based on the set and repetition config-
urations as discussed by Stone and O’Bryant (86) and DeWeese et al. (23).
Day 1 (push emphasis): front squat, overhead press, barbell split squat, and incline bench
press.
Day 2 (pull emphasis): clean grip midthigh pull, clean grip pull from floor, glute–ham raises,
and bent over row.
Day 3 (push–pull combo): snatch grip midthigh pull, back squat, bench press, and reverse
hyperextensions.
Enhancing Athlete Force–Velocity Profiles
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training phase are to increase the ath-
lete’s overall work capacity and to
stimulate increases in muscle cross-
sectional area. According to Minetti
(67) and Zamparo et al. (112), the
strength–endurance phase serves as
a building block for subsequent resis-
tance training phases. Specifically, the
strength–endurance phase will
enhance the athlete’s force production
(both magnitude and rate) character-
istics in subsequent training phases
(22,23,85). In addition, the technique
learned during the strength–endurance
phase is likely to carry over into later
training phases. Thus, it is important to
implement exercises that serve as
a foundation for future exercise
progressions.
Although foundational exercises such
as squatting, pressing, and pulling varia-
tions are typically implemented, only
one article has discussed the use
of weightlifting derivatives within
a strength–endurance phase (75). Scala
et al. (75) indicated that implementing
exercises, including weightlifting pulling
derivatives (i.e., clean/snatch pull from
floor, thigh, and knee and clean/
snatch grip shoulder shrugs), that
recruit large amounts of muscle mass
during a high volume strength–
endurance phase may result in posi-
tive adaptations in aerobic power and
body composition, but would also
meet many basic requirements for the
preparation of strength–power ath-
letes. Based on these findings and the
goals of a strength–endurance phase,
the weightlifting derivatives recom-
mended for this phase are the clean/
snatch pull from the floor (27,39,110),
pull to the knee (28), and clean/
snatch grip shoulder shrug. The
rationale for the inclusion of these
exercises is multifaceted. First, each
derivative serves as a foundational
exercise that enables the progression
to more complex weightlifting
movements. Without the ability to
complete the above exercises, the
technique of more complex de-
rivatives may not be completed effi-
ciently, potentially impacting the
stimulus of the exercise. Second, the
clean/snatch pull from the floor en-
ables athletes to overload the triple
extension of the hips, knees, and an-
kles without experiencing the addi-
tional stress and complexity of
catching the load during every repe-
tition as fatigue develops. Although
the catch phase of certain weightlift-
ing derivatives may enable the athlete
to develop additional characteristics
(e.g., improvement in skeletal and soft
tissue characteristics (50,91), posi-
tional strength, external load accep-
tance, etc.), the high volume of
repetitions experienced during the
strength–endurance phase may lead
to a deterioration in form due to acute
fatigue. Moreover, this decline in
technique could alter catch phase
mechanics and thus increase the
likelihood of injury or compression
stress. Although declines in technique
during weightlifting catching derivatives
may be attenuated by using various
cluster set configurations with higher
repetitions (46), previous literature
indicated that may be necessary to
reduce the number of collisions with the
bar, especially during heavy clean and
Table 3
Example transition to absolute strength training block using relative
intensities based on attainable loads for sets and repetitions
Week Objective Volume Day 1 (%) Day 2 (%) Day 3 (%)
8 Maximal strength 5 35 87.5 87.5 75–77.5
9 Maximal strength 3 35 92.5 92.5 80
10 Absolute strength 3 35 95–97.5 95–97.5 82.5
11 Maximal strength–strength–
speed
333 80–82.5 80–82.5 75
The loads prescribed represent relative intensities based on the set and repetition config-
urations as discussed by Stone and O’Bryant (86) and DeWeese et al. (23).
Day 1 (push emphasis): push press, back squat, bench press, and squat and press.
Day 2 (pull emphasis): midthigh power clean, clean grip pull from floor, stiff-legged deadlift,
and pull-ups.
Day 3 (push–pull combo): snatch grip countermovement shrug, back squat, incline bench
press, and barbell split squat.
Table 4
Example absolute strength training block using relative intensities based on
attainable loads for sets and repetitions
Week Objective Volume Day 1 (%) Day 2 (%) Day 3 (%)
12 Absolute strength 5 33 85–87.5 85–87.5 75
13 Absolute strength 3 33 92.5 92.5 75–77.5
14 Absolute strength 3 33 95 95 80–82.5
15 Strength–speed 3 32 80–82.5 80–82.5 75
The loads prescribed represent relative intensities based on the set and repetition config-
urations as discussed by Stone and O’Bryant (86) and DeWeese et al. (23).
Day 1 (push emphasis): push jerk, back squat, bench press, and parallel squat jumps.
Day 2 (pull emphasis): power clean, clean grip midthigh pull, and bent over row.
Day 3 (push–pull combo): midthigh power snatch, back squat, and push press.
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jerks, to limit potential overuse injuries
(82). Finally, the suggested derivatives
enable the development of important
lower- and upper-body musculature
that will be used to enhance the
force–velocity profile during later
training phases in tandem with core
exercises such as squatting, pressing,
and pulling movements. An example
strength–endurance training block is
displayed in Table 1.
It should be noted that the athletic
population may dictate which weight-
lifting movements are prescribed in
a strength–endurance training block.
For example, the clean/snatch pull
from the floor may only be incorpo-
rated with an advanced athletic pop-
ulation whose movement mechanics
are more stable and resilient to fatigue.
As mentioned above, because of the
high volume of repetitions within each
exercise set, practitioners may consider
prescribing cluster sets (i.e., exercise set
split into smaller sets of repetitions
separated by rest intervals) of either
2–5 repetitions for the clean/snatch
pull from the floor (e.g., 10 total rep-
etitions 55 repetitions /30-second
rest /5 repetitions). Through the use
of cluster sets, athletes may maintain
their technique, force, and power out-
put in subsequent training phases that
use heavier loads (39,46,47). This may
also lead to high-quality work,
enhanced work capacity, and force
production adaptations with a high vol-
ume of repetitions (107). Moreover, the
interrepetition rest period also provides
the coach with the opportunity to pro-
vide additional feedback to the athlete.
MAXIMAL STRENGTH
Adaptations produced from the
strength–endurance phase of train-
ing may enhance an athlete’s ability
to gain maximal strength (67,112).
The primary goal of the maximal
strength phase is to increase the
athlete’s force production capacity
(5,89) using repetition schemes that
include about 4–6 repetitions and
moderately heavy loads (usually 80–
90% 1RM, although potentially
slightly higher with the pulling de-
rivatives). Based on the goals of the
maximal strength phase, practitioners
may shift their focus to exercises that
emphasize force production. From
a biomechanical standpoint, the
amount of force that must be applied
to achieve the maximum potential
movement velocity will be maxi-
mized by performing weightlifting
movements that allow the heaviest
loads to be used. With this in mind,
a limitation to weightlifting catching
derivatives is that the athlete cannot
use loads greater than their 1RM.
However, this is not the case for
weightlifting pulling derivatives. The
clean/snatch pull from the floor
(27,39,110), clean/snatch pull from
the knee (29), and the clean/snatch
midthigh pull (14,16,26,55) all allow
for loads greater than the athlete’s
1RM to be used due to a decreased
displacement of the load and the
elimination of the catch phase. Ulti-
mately, the use of heavier loads will
emphasize force production and train
the high force end of the force–
velocity curve (Figure 1). Examples
of maximal strength and transition
training blocks are displayed in Ta-
bles 2 and 3, respectively.
ABSOLUTE STRENGTH
Although the maximal strength train-
ing block typically aims to increase the
athlete’s general strength characteris-
tics during moderate repetition
schemes (i.e., 4–6), the goals of an
absolute strength training block are to
improve the athlete’s low repetition
(i.e., 2–3) force production (both mag-
nitude and rate) characteristics using
near maximal loads (usually 90–95%
1RM, although this can increase to
120–140% 1RM with the pulling deriv-
atives). As new force production de-
mands are placed on the athlete,
additional weightlifting derivatives
may be prescribed to meet the training
goals of the absolute strength resis-
tance training phase. Weightlifting de-
rivatives featured in the previous
resistance training phase, including
the clean/snatch pull from the floor,
clean/snatch pull from the knee, and
midthigh pull, will carry over into the
absolute strength resistance training
phase. Although these derivatives
enable the athlete to retain their capac-
ity for high force production, addi-
tional weightlifting derivatives that
include a higher velocity may be pre-
scribed during warm-up and warm-
down sets and on training days where
relative intensities are prescribed to
lower the volume–load, while intro-
ducing or retaining a speed–strength
characteristic. These might include
the hang power clean/snatch (93),
power clean/snatch, countermove-
ment shrug (25), countermovement
clean/snatch, midthigh clean/snatch
(11,12,15), and the full clean and
snatch. The combination of heavy and
moderate loads that enable a higher
velocity also enables the athlete to train
the high force side in addition to
Table 5
Example strength–speed and speed–strength training block using relative
intensities based on attainable loads for sets and repetitions
Week Objective Volume Day 1 (%) Day 2 (%) Day 3 (%)
16 Speed–strength 4 3285 85 75
17 Strength–speed 3 32 90 90 77.5
18 Speed–strength 2 32 82.5–85 82.5 75
The loads prescribed represent relative intensities based on the set and repetition config-
urations as discussed by Stone and O’Bryant (86) and DeWeese et al. (23).
Day 1: push jerk, back squat, bench press, and ¼ squat jumps.
Day 2: countermovement power clean and clean grip jump shrug.
Day 3: countermovement power snatch, back squat, and push press.
Enhancing Athlete Force–Velocity Profiles
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aspects of the high velocity side. This is
important during the absolute strength
phase as it enables the athlete to
improve their force–velocity profile.
These adaptations will ultimately
contribute to the athlete’s ability to
further develop impulse, RFD, and
power characteristics (3). An absolute
strength training block example is
displayed in Table 4.
STRENGTH–SPEED
The primary goals of the strength–
speed training phase are to further
increase RFD and power, while also
maintaining or potentially increasing
strength levels. Practitioners should
note the importance of maintaining or
continuing to develop maximal strength
during the strength–speed phase due to
its influence on an athlete’s sport per-
formance and their fitness character-
istics including both RFD and power
(100). Because previous literature has
indicated that RFD and power are 2 of
the most important characteristics
regarding an athlete’s performance
(4,69,83), it is important to prepare the
athlete to maximize these adaptations
using the previously discussed training
phases (22,23). Based on the phasic
progression of resistance training pha-
ses, increases in muscular strength (100)
and RFD (3) from the previous training
phases should, in theory, enhance the
athlete’s ability to augment their power
characteristics.
Regarding the programming of weight-
lifting derivatives during the strength–
speed phase, the enhancement of
RFD and power characteristics may be
achieved through the combination of
heavy and light loads. However, the
emphasis within this phase of training is
to move relatively heavy loads quickly
to enhance RFD characteristics (21).
Using the derivatives displayed in Fig-
ure 1, the midthigh clean/snatch
(11,12,15), countermovement clean/
snatch (93), and power clean/snatch
from the knee (15,98) may be used to
develop the high velocity portion of the
force–velocity curve, whereas the power
clean (13,19), clean and snatch pull from
the floor (27), clean and snatch pull from
the knee (29), and midthigh pull (26)
may develop the high force end of the
force–velocity curve.
SPEED–STRENGTH
Explosive strength may be defined as
the force development characteristics
within the first 0–250 milliseconds of
the concentric phase of a movement
(1,65). The purpose of a speed–
strength resistance training phase is to
produce peak adaptations in RFD and
power before competition. The adapta-
tions and alterations in task specificity in
the previous training phases enable
athletes to progress in a desirable fashion
to increase their speed–strength (i.e.,
explosiveness) (5,89,90). Specifically, in-
creases in rate coding due to increased
myelination, dendritic branching, and
doublets(30,108)mayhaveresulted
because of the exposure of heavier loads
in the maximal strength, absolute
strength, and strength–speed training
phases. Additional adaptations in neural
drive (40,42,70), inter- and possibly intra-
muscular coordination (9,41,43,74), and
motor unit synchronization (76,77) may
also aid in the development of explosive
force–time characteristics.
Optimal adaptations in RFD and
power may be achieved by implement-
ing a wide variety of the previously
described weightlifting derivatives.
Many of the previously described
weightlifting derivatives may be pre-
scribed during the speed–strength
resistance training phase. However,
the speed at which the movement is
performed, and therefore the load, must
be considered. The jump shrug (97) and
hang high pull (96) are 2 of the most
ballistic weightlifting derivatives that
may be highlighted in a speed–strength
training phase (95). Similar to the
strength–speed phase, a combination of
heavy and light loaded derivatives
should be implemented to optimize
RFD and power adaptations. Practi-
tioners may consider implementing the
combination of the midthigh pull or
clean/snatch pull from the floor and the
jump shrug and hang high pull to
focus training on each extreme of the
force–velocity curve (Figure 1). In
addition, the combination of the above
exercises enables the athlete to simulate
overcoming the inertia of the external
load from a static start (e.g., midthigh
pull) and using the stretch-shortening
cycle (e.g., jump shrug). This combina-
tion will ultimately place varying neuro-
logical demands on the athlete, allowing
them to optimize impulse, RFD, and
power characteristics.
Practitioners must also consider the
loads implemented with each exercise
within the speed–strength phase. To
optimize power adaptations, it has
been suggested that athletes should
train at the load that maximizes power
output, the “optimal load” (54,111).
Research has indicated that loads of
approximately 70–80% 1RM may
provide the optimal load for weight-
lifting catching derivatives such as the
power clean (13,18,19,78) and hang
power clean (53,57,78). However, sev-
eral of these studies indicated that
there were no statistical differences in
power output between loads ranging
from 50 to 90% 1RM (13,18,19,53,57).
Research investigating the optimal
load for weightlifting pulling de-
rivatives is limited because of the lack
of criteria that indicates a successful
repetition (100). However, several
studies have suggested that lighter
loads (i.e., 30–45% 1RM hang power
clean) may optimize training stimuli for
the jump shrug (60,92,102–105) and
hang high pull (94,102,104). Similarly,
Comfort et al. (14,16) indicated that
during midthigh clean pulls, loads
ranging from 40 to 60% of power clean
1RM maximized power, similar to the
findings of Kawamori et al. (55).
Additional literature has indicated that
loads ranging 90–110% of the in-
dividual’s 1RM power clean (39) or full
clean/snatch (33–35,73) may produce
the optimal training stimulus for
velocity and power adaptations during
the clean/snatch pull from the floor.
Practitioners should however consider
that the optimal load for power pro-
duction may be specific to the joint,
athlete plus load system, or the bar
(66), may be altered based on the rel-
ative strength of the athlete (87), and
may be impacted by movement pattern
and the fatigue status of the athlete
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 7
Copyright ªNational Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
(54). Although optimal loading studies
may provide practitioners with a base-
line for load prescription, it is suggested
that a range of loads should be pre-
scribed to train various aspects of an
athlete’s force–velocity profile (38).
Support for this contention comes
from a recent meta-analysis that dis-
played that optimal loading zones ex-
isted for a variety of lower-body
exercises (78). An example of
a strength–speed and speed–strength
training block is displayed in Table 5.
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
LOAD PRESCRIPTION
Two methods of load prescription
can be used when implementing the
weightlifting derivatives discussed in
the previous paragraphs. Tradition-
ally, loads for weightlifting deriva-
tives may be prescribed based off of
the 1RM of each exercise. Although
this may still hold true for weightlift-
ing catch derivatives, there are no
criteria describing what constitutes
a successful 1RM attempt during
weightlifting pulling derivatives
(100). Thus, practitioners are left
prescribing the loads for weightlift-
ing pulling derivatives based on
a 1RM of a weightlifting catching
derivative. The vast majority of liter-
ature that has examined weightlifting
derivatives used a percentage of
a 1RM completed with a catching deriv-
ative (11–14,16,19,37,39,45–47,53,55,57–
62,79,80,92–94,102–105,110). Although
this method may work for some practi-
tioners, others may discourage the prac-
tice of 1RM tests, which may make it
difficult to prescribe loads for pulling
derivatives.
Another alternative to prescribing
loads for weightlifting movements,
which is highlighted in Tables 1–5, is
the use of a method termed set–rep
best (23,86). As mentioned above, the
set–rep best method of load prescrip-
tion is based on the loads that may be
completed during specific set and rep-
etition schemes in training. For exam-
ple, an individual may complete
a heavy resistance training block with
a set and repetition scheme of 3 sets of
3 repetitions. In this scenario, the rela-
tive intensity percentage is based off of
the 3RM for each individual exercise.
Based on the load(s) completed during
training, one may estimate the 1RM of
the individual, but may also estimate
loads that may be used during other
repetition schemes. Advantages to this
method of load prescription are that
the athletes do not have to perform
a 1RM test and that this method can
be used with any exercise.
STATIC VERSUS DYNAMIC
VARIATIONS
Certain weightlifting derivatives may
be performed using weightlifting
training blocks or squat rack safety
bars (e.g., midthigh pull, clean/snatch
pull from the knee, and clean/snatch
from the knee). It should be noted
that the use of certain variations may
place different demands on the ath-
lete. For example, a weightlifting
derivative performed using a static
start from either the blocks, safety
bars,orevenwhenheldstationaryat
a specific position (e.g., midthigh or
knee) may require a greater RFD
compared with a dynamic start
because the athlete would have to
overcome the inertia of the training
load from a dead-stop position, as
previously observed (11,12). Although
a dynamic variation will still require
a large RFD, as is characteristic of
all weightlifting derivatives, the ath-
lete will already have developed
a given amount of force. Practitioners
should consider the differences
between static and dynamic weight-
lifting variations as different demands
will be required of the athletes per-
forming the exercises.
CONCLUSIONS
Weightlifting movements and their de-
rivatives may be programmed through-
out the training year to fully develop
and improve the athlete’s force–
velocity profile. Practitioners should
consider the prescription of specific
weightlifting derivatives during certain
training phases based on their bio-
mechanical and physiological charac-
teristics. A combination of weightlifting
catching and pulling derivatives may be
used to develop the athlete’s force–
velocity profile. A sequenced approach
should be taken when prescribing
weightlifting derivatives to meet the
goals of each training phase.
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
The authors report no conflicts of interest
and no source of funding.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Dr. Brad DeWeese
for his insight regarding the program-
ming of weightlifting derivatives in
resistance training programs.
Timothy J.
Suchomel is an
assistant profes-
sor in the
Department of
Human Move-
ment Sciences at
Carroll
University.
Paul Comfort is
a senior lecturer
and program
leader of the MSc
Strength and
Conditioning in
the Directorate of
Sport, Exercise,
and Physiother-
apy at the Uni-
versity of Salford.
Jason P. Lake is
a senior lecturer
and program
leader of the MSc
Strength and
Conditioning in
the Department of
Sport and Exer-
cise Sciences at the University of Chichester.
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