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Developmental context of peer harassment in early adolescence: The role of puberty and the peer group
... Studies show that exhibiting a different maturational trajectory than peers is a risk factor peer victimization (see Table 1 for a summary of studies on pubertal timing and peer victimization), although very few studies have investigated which specific pubertal cues make children targets. For instance, studies show that adolescents who self-report more advanced pubertal development (compared to less advanced) than their peers report significantly higher rates of peer victimization (Carter et al., 2018;Craig et al., 2001;Reynolds & Juvonen, 2011;Skoog & Kapetanovic, 2022;Su et al., 2018). In addition, several studies have reported that adolescents that report delayed pubertal development also are at higher risk (Haltigan & Vaillancourt, 2018;Jormanainen et al., 2014). ...
... Specifically, females farther along in adrenal puberty status at 9 years old were more likely to report experiencing higher levels of peer victimization at age 12, a finding that remained significant after statistically adjusting for BMI, father absence. It is important to note that, if our study had used an overall PDS score that combines cues of both gonadal and adrenal puberty, as several previous studies have done (Carter et al., 2018;Craig et al., 2001), we would have found a significant and positive association between early overall pubertal status and peer victimization in females (Coeff. = 0.17, SE = 0.06, p = .006) ...
... However, no studies, to our knowledge, have sought to explicitly examine the extent to which adrenal pubertal development is linked to social changes (e.g., reduced fearfulness, enhanced memory), and if these, social changes in turn increase victimization. There is a body of literature that implicates the degree of social competence, or the ability to start conversations with others, develop and preserve friendships easily, and solve problems in social contexts (Asher, 1983), is related to peer victimization (Carter et al., 2018;Craig et al., 2001;Troop-Gordon, 2017). It is unclear if adrenal-linked social behavioral skills correspond with low or high social competence measures as it is untested. ...
Peer victimization typically peaks in early adolescence, leading researchers to hypothesize that pubertal timing is a meaningful predictor of peer victimization. However, previous methodological approaches have limited our ability to parse out which puberty cues are associated with peer victimization because gonadal and adrenal puberty, two independent processes, have either been conflated or adrenal puberty timing has been ignored. In addition, previous research has overlooked the possibility of reverse causality—that peer victimization might drive pubertal timing, as it has been shown to do in non‐human primates. To fill these gaps, we followed 265 adolescents (47% female) prospectively across three‐time points ( M age : T1 = 9.6, T2 = 12.0, T3 = 14.4) and measured self‐report peer victimization and self‐ and maternal‐report of gonadal and adrenal pubertal development on the Pubertal Development Scale. Multilevel modeling revealed that females who were further along in adrenal puberty at age 9 were more likely to report peer victimization at age 12 (Cohen's d = 0.25, p = .005). The relation between gonadal puberty status and peer victimization was not significant for either sex. In terms of the reverse direction, the relation between early peer victimization and later pubertal development was not significant in either sex. Overall, our findings suggest that adrenal puberty status, but not gonadal puberty status, predicted peer victimization in females, highlighting the need to separate gonadal and adrenal pubertal processes in future studies.
... Bullying affects not only the victim but also the bullies themselves [46] who often suffer from negative effects that last into adulthood [50,51]. Bullies are at a higher risk of breaking the law as adolescents [52], substance abuse, and self-reports of illegal behavior [50]. On the other hand, bullying and victimization should not be considered opposing behaviors because bullies often also have been bullied themselves [53]. ...
... Although many studies have focused on bullies, most such research of bullying between children is comprised of questionnaire surveys that ask children asking about their current situation: "Have you ever been bullied/are you being bullied?" The degree of veracity from such questions cannot obviously be ensured [52]. In addition, the questions are retrospective, and perhaps the biases of both victims and bullies are included; the influence of time bias is also significant [78]. ...
... Other children's promoting actions as well as joint actions also intensified the abuse. This is consistent with the fact that in school bullying, bystanders encourage bullies in groupbullying situations [52,84]. ...
Both qualitatively and quantitatively, we analyzed the phenomenon of children who engage in such serious abuse as kicking and punching robots by observing their first encounter with the robot to serious abuse and finally leaving the robot. In study 1, we established a process model of robot abuse and used a qualitative analysis method: the Trajectory Equifinality Model (TEM). We analyzed interactions from nine children who committed serious robot abuse from which we developed a multi-stage model: the abuse escalation model. The model has four stages: approach, mild abuse, physical abuse, and severe abuse. For each stage, we identified social guides (SGs), which are influencing events that fuel the stage. In study 2-1, we conducted a quantitative analysis to examine the effect of SG1 to SG3. We analyzed 12 h of data that included 522 children who visited the observed area, coded their behaviors, and statistically tested whether the presence of each SG promoted the stage. Next, in study 2-2, we examined the effect of SG4 and SG5 on the escalation of physical abuse to a more serious level of abuse. We analyzed 40 h of data that include 363 children who physically abused the robot. Our analysis in study 2-1 and 2-2 confirmed the correlations of all five SGs and children’s behaviors: the presence of other children related a new child to approach the robot (SG1); mild abuse by another child related a child to do mild abuse (SG2); physical abuse by another child related a child to conduct physical abuse (SG3); joint action of other child (SG4) and encouragement from others (SG5) related a child to escalate the abuse.
... Such discordance in the development of different body parts often becomes a target of peer harassment. Indeed, research on adolescent peer relationships acknowledges that puberty, which signifies sexual maturation to the outer world, provides new motivations and reasons to embarrass and harass one another [9,10]. Early puberty is identified as a risk for peer victimization [11,12], especially sexual and social harassment [9,[13][14][15] in early adolescence [16], but the evidence is somewhat mixed for boys with some studies identifying late maturers at heightened risk of becoming victims of peer harassment [17]. ...
... Indeed, research on adolescent peer relationships acknowledges that puberty, which signifies sexual maturation to the outer world, provides new motivations and reasons to embarrass and harass one another [9,10]. Early puberty is identified as a risk for peer victimization [11,12], especially sexual and social harassment [9,[13][14][15] in early adolescence [16], but the evidence is somewhat mixed for boys with some studies identifying late maturers at heightened risk of becoming victims of peer harassment [17]. To date, there are no studies on how pubertal asynchrony affects peer victimization. ...
... Because pubertal asynchrony creates a physical appearance in which body parts grow disproportionately, one's overall appearance may appear gawky and awkward at times. As physical appearance is an important correlate of peer relationships among youth in early adolescence [9,10], we speculate that asynchronously developing youth might be subject to stigmatization and victimization. ...
Pubertal synchrony is defined as the degree of coherence to which puberty-related body changes (e.g., breast development, growth spurt, voice change, underarm hair growth) are coordinated. During the pubertal transition, youth’s body parts grow asynchronously, making each youth’s physical appearance unique. Physical appearance is a known correlate of youth’s psychosocial functioning during adolescence, but we know little about how pubertal asynchrony plays a role in their peer relationships. Using data from an adoption study (the Early Growth and Development Study; n = 413; 237 boys, 176 girls), this study examined the effect of pubertal asynchrony on peer victimization. Results revealed sex-specific effects of pubertal asynchrony; pubertal asynchrony was associated with a higher risk of peer victimization for girls but a lower risk for boys. Findings highlight the intersection of physical development and social context in understanding youth’s experiences of puberty.
... Moreover, young people's interactions with peers are not restricted to school grounds and with increasing opportunities to connect with peers online, adolescents are more likely to report experiencing cyber peer victimization (e.g., victimization through email, picture/video clips, text messages, social media, social networks, online games) when compared with children (Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014). Researchers have also observed that peer victimization becomes sexualized during adolescence (American Association of University Women [AAUW], 1993;Berman, Straatman, Hunt, Izumi, & MacQuarrie, 2002;Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001;Hill & Kearl, 2011;McMaster, Connolly, Pepler, & Craig, 2002). From a developmental perspective, studies of peer victimization during adolescence should include and compare assessments of multiple forms of peer victimization, including physical, verbal, social, cyber, and sexual. ...
... In a nationwide survey of 1,965 American students in Grades 7 through 12, 48% reported experiencing some form of sexual harassment during the 2010-2011 school year and the majority identified peers as the perpetrators (Hill & Kearl, 2011). Although sexual peer victimization may emerge prior to adolescence (e.g., Murnen & Smolak, 2000) and increases into early adolescence (Craig et al., 2001), the higher prevalence rates obtained in studies conducted with older adolescents suggests that sexual peer victimization is particularly salient during the developmental stage of adolescence (e.g., AAUW, 1993;Fineran & Bennett, 1999;Hill & Kearl, 2011;Pepler et al., 2006). Some research suggests that this is perhaps due to adolescent developmental milestones such as the emergence of other-sex peer interactions (Craig et al., 2001), puberty (McMaster et al., 2002), and gender-role development (Buchanan & McDougall, 2017). ...
... Although sexual peer victimization may emerge prior to adolescence (e.g., Murnen & Smolak, 2000) and increases into early adolescence (Craig et al., 2001), the higher prevalence rates obtained in studies conducted with older adolescents suggests that sexual peer victimization is particularly salient during the developmental stage of adolescence (e.g., AAUW, 1993;Fineran & Bennett, 1999;Hill & Kearl, 2011;Pepler et al., 2006). Some research suggests that this is perhaps due to adolescent developmental milestones such as the emergence of other-sex peer interactions (Craig et al., 2001), puberty (McMaster et al., 2002), and gender-role development (Buchanan & McDougall, 2017). ...
The aim of the present study was to compare recollections of sexual, physical, verbal, social, and cyber peer victimization experienced in high school in terms of depressed affect, self-esteem, and loneliness experienced in university. In all, 247 university students (70 males and 177 females; M = 20.62, SD = 2.54) completed online measures assessing retrospective accounts of their experiences of different forms of peer victimization during high school (i.e., sexual, physical, verbal, social, and cyber) and their current psychosocial adjustment (i.e., self-esteem, depressed affect, and loneliness). Three separate hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to determine whether different indices of negative psychosocial adjustment are more strongly predicted by experiencing sexual or nonsexual forms of peer victimization. Although many university students recalled experiencing sexual peer victimization in high school at least once at an even higher percentage than verbal and social forms of peer victimization, the results of the present study suggest that social peer victimization in high school predicts higher levels of depressed affect and loneliness in university students than sexual peer victimization experienced in high school. Surprisingly, the young adults reporting higher levels of cyber peer victimization in high school were less lonely in university. Although the hypothesized relationships between each form of peer victimization and specific indices of psychosocial functioning were not consistently supported, these findings suggest that the form of peer victimization matters and may be differentially associated with well-being in emerging adulthood. It is important that future research explores how individual characteristics may further predict varied experiences of peer victimization and the long-term impact of those experiences.
... In some contrast to child sex, less research has examined whether children's pubertal development is associated with peer victimization or victimization considered more broadly (e.g., sexual harassment by peers). Research which has done so has, in fact, suggested meaningful associations between off-time pubertal development and peer victimization, as well as victimization more generally (Craig et al. 2001;Haynie and Piquero 2006;Faris and Felmlee 2014;Jormanainen et al. 2014), although questions remain regarding differences in effects between boys and girls, as well as whether the effect of pubertal development on peer victimization wanes across adolescence. From an evolutionary social-signaling (Dawkins 2006;Faris and Felmlee 2014) standpoint, it might be expected that any physical or social characteristics associated with the pubertal process which serve to highlight asymmetries between children (i.e., phenotypic features associated with delayed or accelerated puberty) may serve as vulnerability factors for peer victimization or involvement in bullying more generally as a perpetrator or a target (Craig et al. 2001;Kaltiala-Heino et al. 2003;Volk et al. 2012). ...
... Research which has done so has, in fact, suggested meaningful associations between off-time pubertal development and peer victimization, as well as victimization more generally (Craig et al. 2001;Haynie and Piquero 2006;Faris and Felmlee 2014;Jormanainen et al. 2014), although questions remain regarding differences in effects between boys and girls, as well as whether the effect of pubertal development on peer victimization wanes across adolescence. From an evolutionary social-signaling (Dawkins 2006;Faris and Felmlee 2014) standpoint, it might be expected that any physical or social characteristics associated with the pubertal process which serve to highlight asymmetries between children (i.e., phenotypic features associated with delayed or accelerated puberty) may serve as vulnerability factors for peer victimization or involvement in bullying more generally as a perpetrator or a target (Craig et al. 2001;Kaltiala-Heino et al. 2003;Volk et al. 2012). Such a perspective is consonant with the idea that being 'out-of-sync' with one's peers with respect to pubertal development results in poorer adjustment (Graber and Sontag 2009) and the 'deviance hypothesis' which suggests that off-time puberty deviations, either early or late, are likely to be associated with difficulties in psychosocial adaptation, particularly among girls (Graber et al. 1997;Haynie and Piquero 2006). ...
... Such a perspective is consonant with the idea that being 'out-of-sync' with one's peers with respect to pubertal development results in poorer adjustment (Graber and Sontag 2009) and the 'deviance hypothesis' which suggests that off-time puberty deviations, either early or late, are likely to be associated with difficulties in psychosocial adaptation, particularly among girls (Graber et al. 1997;Haynie and Piquero 2006). Moreover, as suggested by Craig et al. (2001), associations between pubertal maturation and peer victimization may differ along gender lines. Early pubertal development may highlight girls' emerging sexuality, while delayed pubertal development may serve to place boys at risk for victimization because they will lack the physical strength and size advantage relative to same-sex and cross-sex peers. ...
Using 6 cycles (grade 5 through grade 10) of data obtained from a large prospective sample of Canadian school children (N = 700; 52.6% girls), we replicated previous findings concerning the empirical definition of peer victimization (i.e., being bullied) and examined static and dynamic intrapersonal factors associated with its emergence and experiential continuity through mid-adolescence. Latent class analyses consistently revealed a low victimization and an elevated victimization class across time, supporting previous work suggesting peer victimization was defined by degree rather than by type (e.g., physical). Using latent transition analyses (LTA), we found that child sex, parent-perceived pubertal development, and internalizing symptoms influenced the probability of transitioning from the low to the elevated victimization class across time. Higher-order extensions within the LTA modeling framework revealed a lasting effect of grade 5 victimization status on grade 10 victimization status and a large effect of chronic victimization on later parent-reported youth internalizing symptoms (net of prior parent-reported internalizing symptoms) in later adolescence (grade 11). Implications of the current findings for the experience of peer victimization, as well as the application of latent transition analysis as a useful approach for peer victimization research, are discussed.
... In line with these theoretical predictions, and what has been demonstrated clearly for female adolescents (Craig et al. 2001;Goldstein et al. 2007;Petersen and Hyde 2009;Skoog et al. 2016;Vicary et al. 1995), some empirical studies (Craig et al. 2001;Petersen and Hyde 2009), but not all (Goldstein et al. 2007;Lindberg et al. 2007), have found that male adolescents who experience puberty before most of their peers are more common targets of sexual harassment in early adolescence. However, there is no known empirical test of why there seems to be such a link between pubertal timing and sexual harassment victimization in male adolescents. ...
... In line with these theoretical predictions, and what has been demonstrated clearly for female adolescents (Craig et al. 2001;Goldstein et al. 2007;Petersen and Hyde 2009;Skoog et al. 2016;Vicary et al. 1995), some empirical studies (Craig et al. 2001;Petersen and Hyde 2009), but not all (Goldstein et al. 2007;Lindberg et al. 2007), have found that male adolescents who experience puberty before most of their peers are more common targets of sexual harassment in early adolescence. However, there is no known empirical test of why there seems to be such a link between pubertal timing and sexual harassment victimization in male adolescents. ...
... The first explanation (see also Craig et al. 2001;Pellegrini 2001) stated that by signaling sexual maturity via their sexually more mature appearance in comparison to their peers, early-maturing individuals are more likely to receive unwanted sexual attention and to be the targets of sexual advances. Early-maturing adolescents will receive more sexual reactions, both because they signal maturity and because they are the only ones in the same-age, same-sex peer group to do so. ...
Contrary to common belief, research shows that male adolescents are frequent targets of sexual harassment. According to some prior studies, early puberty puts male adolescents at a particular risk for being sexually harassed. In this cross-sectional study, we tested two competing explanations of the link between male pubertal timing and sexual harassment in early adolescence. The explanations were based on evolutionary and feminist theories. The sample included 704 seventh-grade Swedish male adolescents (M
age
= 13.37, SD = .59). We found that looking more mature and being sexually active significantly mediated the link between pubertal timing and sexual harassment. The magnitude of the indirect effects did not differ significantly from each other. These findings largely replicate prior research for female adolescents, and they suggest that early pubertal timing is linked to victimizing sexual phenomena in early adolescence through young men’s normative sexually mature appearance and sexual activities. Tolerance and respect for differences should be central components of interventions aimed at reducing sexual harassment among young people of any gender.
... Adolescence is marked by youngsters' increased interest in heterosexual relationships (e.g. Connolly et al., 1999), and it has been suggested that boys who are bullies will victimize girls (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). The problem of cross-sex aggression, but especially male-on-female aggression, is exacerbated by the finding that adolescent girls find aggressive boys attractive (Bukowski, Sippola, & Newcomb, 2000;Pellegrini & Bartini, 2001). ...
... The observed relation between same and opposite sex victimization, however, may be a methodological artifact as both types of victimization were measured with selfreports (Craig et al., 2001). In the present study, we will document cross-sex aggression through direct observations of peer interactions across the school day for 2 years, thus minimizing measurement bias. ...
... We also examined the extent to which boys targeted girls in aggressive bouts. Previous research suggests that youngsters who are victimized in childhood by samesex peers are also victimized in heterosexual relationships in adolescence (Craig et al., 2001). These results, as the authors themselves indicate, should be interpreted very cautiously given methodological limitations. ...
... Specifically, at the same time that youth experience changes in their body shape and size, they also begin engaging in opposite-sex friendships (Poulin & Pedersen, 2007) and romantic relationships (Collins et al., 2009). These new experiences may draw increased attention to their own and their peers' changing bodies, presenting new opportunities for victimization (Craig et al., 2001). ...
... Pubertal asynchrony was associated with more frequent appearance-related victimization in adolescence overall. Appearance ideals that are circulated during adolescence via media, family, and peers establish a judgemental culture that coincides with pubertal onset (Jones & Crawford, 2006); this suggest that pubertal changes can serve as additional means for peers to victimize each other (Craig et al., 2001). Thus, the current results suggest that pubertal asynchrony may draw negative social attention in the form of appearance-related victimization. ...
Pubertal development is associated with many psychosocial and interpersonal changes, including a dramatic rise in appearance-related victimization. Yet, it is unclear what aspects of pubertal development provoke victimization along with which, and when, youth are at heightened risk. The present study seeks to address this gap by examining the effect of pubertal asynchrony (i.e., temporal variation in an individual’s pubertal milestones) on appearance-related victimization and by determining whether associations between asynchrony and victimization differ by sex and pubertal status. In follow-up analyses, associations between pubertal asynchrony and different typologies of victimization were also assessed. Participants included 373 youth (Mage = 13.51 [1.62]; 40% girls, 60% boys; 61% White) drawn from an online sample. The results showed that more pubertal asynchrony was associated with more appearance-related victimization, especially for girls, but associations did not differ across pubertal status. Latent profile analyses of appearance-related victimization further suggested that asynchronous youth were more likely to be in profiles characterized by high appearance-related victimization as well as those characterized by high height-based victimization (boys only). The findings suggest that pubertal asynchrony contributes to appearance-related victimization in adolescence and highlights the need for targeted intervention efforts related to pubertal development and specific typologies of victimization.
... Relatively early maturing individuals are the first to experience body odor, pubic hair and acne vulgaris, which may lead to a fear of, and possibly exposure to, ridicule or social rejection (La Greca & Harrison, 2005). Particularly for girls, in whom signs of early pubertal development may be most obvious, it may be difficult to maintain friendships with same-sex peers with less advanced pubertal development (Petersen et al., 1991), which may lead to increased feelings of isolation (Craig et al., 2001), and low self-esteem, body satisfaction and body image (Negriff & Susman, 2011;Stice et al., 2001). In boys, it was found that early maturation can also be associated with depressive symptoms, though the findings are less consistent than for girls (Ge et al., 2001a;Mendle & Ferrero, 2012). ...
... Partly in line with the expectations and previous literature, early relative pubertal maturation was associated with higher depression scores in girls but not in boys (Graber et al., 2004;Joinson et al., 2012). As suggested by the maturational deviance hypothesis, the visible, physical changes may be linked to difficulties maintaining friendships with same-sex peers, disapproval among peers as a result of social comparison and decreasing self-esteem and body image in girls (Craig et al., 2001;Teunissen et al., 2011). These effects may contribute to the higher prevalence of depressive Journal of Youth and Adolescence symptoms in relatively early maturing girls. ...
Research has shown that adolescents – particularly girls – who mature relatively early often experience more internalizing problems. This effect is thought to be partially driven by psychosocial mechanisms, but previous research based relative pubertal maturation on complete samples or population standards, instead of considering the adolescents’ direct peer environment. In the current study the level of adolescents’ pubertal development was assessed relative to their classmates in order to examine relative pubertal maturation. The effects of adolescents’ relative pubertal status, and their perceived popularity, on symptoms of social anxiety and depression in adolescents were studied. All analyses were also performed for absolute pubertal maturation. Participants were 397 young adolescents (Mage = 13.06, SD = 0.36, 49.9% girls) at timepoint 1, and 307 (Mage = 14.08, SD = 0.36, 50.5% girls) at timepoint 2. A significant positive relationship was found between relative pubertal timing and symptoms of depression for girls but not boys. Social anxiety symptoms were not significantly related to relative pubertal timing in either sex. Relative pubertal maturation had no effect on change in or persistence of depressive and social anxiety symptoms one year later. The effects of the comparison with the immediate peer environment, did not seem to explain more variance in internalizing symptoms than the effects of early maturation.
... The predominant forms of aggression change with age. The type of victimization reflects a similar developmental pattern, moving from physical victimization, to verbal and indirect victimization (Bjo¨rkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992), to sexual harassment (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). These changes have different dynamics depending on gender and are related to a combination of physical maturation and changing social context (Craig et al., 2001). ...
... The type of victimization reflects a similar developmental pattern, moving from physical victimization, to verbal and indirect victimization (Bjo¨rkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992), to sexual harassment (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). These changes have different dynamics depending on gender and are related to a combination of physical maturation and changing social context (Craig et al., 2001). The transition from primary to secondary school seems to be an especially important period for the experience of bullying. ...
A large body of literature shows that boys and girls experience different kinds of peer aggression. This difference is usually explained by the function of bullying depending on gender and age. In the present study, we used a mixed method called concept mapping to analyze the content structure of verbal aggression. We compared this structure between two levels of Polish schools—middle school and high school. Using experimental manipulation we tested whether the content of verbal invectives depends on the gender of the victim. Results showed six different types of verbal invectives. Middle school students listed substantially more in four out of the six categories. There were significant effects of the experimental manipulation of the victim's gender. When the male victim was primed there were significantly more sexual insults and when the female victim was primed there was substantially more ability-related verbal bullying. We interpret these results in the context of the development and norms of masculinity and femininity.
... From a social dominance perspective, entry to middle school marks a period of social status formation, during which explicit and implicit forms of aggression is used to maintain or reconstruct an individual's social dominance position (Pellegrini & Long, 2002). Variation in the timing of pubertal maturity and expansion of social peer groups (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001), as well as the egocentric redirection toward the self (Elkind, 1967) during early middle school years may reinforce the need for reorganization of such social hierarchies. Thus, the peak in bullying perpetration and victimization seen at the beginning of the current study may be explained as the use of aggressive strategies among adolescents to acquire a higher social status among peers. ...
... Additionally, analysis utilized the average level of perpetration and victimization experienced by youth. As specific types of perpetration and victimization may be more salient at a particular age or a pubertal development stage (Craig et al., 2001), research that encompass a HAN ET AL. ...
Aims
This study examined latent trajectories of bullying perpetration and victimization, and identified neighborhood antecedents of these trajectories among South Korean adolescents.
Methods
Nationally representative individual‐level data from waves 2 to 6 (middle school to high school) of the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey were merged with neighborhood‐level data drawn from the Korean Census and the Korean Ministry of Education. Latent class growth analysis (N = 2,178) and logistic regression were conducted (N = 2,021).
Results
Three unique trajectories of bullying experience—low‐risk (80.8%), transient (13.3%), high‐risk (5.9%)—were identified. Neighborhood factors (e.g., public assistance receipt, marital status, official bullying incidents, collective efficacy) predicted these distinct developmental paths.
Conclusion
Joint trajectories of perpetration and victimization can inform service or policy decisions as each developmental path may represent unique experiences for youth in need of specific resources for treatment or intervention. Neighborhood indicators are important predictors of developmental trajectories of bullying experience among adolescents.
... The transition to adolescence constitutes a particularly vulnerable time for children, as it corresponds with significant developmental and environmental changes. In addition to the physical changes associated with puberty, which may heighten physical differences associated with weight, peers begin to play a larger role in an individual's identity development, sense of self, and overall functioning in adolescence (e.g., Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001;Nansel, Overpeck, Haynie, Ruan, & Scheidt, 2003). These changes occur during the transition to middle school and then high school, which provide less adult supervision and support than elementary schools (Feldlaufer, Midgley, & Eccles, 1988;Simmons, Black, & Zhou, 1991). ...
... These changes occur during the transition to middle school and then high school, which provide less adult supervision and support than elementary schools (Feldlaufer, Midgley, & Eccles, 1988;Simmons, Black, & Zhou, 1991). As such, it is not surprising that the rates of verbal and relational aggression tend to increase during early adolescence (Bradshaw, Sawyer, & O'Brennan, 2007;Craig et al., 2001). ...
Obese and overweight youth are at an increased risk for poor peer relations and psychosocial adjustment. Of particular concern is the high rate of bullying victimization experienced by obese and overweight youth. While it is known that victimized youth are at an increased risk for internalizing symptoms, few studies have examined if weight status exacerbates the association between victimization and internalizing symptoms. The current study drew upon data from over 43,000 youth attending 107 middle and high schools. Multilevel results suggested that compared with normal weight youth, both overweight and obese youth were at an increased risk for experiencing relational, verbal, and cyber victimization, with only obese youth being at an increased risk for experiencing physical victimization. Notably, the odds for experiencing cyber victimization were higher than the odds for experiencing other forms of victimization. Frequently victimized obese youth, but not frequently victimized overweight youth, had significantly higher levels of internalizing symptoms compared to their frequently victimized, normal-weight peers. Together, these findings highlight the increased risk for psychosocial adjustment problems among frequently victimized overweight and obese youth, suggesting these youth may require preventive interventions tailored to meet their unique needs.
... In the present study, peer victimization is defined as both sexual and nonsexual negative behaviours that occur between adolescents and their peers at school (i.e., perpetrators' acknowledgement of intention to harm their peers and victims' subjective experiences of being harmed by their peers). To be consistent in terminology when comparing harmful peer interactions that are sexual in nature to harmful peer interactions that are nonsexual, Bsexual peer victimization^is used rather than Bpeer sexual harassment^as preferred by some developmental researchers (Craig et al. 2001;McMaster et al. 2002;Pellegrini 2001). The term sexual harassment is rooted in the literature on adults' experiences and perpetrations of hostile sexual behaviours that occur in the workplace (Gutek 1993;Paludi and Paludi 2003) and was, thus, considered a less useful term in the present study. ...
... To begin, there is evidence that developmental considerations provide a key to understanding age-related changes (or stability) in sexual peer victimization during adolescence. For example, elements of sexual peer victimization can be understood in relation to pubertal development and emerging othergender peer interactions that influence the nature of peer victimization during early adolescence, particularly that perpetrated by other-gender peers (Craig et al. 2001;McMaster et al. 2002). Indeed, some retrospective accounts of sexual peer victimization suggest that the sexualization of peer victimization emerges with pubertal development and remains pervasive across adolescence (AAUW 1993;Berman et al. 2002). ...
In popular media, the degree to which adolescents possess social power and conform to gender norms appears to dictate experiences and perpetrations of peer victimization that are sexual in nature. Therefore, the hypothesis that high-status gender conforming adolescents sexually victimize low-status gender nonconforming peers was examined using retrospective accounts of social status, gender-conformity, and sexual and nonsexual forms of peer victimization in high school as reported by 209 participants, ages 18–23 years old. Although these hypotheses were not fully supported, popularity and gender-conformity were found to be associated with different forms of peer victimization as they occur in adolescence. Self-reported popularity was implicated more commonly in experiencing nonsexual forms of peer victimization and perpetrating sexual peer victimization. However, gender-conformity was found to be a stronger predictor in explaining experiences of social and sexual peer victimization and perpetrating verbal and social peer victimization. The findings suggest that there is a level of complexity to sexual and nonsexual peer victimization that requires more refined examination of gender-conformity and social hierarchy alongside the identification of additional mechanisms. To effectively prevent different forms of peer victimization (sexual and nonsexual) during adolescence, it is important to continue examining the role of developmental mechanisms specific to adolescence.
... As children enter adolescence, gender becomes increasingly salient and conforming to gender norms becomes particularly consequential, especially for peer relations. This period (ages 12-18 years old) is characterized by an increase in cross-sex friendships as well as the emergence of romantic relationships (eg, Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). As adolescents' understanding of their sexual and romantic attractions develops, they begin to more explicitly form and incorporate their sexual orientation identities into their self-concepts. ...
... Developmental studies of gender atypicality clearly show that boys and girls whose mannerisms, personality, or activity preferences fall outside of the typical gender norms are often ridiculed, victimized, and excluded by peers (Craig et al., 2001;Killen & Rutland, 2011). However, evidence also shows that the consequences of gender norm violation differ for boys and girls. ...
... As students transition out of elementary school, they begin to expand their social relationships, especially with the opposite gender; romantic relationships tend to increase in importance (Berk, 2006). During early adolescence, the difference between sexual harassment and flirting may be difficult for students to distinguish, especially for those who struggle with social skills or cognitive delays (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). Students who physically mature earlier than their peers may experience an increased risk for being a target of sexual harassment (Craig et al., 2001). ...
... During early adolescence, the difference between sexual harassment and flirting may be difficult for students to distinguish, especially for those who struggle with social skills or cognitive delays (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). Students who physically mature earlier than their peers may experience an increased risk for being a target of sexual harassment (Craig et al., 2001). Early maturing students may not have the emotional or cognitive skills to match their physical development. ...
This study investigated the perceptions of special education teachers about the prevalence and characteristics of sexual harassment among students identified with educational disabilities. Utah special education teachers (250) were randomly selected from the state's database. Fifty-two percent (n = 129) of the surveys were returned. Approximately 92% of respondents reported observing incidents of student-to-student sexual harassment and sexually suggestive behaviors. Although male students were more frequently identified as harassers, similar proportions of males and females were identified as targets of sexual harassment. The most commonly reported behaviors included jokes, rumors of a sexual nature, and name-calling. When special educators observed incidents of sexual harassment, 82% intervened. When confronted, 74% of students immediately stopped their offensive behavior. Suggestions are made to assist special educators in decreasing sexual harassment by accurately identifying behaviors, intervening, and effectively responding.
... As children enter adolescence, gender becomes increasingly salient and conforming to gender norms becomes particularly consequential, especially for peer relations. This period (ages 12-18 years old) is characterized by an increase in cross-sex friendships as well as the emergence of romantic relationships (eg, Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). As adolescents' understanding of their sexual and romantic attractions develops, they begin to more explicitly form and incorporate their sexual orientation identities into their self-concepts. ...
... Developmental studies of gender atypicality clearly show that boys and girls whose mannerisms, personality, or activity preferences fall outside of the typical gender norms are often ridiculed, victimized, and excluded by peers (Craig et al., 2001;Killen & Rutland, 2011). However, evidence also shows that the consequences of gender norm violation differ for boys and girls. ...
Developmental theory and research have often focused on a single social identity category, for example, race or sexual orientation, and examined the consequences of that category on life outcomes. Yet intersectional models of social disadvantage (eg, Cole, 2009; Crenshaw, 1995; King, 1988) suggest that social categories combine to shape the experiences and life outcomes of individuals across life domains. In this chapter, we review empirical research that offers insight into the intersectionality of social identities across three critical developmental periods, namely, middle childhood, adolescence, and emerging adulthood. We also consider the consequences of intersecting identities across several life domains, including intergroup relations and political and civic engagement. Recognizing that the body of work on social identities is expansive, we focus our review on race/ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and immigrant status. In each developmental stage, we discuss what we know, drawing from the limited empirical literature, and offer suggestions on where we need to go moving forward. We conclude that research that focuses on as a single category and ignores the specific domain of development provides an incomplete and inaccurate picture that will hinder efforts to develop culturally appropriate and clinically effective prevention and intervention programs to meet the needs of our diverse children and youth living in the United States.© 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Language: en
... For example, male bullies (a) tend to be physically aggressive, (b) threaten to hit or take things from peers, (c) are physically stronger than their victims, and (d) have a need to control others. Female bullies, in comparison, (a) tend to be socially aggressive, (b) use nasty, dismissive glances and gestures, (c) start and spread rumors, gossip, (d) send intimidating notes, (e) threaten social exclusion, (f) play mean games, (g) manipulate friendships, and/or (h) leave a classmate out of the group (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001;Crick et al., 1999;Espelage, Mebane, & Swearer, 2004;Felix & Green, 2010;Maccoby, 2004). Whereas males use their strength to subdue their peers, female bullies may not be physically stronger than their victims (Craig et al., 2001;Espelage et al., 2004). ...
... Female bullies, in comparison, (a) tend to be socially aggressive, (b) use nasty, dismissive glances and gestures, (c) start and spread rumors, gossip, (d) send intimidating notes, (e) threaten social exclusion, (f) play mean games, (g) manipulate friendships, and/or (h) leave a classmate out of the group (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001;Crick et al., 1999;Espelage, Mebane, & Swearer, 2004;Felix & Green, 2010;Maccoby, 2004). Whereas males use their strength to subdue their peers, female bullies may not be physically stronger than their victims (Craig et al., 2001;Espelage et al., 2004). ...
Among the many contending theories of bullying, the widely accepted thesis known as frustration-aggression assumes that bullying is a form of aggressive behavior induced by external stress. Recently, researchers have discovered that the relationship between external stressors and bullying is sometimes moderated by internal frustration. The present investigation is an attempt to examine which of the above mechanisms can better explain female students' bullying behaviors. Data analysis, using structural equation modeling, was based on 1,069 girls selected from 14 primary schools and 16 junior secondary schools in Shenzhen, China. The result of the analysis suggests that while bullying by girls in primary schools is directly related to external stress, bullying in secondary schools is moderated by internal frustration. The authors suggest that several risk factors, namely, (a) the competitiveness of the education system, (b) socialization processes within families and schools, and (c) developmental changes in females during puberty, may be contributing to the difference between bullying mechanisms in primary and secondary schools.
... Consistent with developmental expectations, Pepler et al. (2006) found that sexual harassment rose in early adolescence and was associated with pubertal development but lowered in later high school. Craig et al. (2001) studied sexual harassment among middle school students and reported that 28% of those who had already experienced sexual harassment had experienced early onset puberty, while 18% had experienced puberty on time and 10% had experienced late onset puberty. Additionally, Turner-Moore et al. (2022) found that boys were more likely to perpetuate sexualized bullying during adolescence, while girls were more likely to be victimized. ...
In this conceptual article, the authors provide a narrative review of literature on bullying and sexual harassment in K-12 schools framed through a comparative analysis of risk and protective factors for both forms of violence across the social-ecological spectrum. We find that a greater number of studies of both forms of violence focus on student and microsystem-level factors rather than on higher levels of the ecosystem including school boards, neighborhoods, and broader cultural norms. In addition, the research overwhelmingly identifies more risk factors than protective factors. Finally, we find more similarities than differences in risk and protective factors between the two forms of school-based violence. We identify implications of the findings for theory, research, and policy and suggest that preventing any form of harassment at school will benefit not only students but the entire school community. We argue that the causes of school-based harassment are complex and require comprehensive prevention, intervention, and response approaches that address shared risk and protective factors, particularly those at the community and mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem levels. Ultimately, we argue that all community stakeholders must be committed to and engaged in these endeavors for them to be successful.
... These biopsychosocial changes can cause adolescents' self-focus, emotional irritability and sensitivity to peer relationships (Salmivalli et al., 2021). These factors may impose great challenges for them to navigate complex social situations effectively and leave them vulnerable to bullying victimization (Craig et al., 2001). Therefore, from a developmental perspective, it is crucial to examine the effects of bullying victimization on well-being among 15-year-olds and explore potential factors compensating for these effects. ...
Bullying victimization can undermine adolescents' well‐being. However, few studies have comprehensively investigated the contributions of various victimization forms to well‐being and compared which forms were more harmful than others. Evidence on whether resilience and social support moderate such associations is also limited. Using a sample of 12,058 Chinese adolescents in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018, this cross‐sectional study aimed to (1) investigate the associations of physical, verbal and relational victimization with well‐being; (2) compare the strengths of these associations; and (3) examine the moderating roles of resilience and teacher and parent support in these associations. Results showed that three victimization forms were associated with poorer well‐being. Relational and physical victimization were more harmful to most studied well‐being outcomes than verbal victimization. Furthermore, resilience weakened the negative effects of physical victimization on negative affect and life satisfaction but aggravated the negative effects of verbal victimization on both outcomes and the negative effect of relational victimization on school belonging. Teacher support intensified the negative effects of physical victimization on school belonging. Parent support was not effective in regulating the victimization–well‐being association. The findings underscored the detrimental effects of bullying victimization on adolescents' well‐being and the potentially harmful sides of resilience and social support. Implications for bullying prevention were discussed.
... These increasing trends of sexual harassment victimization parallel children moving through puberty. Among middle schoolers, 28% of students who had already experienced sexual harassment had early onset puberty, compared with 18% who were on-time and 10% who experience late onset puberty (Craig et al., 2001). ...
In the United States, many adolescent girls experience sexual harassment before they leave high school, and between 20% and 25% of college women are survivors of sexual assault. Despite the many negative consequences associated with these experiences, perpetrating sexual harassment and assault is often viewed as normative. Using Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theoretical framework, we propose a bioecological theory of the perpetration and tolerance of sexual harassment of girls. We propose children’s proximal and distal contexts contribute to the endorsement of sexualized gender stereotypes, which in turn impacts high rates of both perpetration and acceptance of sexual harassment. We discuss the ways that three important microsystems—parents, peers, and schools—contribute to this acceptance. We also propose that key components of media within the exosystem work to further normalize sexual harassment of girls and women. These contexts inform children’s development, creating a culture that is permissive of sexual harassment, resulting in high rates of sexual harassment and assault in adolescence and emerging adulthood. Implications of our proposed theory for policymakers, teachers, parents, and researchers are discussed.
... However, these investigations utilized adolescent samples, whereas studies using younger samples (e.g., Gibb & Hanley, 2010;Tran et al., 2012) found similar longitudinal links to internalizing symptoms across forms of victimization. Relational victimization increases across development and peaks in the middle school years (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). Given this developmental trend, it is not surprising that internalizing symptoms would be a particularly strong predictor of relational victimization in adolescence, but that the links between internalizing symptoms and different forms of victimization would not vary at earlier developmental periods. ...
The present study investigated bidirectional relations between peer victimization and internalizing symptoms, with a focus on three forms of victimization (physical, verbal, relational) and two types of internalizing symptoms (depressive, anxious). In the fall and spring, children (N = 1,264–1,402 fourth and fifth graders depending on time point and data source) reported on their victimization, and teachers reported on children’s depressive and anxious symptoms. In a model including the broad constructs of victimization and internalizing symptoms, bidirectional relations emerged, with earlier victimization predicting increases in later internalizing symptoms and earlier internalizing symptoms predicting increases in later victimization. These bidirectional relations did not hold in two additional models, the first of which included the three forms of victimization and internalizing symptoms and the second of which included victimization and the two types of internalizing symptoms. Rather, results of the first model suggested that earlier internalizing symptoms predicted later physical, verbal, and relational (marginal) victimization, and the second model did not fit the data well. Findings are discussed in terms of implications of bidirectional relations between victimization and internalizing symptoms.
... Social aggression expands on this construct by also including gossip, verbal rejection, and other acts intended to lower a person's social status, self-esteem, or both (Galen & Underwood, 1997). As youth mature, physical aggression becomes less socially acceptable, and adolescents become savvier to alternative methods of harassing one another, social bullying emerges as a more viable option (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001;Hinduja & Patchin, 2010;Wang, Iannotti, & Nansel, 2009). Additionally, due to the increased importance that adolescents place on their peer relationships, this type of victimization may be especially prevalent (Harris, 1995). ...
Depressive symptoms, somatic complaints, and circulating levels of inflammatory biomarkers interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP) were examined as correlates of social and physical peer victimization in an ethnically diverse sample of adolescents (N = 91) using a multi-informant approach. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that social peer victimization was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, somatic complaints, and inflammation. However, being physically bullied only predicted lower levels of inflammatory markers. Additionally, the role of depressive symptoms in the victimization–inflammation relation was examined. Social victimization indirectly influenced levels of IL-6 (via depressive symptoms) and CRP (via depressive symptoms and IL-6, in series). These results provide initial evidence that peer victimization is associated with inflammatory markers in an adolescent sample and that symptoms of depression may be an important presage to inflammation and health problems, while highlighting the differential effects of social and physical forms of peer victimization.
... In contrast, the second group -victims and observers -perceived school climate as significantly more supportive, and they also perceived the teachers and peers as individuals' to whom they would more probably turn to in case of being bullied. Such perceptions of victims and observers are particularly important, because as shown by previous studies (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001, Elliot et al., 2008, a lack of confidence in the teachers' ability to intervene is one of the key reasons why students often do not seek help from them. ...
Peer bullying is a phenomenon present in all schools. The school as an institution has a major role in limiting peer bullying. The primary goal of the study was to determine how different groups of students perceived school climate in relation to peer bullying regarding their role in peer bullying (active participants: bullies, victims, bully-victims and non-active participants: observers). 414 students (from 18 primary and secondary schools) responded to The School Climate Bullying Survey (SCBS; Cornell, 2012), which measures the incidence of various forms of peer bullying and three dimensions of school climate (prevalence of teasing and bullying, aggressive attitudes, and willingness to seek help). The results showed that the active participants in peer bullying report a frequent presence of verbal and social bullying (54% and 40%, respectively) and a significantly lower frequency of physical and cyber bullying (14%). The largest differences between the groups of students were found in their perceptions of the prevalence of aggressive attitudes and willingness to seek help in a school context. In the perceptions of both of these dimensions we found a high degree of similarity between the groups of bullies and victim-bullies, and between the groups of victims and observers. The first two groups, when compared to the victims and observers, perceived to a greater extent that school allows aggression as a way of affirmation among peers and in school in general, and that neither teachers nor peers do not stop the bullying, which discourages the victims from seeking help from them. The results confirmed the existence of the association between students’ perceived school climate by bullying and their behavior (roles) in peer bullying.
... For example, though early pubertal timing has been associated with adverse outcomes for both boys and girls (Felson & Haynie, 2002;Mendle et al., 2007;Negriff & Susman, 2011), it has been suggested that early pubertal timing may confer more benefits for boys due to their athletic advantages (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). ...
Prior research indicates that early pubertal timing is associated with aggressive behavior, particularly in the context of adversity as postulated in the contextual amplification hypothesis. However, few studies have examined harsh parenting as the context for the effect of early pubertal timing. Even fewer studies have tested the interactive effect of early pubertal timing and positive parenting on aggressive behavior. In this study, we tested the proposition that early pubertal timing, contrary to the general conception of it as a vulnerability, indexed susceptibility, and thus early maturing individuals were affected more by their environment in a "for better and for worse" manner. The sample consisted of 411 community-recruited youth aged 11-12 years (51% boys, 80% African Americans). Participants reported Tanner Stages of pubertal development, aggressive behavior and harsh parenting practice of their parents. Puberty scores were standardized with groups of the same age, sex, and ethnicity, and those that scored the top one-third were defined as early maturing individuals. Parents reported youth's aggressive behavior and their parenting practices towards the youth, including harsh parenting and positive parenting. Early pubertal timing significantly moderated the relationship between harsh/positive parenting and aggressive behavior. Specifically, harsh parenting was positively associated with aggressive behavior to a larger degree among early maturing individuals than among on-time/late-maturing individuals. Positive parenting was inversely associated with aggressive behavior but only among early maturing individuals. This study is the first to document support for early pubertal timing as susceptibility to the environmental influences in relation to aggressive behavior. Theoretical and intervention implications are discussed.
... Indeed, both the timing of, and the physiological changes associated with, puberty can increase risk for peer victimization. Contrary to the expectation that late pubertal development serves as a risk factor for boys, most of the research to date points to a positive association between early pubertal development and peer victimization among both boys and girls (Compian, Gowen, & Hayward, 2009;Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001;Haynie & Piquero, 2006;Reynolds & Juvonen, 2011). When experienced early, the physiological changes associated with puberty are salient indicators that an adolescent's development diverges from that of peers (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 1996). ...
Since Dan Olweus's seminal work on bullying in the 1970's (Olweus, 1978), there has been a concerted effort by investigators to identify the confluence of factors that contribute to peer victimization and its role in psychosocial development. Although the cause and consequences of peer victimization may include underlying, age-invariant processes, the manifestation of these factors is, in part, driven by the developmental stage being studied. Thus, a comprehensive understanding of peer victimization requires an explicit developmental perspective. This paper examines how peer victimization in adolescence is unique from other developmental periods. Changes in the nature of peer victimization, associated risk factors, the contexts in which victimization is experienced, and the psychosocial outcomes affected are addressed. A primary focus is how maturational processes and interpersonal contexts characteristic of adolescence contribute to changes in victimization, with the objective of informing future research directions and the development of effective interventions.
... Exclusion, teasing, and harassment are common across adolescence, and their perpetration is often related to gender, sexuality, and sexual identity bias (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001). These forms of harassment can negatively impact adolescents' wellbeing (American Association of University Women [AAUW], 2011; Fedewa & Ahn, 2011). ...
This study investigated the relationship among adolescents’ (n = 621) reports of perpetrating sexual and gender-based harassment and their beliefs about whether these behaviors cause harm, are wrong, or are prohibited by school policies. Results evidenced that beliefs about wrongness and harm were related to perpetration frequency; however, perceptions of harassment policies were largely unrelated to behaviors. Further, beliefs that these behaviors cause harm to victims mediated the relationship between judgments of wrongness and perpetration of several harassing behaviors. These findings support the need for harassment prevention strategies that align with adolescents’ social–cognitive development and emphasize how such behaviors cause harm, even when harm is not intended. This study demonstrates that adolescents’ beliefs about whether various forms of sexual and gender-based harassment are harmful and wrong significantly predicts less perpetration of those forms of harassment. Notably, adolescents’ beliefs about school policies prohibiting such harassment were largely unrelated to their harassment perpetration. These findings suggest that strategies aimed at reducing harassing behaviors may benefit from a focus on perpetrators’ moral reasoning and attributions of harm.
... Additionally, children with externalizing problems, internalizing problems, and low IQ are more liable to bullying victimization (16), as well as later overweight (14). Furthermore, early pubertal development is associated with bullying victimization (19) and predicts overweight (20). However, it is unclear if co-occurring psychosocial risks or child characteristics confound the association. ...
Objective:
To test whether bullied children have an elevated risk of being overweight in young adulthood and whether this association is: (1) consistent with a dose-response relationship, namely, its strength increases with the chronicity of victimization; (2) consistent across different measures of overweight; (3) specific to bullying and not explained by co-occurring maltreatment; (4) independent of key potential confounders; and (5) consistent with the temporal sequence of bullying preceding overweight.
Method:
A representative birth cohort of 2,232 children was followed to age 18 years as part of the Environmental Risk Longitudinal Twin Study. Childhood bullying victimization was reported by mothers and children during primary school and early secondary school. At the age-18 follow-up, we assessed a categorical measure of overweight, body mass index, and waist-hip ratio. Indicators of overweight were also collected at ages 10 and 12. Co-twin body mass and birth weight were used to index genetic and fetal liability to overweight, respectively.
Results:
Bullied children were more likely to be overweight than non-bullied children at age 18, and this association was (1) strongest in chronically bullied children (odds ratio = 1.69; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.21-2.35); (2) consistent across measures of overweight (body mass index: b = 1.12; 95% CI = 0.37-1.87; waist-hip ratio: b = 1.76; 95% CI = 0.84-2.69); (3) specific to bullying and not explained by co-occurring maltreatment; (4) independent of child socioeconomic status, food insecurity, mental health, and cognition, and pubertal development; and (5) not present at the time of bullying victimization, and independent of childhood weight and genetic and fetal liability.
Conclusion:
Childhood bullying victimization predicts overweight in young adulthood.
... This confluence of factors, in turn, appear to increasingly compromise the self-esteem of those individuals who are not or do not feel sufficiently attractive. The self-esteem of early maturing girls during this period may also be compromised by sexual harassment by boys (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001;Murnen & Smolak, 2000). ...
... • Listado de 12 comportamientos exteriorizados y 9 interiorizados para evaluar el estilo de afrontamiento cuando estaban estresados • VQ ( Craig et al., 2001) • "Escala de agresión relacional" (Relational Aggression Scale; Crick, 1995) • SAS-A (La Greca y Lopez, 1998) • "Escala de tácticas de conflicto" (Conflict Tactics Scale; Straus, 1979) ...
The aim of this paper is conduct a review in order to delve further into the relationship between bullying and social anxiety. The introduction seeks to unify both concepts to provide the reader with a reference framework. Numerous studies are then presented that show there is a significant relationship between peer bullying, victimization and aggression at school, on the one hand, and social anxiety, on the other. There follows a description of instances of research that reveal the directionality between these variables and, finally, those that analyze certain moderating factors of this relationship (e.g., behavioral inhibition, social skills, coping). This review allows us to conclude that although major progress has been made in this field, there is still a necessity, particularly in Spanish-speaking countries, to conduct more controlled studies that present more conclusive data and, above all, that have a practical application in educational and clinical settings, as there is a pressing need to stop the spread of these social problems and their comorbid and/or resulting adverse effects.
... Because adolescents use features of their peer group to define themselves, it is important to them that the group itself be clearly defined (Bukowski and Sippola 2001). Starting at ages 11 and 12, indirect aggression in the form of spreading rumors and group exclusion starts to replace the physical aggression seen among younger children (Craig et al. 2001;Rubin, Bukowski, and Parker 2006). This social form of aggression serves the purpose of defining who is in and out of the group, as well as the group's attitudes and beliefs. ...
The aim of this paper is to investigate which adolescents are most and least at risk of experiencing online victimization. The results of logistic regression analyses using data on 2079 adolescents attending secondary school in Bermuda indicate that not all forms of media use place adolescents at risk of experiencing cyberbullying. Adolescents who spent more time using their cell phone were more likely to report having received an aggressive or threatening electronic communication and having had someone say nasty things about them online. There was no such relationship between time on the internet and either form of online victimization. The findings also suggest that strong parent relationships and positive experiences at school are generally more protective against cyberbullying than adults’ restrictions on adolescents’ media use. These findings contribute important insight into strategies that hold promise for decreasing cyberbullying among adolescents.
... Detta beror framför allt på att pojkar i årskurs 4 och 5 var mer utsatta än flickor för en av de negativa handlingar som ingår i den sociala mobbningen: "hånad, kallad elaka saker". När det gäller "utfryst, utstött", som också ingår i den sociala mobbningen, var könsskillnaderna mycket ringa i årskurs 4 och 5. Liknande resultat har rapporteras av andra forskare (se till exempel Craig et al. 2001). ...
... Not only is sexual maturity a factor associated with perpetration of sexual aggression, it is also associated with sexual victimization. Craig et al. (2001), for example, found that adolescents who were sexually victimized also had early onset of puberty. In other words, perpetrators of sexual aggression tend to target reproductively viable victims. ...
Adolescent bullying appears to be a cross-cultural, worldwide phenomenon. A substantial literature has addressed this phenomenon due to the important implications bullying presents for adolescents. The ubiquity of bullying, along with its heritability, suggests the possibility that some bullying may be the result of evolved adaptations. Unfortunately, the bullying literature has failed to formally examine this possibility in depth. The current chapter is an effort to redress this situation as we look at if, when, and why adolescent bullying is adaptive. We find significant evidence for the functionality of modern bullying and the absence of psychopathologies typically associated with maladaptive development, supporting the claim that bullying may be an evolved adaptation. Evidence from hunter-gatherers and historical data further support this claim. We examine the individual differences, contextual factors, and developmental pathways that may lead to bullying being an important, functional, adaptive behavior among adolescents. We end the chapter with a discussion of the implications an adaptive view of bullying has for intervention, research, and adolescents.
... Beginning in childhood, gender nonconformity is associated with ridicule, teasing, and harassment (Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1995;Lobel, 1994). Although children respond negatively to peers who display cross-sex behaviors throughout most phases of development (Carter & McCloskey, 1984;Fagot, 1984), the salience of gender nonconformity increases as children enter adolescence (Craig, Pepler, Connolly, & Henderson, 2001;Eder et al., 1995). The growing importance of identity and autonomy during early adolescence is linked to increased rigidity regarding the acceptability of violating group conventions (Hartup, 1993;Stoddart & Turiel, 1985), and young people increasingly ''police'' their peers regarding gender norms during this period (Horn, 2007). ...
The visibility of a stigmatized identity is central in determining how individuals experience that identity. Sexual minority status (e.g., identifying as gay, lesbian, or bisexual) has traditionally been identified as a concealable stigma, compared with race/ethnicity or physical disability status. This conceptualization fails to recognize, however, the strong link between sexual minority status and a visible stigma: gender nonconformity. Gender nonconformity, or the perception that an individual fails to conform to gendered norms of behavior and appearance, is strongly stigmatized, and is popularly associated with sexual minority status. The hypothesis that harassment due to gender nonconformity mediates the association between sexual minority status and depressive symptoms was tested. Heterosexual and sexual minority–identified college and university students (N = 251) completed questionnaires regarding their sexual minority identity, experiences of harassment due to gender nonconformity, harassment due to sexual minority status, and depressive symptoms. A mediational model was supported, in which the association between sexual minority identity and depressive symptoms occurred via harassment due to gender nonconformity. Findings highlight harassment due to gender nonconformity as a possible mechanism for exploring variability in depressive symptoms among sexual minorities.
Poverty is negatively linked to adolescents’ mental health. However, little is known about the underlying process that mediates this relationship. This study aims to examine the association among poverty, peer victimization, self-esteem, and mental health of adolescents. Data are collected through a multistage cluster random sampling in Hebei, China (N = 1280; mean age = 15.68; 47.4% male). Structural equation modeling is adopted to examine the hypothetical model using AMOS 24.0. Results reveal that the mechanisms linking poverty to adolescent mental health differ in terms of victimization types (overt or relational). Relational victimization and self-esteem partially mediate the relationship between poverty and psychological well-being and fully mediate the relationship between poverty and psychological distress after gender, age, hukou status, and family socioeconomic status are controlled. However, the mediating effect of overt victimization is not significant. The overall model accounts for 27% and 24.8% of the variance in psychological well-being and distress, respectively. This study contributes to an improved understanding of the mediating mechanisms underlying poverty and mental health. The implications of the present findings for social work interventions and social policies are also discussed.
This preliminary study explored a person-group dissimilarity hypothesis in the context of adolescent sexual harassment. Theory suggests that victimized youth are expected to experience worse outcomes if they perceive victimization to be a rare experience among their peers. This study comprised 435 middle school students who reported on their experiences of sexual harassment (victimization and witnessing), shame, and depressive symptoms. We tested a cross-sectional conditional indirect-effects model, with shame mediating the relationship between victimization and depressive symptoms (the indirect effect) and with witnessing as a moderator of the indirect effect. For all students, shame mediated the relationship between victimization and depressive symptoms. For female students, there was a buffering effect of witnessing, whereby the indirect effect was weaker at high levels of witnessing. These findings have potential implications for theory and intervention, suggesting the importance of examining young people’s social contexts to better understand their responses to sexual harassment.
This study investigated the structure and concurrent validity of the Beliefs About Fighting Scale (BAFS). Participants were 2,118 students from three urban middle schools who completed measures of their beliefs, frequency of physical aggression, victimization, and nonviolent intentions. Ratings of students’ frequency of physical aggression, physical victimization, and nonviolent behavior were also obtained from their teachers. The majority of the sample was African American (81%). Confirmatory factor analyses supported a model with separate factors representing beliefs against fighting, beliefs that fighting is sometimes necessary, beliefs supporting reactive aggression, and beliefs supporting proactive aggression. Support was also found for strong measurement invariance across sex, grade, and groups that differed in whether a violence-prevention program was being implemented at their school. The four BAFS factors were associated with adolescents’ frequency of aggression, victimization, and nonviolent behavior. This study underscores the importance of assessing multiple aspects of beliefs associated with aggressive behavior.
The current study examined gender differences in sexual harassment victimization and resilience, and resilience variance according to type D personality and sexual harassment frequency. The study also examined the model predicts victims' resilience. The sample consisted of 1181 participants aged between 11-70 year. Using the study scales, the results showed that: 1.There were gender differences in sexual harassment victimization and resilience, 2. Education level, age, type of sexual harassment, type D personality, social inhibition and negative affect accounted for significant variation in male victims' resilience. While sexual harassment frequency, social inhibition and negative affect accounted for significant variation in female victims' resilience. The results were discussed in light of previous studies.
هدف الدراسة الراهنة هو الكشف عن الفروق بين الذكور والإناث في كل من الاستهداف كضحايا للتحرش الجنسي ودرجة الصمود لهذا التحرش، بالإضافة إلى الكشف عن درجة تباين الصمود في ضوء كل من نمط الشخصية "د" ومعدل التحرش, كما اختبرت الدراسة النموذج المنبئ بالصمود لدى ضحايا التحرش. وذلك على عينة تكونت من 1181 مشاركاً في عمر يتراوح بين 11: 70 عاما. وباستخدام مقاييس الدراسة التي تمثلت في: مقياس الصمود، ومقياس الاستهداف للتحرش، ومقياس نمط الشخصية "د" وباستخدام الأساليب الإحصائية المناسبة. أظهرت النتائج ما يلي: 1. وجود فارق دال إحصائيا بين متوسطي درجات الذكور والإناث في معدل الاستهداف للتحرش الجسمي (الضرب في أماكن حساسة بالجسم) في اتجاه الذكور، 2. وجود فارق دال إحصائيا بين متوسطي درجات الذكور والإناث في معدل الاستهداف للتحرش الجسمي (اللمس بطريقة غير أخلاقية) في اتجاه الإناث، 3. وجود فارق دال إحصائيا بين متوسطي درجات الذكور والإناث على الصمود في اتجاه الذكور، 4. تباين الصمود لدى ضحايا التحرش في ضوء نمط الشخصية "د"، 5. تباين الصمود لدى ضحايا التحرش في ضوء معدل الاستهداف، و6. تنبأ كل من الوجدان السلبي والكف الاجتماعي ونوع التحرش (اللمس بطريقة غير أخلاقية) ومستوى التعليم ومعدل الاستهداف ونمط الشخصية "د" والفئة العمرية بدرجة الصمود لدى عينة الذكور، في حين تنبأ معدل الاستهداف والكف الاجتماعي ونوع التحرش والوجدان السلبي بدرجة الصمود لدى عينة الإناث. وقد تم مناقشة النتائج في ضوء الإطار النظري والدراسات السابقة والتطبيقات العملية لها.
المفاهيم الأساسية: الاستهداف للتحرش الجنسي، الصمود، نمط الشخصية "د"، الكف الاجتماعي، الوجدان السلبي
Discrimination impacts most youth at some point. Almost all children and adolescents belong to at least one stigmatized group, whether they are a Black or Latino boy in school; an immigrant or refugee; a gay, lesbian, or bisexual teen; or a girl in physics class. Discrimination on the basis of race/ethnicity, immigration status, gender, sexual orientation, and gender identity can have long-term academic, psychological, and social repercussions, especially when it is directed at a cognitively developing child or an emotionally vulnerable adolescent. How children and adolescents are impacted by this discrimination depends on their cognitive ability to perceive the bias, the context in which the bias occurs, and resources they have to help cope with the bias. This book details, synthesizes, and analyzes the perception and impact of discrimination in childhood and adolescence across multiple stigmatized social groups to help us better understand the complex phenomenon of discrimination and its long-term consequences. By looking at the similarities and differences in discrimination across all social groups, we can more fully understand its mechanisms of influence. Before we can fully address the persistent achievement gap between White and ethnic minority children, the high rates of suicidal thoughts among LGBT youth, and the underrepresentation of girls in STEM careers, we must first examine the ways in which discrimination influences and is understood by children, with their unique cognitive constraints and within the specific contexts in which they live.
Objectives:
The current study aimed to investigate the relationship between advanced pubertal development and adolescent dating abuse (ADA) and to test if this relationship is moderated by friendship group characteristics in a nationally representative sample of US girls.
Methods:
Data were drawn from wave 1 and 2 (1995-1996) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. The sample included 3870 girls aged 13 to 17 years, all of whom were in romantic and/or nonromantic sexual relationships. Relative pubertal development was measured as perceived physical development as compared with peers of the same age and race and age at menarche at wave 1. Participants reported at wave 2 whether they had experienced any verbal or physical abuse in their relationships. Friendship group characteristics included the percentage of boy friends, older friends, and friends' risk behavior level.
Results:
Negative binomial regression analyses revealed an interaction between advanced pubertal development and percentage of boy friends on ADA victimization, adjusted for age, race, parents' marital status, household income, number of relationships, self-esteem, self-control, and antisocial behavior history. Advanced pubertal development was associated with more ADA victimization when girls' friendship groups comprised a higher percentage of boys.
Conclusions:
Findings highlight the importance of pubertal timing and friendship group characteristics to ADA victimization. Early pubertal development is a risk marker for ADA victimization, particularly when a higher percentage of girls' friends are boys. Pediatricians and adolescent health specialists should be sensitive to the elevated risk for ADA victimization in early-maturing girls.
Puberty is a formative transition, marked by a confluence of biological, psychological, and social challenges. During this stage, youth experience dramatic physical transformations that signal their passage into adulthood. Moreover, this period is typified by extensive brain remodeling and alterations in hormonal systems involved in sexual maturation (Susman & Dorn, 2009) and stress reactivity (Gunnar, Wewerka, Frenn, Long, & Griggs, 2009). Beyond these physical and biological changes, youth undergo psychological and social reorganization reflected in changing self-perception and self-regulation (Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008), shifts in the dynamics of interpersonal relationships (Rudolph, 2009), and contextual changes such as school transitions (Eccles, Lord, Roeser, Barber, & Hernandez Jozefowicz, 1997). Although this period of rapid development provides an opportunity for positive growth, unfortunately it also represents a backdrop for the development of psychopathology (Gunnar et al., 2009). In particular, research documents striking increases in multiple forms of psychopathology, including anxiety (Hayward et al., 1997), depression (Rudolph, Hammen, & Daley, 2006), antisocial behavior (Lahey et al., 2006), and substance use (Patton et al., 2004) across the pubertal transition.
Mejorar en el alumno las habilidades sociales en el marco educacional resulta de vital importancia, dado que la educación tiene lugar en un contexto social en el cual la adecuada interacción entre alumnos, y entre éstos y sus profesores, favorece el proceso educativo, el rendimiento académico y el desarrollo social de cada estudiante. Para que los alumnos adquieran tal bagaje, es necesario que los adultos reforcemos y propiciemos dinámicas positivas y minimicemos las situaciones donde las interacciones negativas puedan surgir.
Ante esta perspectiva, y con base en los resultados hallados, se desarrolló el “Programa de intervención psicológica para la disminución y prevención del acoso escolar (bullying)”.
This study focuses on the relationship between school bullying and social anxiety in a sample of 1,810 Spanish children between the ages of 9 and 15. The relationships between these two constructs and their dimensions were tested using two new self-report instruments: the "Multimodal Questionnaire on Bullying for Children" (CMAE-1; Caballo, Calderero, and Irurtia, 2010) and the "Social Interaction Questionnaire for Children" (CISO-NIII; Caballo, Irurtia, Calderero, Salazar, and Carrillo, 2010). The results reveal a clear relationship between bullying, particularly relational bullying, and social anxiety (overall and between its six dimensions). These relationships are stronger in boys than in girls, and the regression analyses indicate that global social anxiety and, more specifically, one of its dimensions ("Criticism and embarrassment") can predict bullying, and vice versa, being the victim of bullying is a predictor of social anxiety. Boys scored higher than girls in all the bullying variables associated with the role of bully, while there are no differences between the sexes in the bullying variables related to the role of victim of bullying.
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