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Children's representations of learning through drawings
Abstract
The main purpose of this paper is to describe a drawing-based method able to track down young students' representations of their own learning process. This method is used also to analyze whether the metaphors proposed by learning theorists correspond to those produced by students, and whether students' representation of the learning process is affected by demographic variables. 528 students – from ages six to 10 years old – were asked to draw and comment on the way they imagine what happens in their mind when they learn at school. Mixed-method analyses were adopted. Firstly, the drawings were qualitatively assessed through a coding scheme; secondly, a quantitative analysis was run to study the effects of dimensions such as gender and students' grade. The results allowed us to draw two main conclusions: a) the metaphors the literature produced describe only partially how students represent their own learning processes; therefore, students learning representation can be defined as multidimensional; and b) the developmental path of learning representation is observable by grade and, to some extent, by gender.
... The current literature suggests that from about the age of seven, children have a set of potential strategies at their disposal in order to express psychological mood in their drawings [58]. Lines and colours are often used by children to represent their actual feelings [59]; while their selections are not made by chance [60] as pencils' point width or type of paper choices depend on mood and personality. According to the "test of the pyramids" of Pfister, as shaped by Heiss and Hiltmann [61], red, orange and yellow express an Regarding the pupils' logo designs, 284 of them were selected and evaluated for further analysis. ...
... The current literature suggests that from about the age of seven, children have a set of potential strategies at their disposal in order to express psychological mood in their drawings [58]. Lines and colours are often used by children to represent their actual feelings [59]; while their selections are not made by chance [60] as pencils' point width or type of paper choices depend on mood and personality. According to the "test of the pyramids" of Pfister, as shaped by Heiss and Hiltmann [61], red, orange and yellow express an Pupils' drawings can represent their feelings [54], using multiple signs to implicitly reveal and externalize on paper their views and beliefs to others [55][56][57]. ...
... The current literature suggests that from about the age of seven, children have a set of potential strategies at their disposal in order to express psychological mood in their drawings [58]. Lines and colours are often used by children to represent their actual feelings [59]; while their selections are not made by chance [60] as pencils' point width or type of paper choices depend on mood and personality. According to the "test of the pyramids" of Pfister, as shaped by Heiss and Hiltmann [61], red, orange and yellow express an extroverted person, while green expresses a normal person. ...
Awareness for organic products is low for young people. This paper sheds light on primary school pupils’ knowledge about organic products before and after a dedicated information session and analysis of their preferences for logos of organic products. Furthermore, we explore the intervention impact per grade. The analysis of 724 pupils’ responses, age ranged from 6 to 12 years, reveals gap in their knowledge about organic products. This intervention seems to affect more pupils older than 10 years. The majority of them would prefer the previously established organic logo with optional use to certify organic goods. Finally, the evaluation of logo drawings created by the pupils shows their slight preference for green colours and rounded shape. Our intervention can assist better design school curriculums regarding environmental related issues.
... By using lines and colors, young children depict their understanding of the world around them. Through the act of drawing, paired with their verbal and non-verbal explanations, children offer insight into perceptions of reality regarding an integrated classroom experience (Jewish and Arab) (Chandler, 2002;Ligorio et al., 2017;Oğuz, 2010). ...
... However, the children in this study demonstrated agency in how they navigated friendships and social interactions, choosing companions based on personal preferences rather than ethnic or national identities. This challenges the deterministic view of identity development, suggesting that children actively construct their identities in response to their social environments (Ligorio et al., 2017). ...
... Verbal expressions are not needed during drawing. Children know how to draw before they master verbal expressions in their native languages (Ligorio, Schwartz, D'aprile & Philhour, 2017). Therefore, children who have limited verbal abilities and vocabulary can easily express themselves via drawings. ...
... These studies were rather conducted to determine the images formed in children's minds, such as teachers, violence, news, doctors, televisions, families, environments, physical education teachers, school principals, science and nature. In international studies, it was observed that the subjects investigated included matters, such as students' perceptions of classrooms (Farmer, Spearman, Qian, Leonard & Rosenblith, 2018), children's perception regarding the use of digital media in preschool education (Mertala, 2016), children's perception towards determining their own learning processes (Ligorio et al., 2017), children's perceptions towards the ideal learning environment (Bland & Sharma-Brymer, 2012), determining students' perception of learning according to classroom levels (Hsieh & Tsai, 2018) or determining students' understanding of learning science by the drawing method (Hsieh & Tsai, 2017). Within this framework, it can be stated the number of national and international studies conducted based on children's drawings were increased. ...
This study aims to investigate the perception of games in students who study in the elementary school period through the pictures they draw in the context of social powers. In this study, the phenomenology design, one of the qualitative research designs, was used. The study group of the research consisted of a total of 1,818 students, who studied in 23 elementary schools in the Marmara, Black Sea, Central Anatolia and Eastern Anatolia regions. Within this scope, after providing the students with the required materials, the question, ‘What do you think about when you hear “games”?’, was asked and they were asked to draw a picture with the theme, games. The data obtained in this framework were analysed through content analysis. According to the obtained findings, it is suggested that the playgrounds enjoyed by the children should be regulated to develop their social skills. Keywords: Elementary school, students, children’s drawings, social power, game, perception.
... (Schmidgall, Eitel and Scheiter 2019) recognized the contribution of generation, visualization, and externalization to the benefits of learner-generated drawing. (Ligorio, et al. 2017) described a drawing-based method that deepened understanding of young students' representations of their learning process. (Wammes, Melissa E. and Myra A 2017) confirmed that drawing was a relatively simple yet unique encoding strategy for learning complex information at the university level. ...
As a study conducted on teaching and learning, the primary purpose of the present research is to investigate the effect of visual notes on the rate of learning the History of World Architecture (HWA) as one of the theoretical courses in architecture. The research undertaken here demonstrates that visual note-taking as one of the teaching methods allows students to attach their symbols to represent meaning. In light of visual notes, participants are engaged in more self-monitoring events than non-drawing participants. Additionally, using visual notes during the learning process of theoretical courses in architecture is an effective strategy to enhance students' educational performance. Referring to Bloom's Taxonomy, visual notes are considered an elaborative encoding strategy that plays a critical role in memory performance. The statistical population of this study consisted of 59 undergraduate architecture students who attended the History of World Architecture course and were randomly clustered. The present study utilized a post-test design by selecting two experimental and control groups. Thirty-nine people were allocated to the experimental group and 20 to the control group. As well as lectures, learners in the experimental group were also required to describe each monument's physical characteristics and geometric-spatial features and draw its design. The posttest-only control group design was used, and the data were collected using a researcher-made test. The validity of the test was assessed based on experts' opinions, and the reliability coefficient for 29 questions of the test was calculated using Cronbach's alpha to be 0.84. Data were analyzed using SPSS software and the student t-test. Bloom's Taxonomy helped to design a learning experience to identify, classify, and outline what students are expected to learn in this course. The results of the study show that the visual notes taken by students on architectural monuments have a statistically significant effect on the rate of learning and better performance in remembering, understanding, and explaining the physical and semantic features of historic monuments of the concepts taught by teachers in the classes of the History of World Architecture. Taking visual notes based on observation, recording, perception, connecting, analyzing, and encoding offers global education through which learners are engaged in a deep cultural exchange rather than merely transacting.
... (Schmidgall, Eitel and Scheiter 2019) recognized the contribution of generation, visualization, and externalization to the benefits of learner-generated drawing. (Ligorio, et al. 2017) described a drawing-based method that deepened understanding of young students' representations of their learning process. (Wammes, Melissa E. and Myra A 2017) confirmed that drawing was a relatively simple yet unique encoding strategy for learning complex information at the university level. ...
As a study conducted on teaching and learning, the main purpose of the present research is to investigate the effect of visual notes on the rate of learning the History of World Architecture (HWA) as one of the theoretical courses in the field of architecture. The research undertaken here demonstrates that visual note-taking as one of teaching methods allows students to attach their own symbols to represent meaning. In light of visual notes, participants are engaged in more self-monitoring events than non-drawing participants. Additionally, the use of visual notes during the learning process of theoretical courses in the field of architecture is an effective strategy to enhance the educational performance of students. Referring to Bloom's Taxonomy, visual notes are considered an elaborative encoding strategy that plays a critical role in the memory performance. The statistical population of this study consisted of 59 undergraduate architecture students who attended the course of the History of World Architecture and were randomly clustered. By selecting two experimental and control groups, the present study utilized a posttest design. 39 people were allocated to the experimental group and 20 people to the control group. As well as lectures, learners in the experimental group were also required to describe the physical characteristics and geometric-spatial features of each monument and draw its design. The posttest-only control group design was used and the data were collected using a researcher-made test. The validity of the test was assessed based on the opinions of experts, and the reliability coefficient for 29 questions of the test was calculated using Cronbach's alpha to be 0.84. Data were analyzed using SPSS software and the student t-test. Bloom's Taxonomy helped to design a learning experience to identify, classify, and outline what students are expected to learn in this course. The results of the study show that the visual notes taken by students on architectural monuments has a statistically significant effect on the rate of learning and better performance in remembering, understanding, and explaining the physical and semantic features of historic monuments of the concepts taught by teachers in the classes of the History of World Architecture. Taking visual notes based on observation, recording, perception, connecting, analyzing, and encoding offers global education, through which learners are engaged in a deep cultural exchange rather than merely transacting.
... El trabajo de Moragón y Martínez (2016) también desarrolla una aproxi-mación semiótica al ocuparse de la representación del juego infantil a través del dibujo, mientras que Madsen (2013) analiza la representación de conceptos científicos al poner a los estudiantes a transformar distintas nociones en dibujos y luego en palabras. Por su parte, Ligorio et al. (2017) encontraron que las representaciones de los estudiantes eran multidimensionales, lo que coincide con la noción de multimodalidad (Kress, 2010), con estructuras multiregistro (Duval, 1999) y con la transducción de un modo de representación a otro (Kress, 2011). ...
Este artículo presenta una revisión de literatura que buscó identificar las tendencias teóricas y metodológicas en estudios sobre la relación entre conciencia social, representación semiótica y dibujo en la experiencia de los niños. Desde una posición crítica respecto al objeto, los sujetos y los enfoques de la investigación, se revisaron noventa y cinco artículos publicados entre 2005 y 2020. Se identificó que las teorías de representación social, estereotipos y mundos posibles son las más frecuentes; y que la investigación-acción participativa, estudios experimentales y estudios clínicos y terapéuticos son las metodologías más implementadas. El dibujo no se ha asumido desde una perspectiva interdisciplinar de las ciencias cognitivas ni con suficiencia desde una aproximación fenomenológica. Por lo tanto, se requiere estudiar la conciencia social en los niños desde la fenomenología del mundo social y el análisis semiótico.
... This color is usually used by people who want to be noticed by others. In other words, the color yellow is closely related to people who have extroverted personalities [34], [35]. The fifth color is black. ...
span lang="EN-US">This descriptive qualitative study described the personality or characteristics of children based on the colors used in drawing activities. The subjects in this study were the Pembina Kindergarten students in the city of Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia. They were determined by using snowball sampling technique. The data collected through observations and documentation analysis by researchers without being directly involved in activities. The data analysis technique used was an interactive model which consists of three activity lines: i) Data reduction; ii) Data display; and iii) Drawing conclusions and data verification. </span
... The nature of human beings cannot be separated from life, life cannot be separated from culture, and culture cannot be separated from art, thus, the combination of technology and art has become an inevitable trend. Like other space construction tasks, such as module block assembly, drawings can help us to deeply understand how individuals copy each part of an array, as well as the relationship between each part, in order to construct the whole configuration (Stiles et al., 2013), thus, it is considered to be a generative learning activity that promotes student participation (Ligorio et al., 2016). Figurative drawings have long been adopted in the research field of artificial intelligence as a common related object of research and analysis from which to obtain meaningful results (Minsky and Papert, 1972). ...
This study proposed a children’s digital art ability training system with artificial intelligence-assisted learning (AI-assisted learning), which was designed to achieve the goal of improving children’s drawing ability. AI technology was introduced for outline recognition, hue color matching, and color ratio calculation to machine train students’ cognition of chromatics, and smart glasses were used to view actual augmented reality paintings to enhance the effectiveness of improving elementary school students’ imagination and painting performance through the diversified stimulation of colors. This study adopted the quasi-experimental research method and designs the pre-test and post-test for different groups. The research subjects are the Grade 4 students of an elementary school in Taitung City, Taiwan. The test tools included an imagination test and an evaluation of painting performance ability. The test results of a total of 30 students before and after the experiment included the experimental group that received the children’s digital art ability training system with AI-assisted learning and 30 students in the control group that had not received the teaching were analyzed by covariance. These results were supplemented by the description and interpretation of student feedback, teachers’ reflection notes, and other qualitative data to understand the performance of the students in the experimental group in terms of imagination and painting performance.
... Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan (Sudarsih et al., 2014) yang melakukan kegiatan mengambar kepada anak selama 4 hari dengan durasi waktu satu jam diperoleh hasil bahwa adanya peningkatan motorik halus anak setelah dilakukan kegiatan. Mengambar juga merupakan salah satu metode untuk anak berekspresi karena dengan megambar anak dapat mengungkapkan bahasa non verbal anak (Ligorio, Schwartz, D'Aprile, & Philhour, 2017). Hasil ini sesuai dengan penelitian yang dilakukan yang mengungkapkan adanya peningkatan kemampuan motorik halus pada anak usia prasekolah dengan kemampuan menggambar manusia dengan 6 bagian tubuh. ...
Peningkatan kualitas kesehatan pada anak merupakan upaya pemerintah dalam peningkatan sumber daya manusia yang produktif. Peningkatan kesehatan anak dengan perhatian optimal terhadap tahapan perkembangan khususnya masa keemasan anak yaitu usia prasekolah. Perkembangan merupakan faktor penting di kehidupan anak usia prasekolah karena akan menentukan perkembangan anak diusia yang selanjutnya. Namun saat ini perkembangan anak belum menjadi prioritas utama orang tua dalam pengasuhan anak. Kondisi ini sangat berdampak terhadap pemberian stimulasi perkembangan pada anak usia prasekolah oleh orang tua. Upaya yang dapat dilakukan oleh perawat dalam mengatasi permasalahan tersebut dengan menjalankan peran sebagai pemberi layanan berupa stimulasi perkembangan. Tujuan penelitian ini mengambarkan tahapan perkembangan anak prasekolah setelah dilakukan stimulasi perkembangan. Metode yang digunakan dalam adalah studi kasus kepada 118 anak usia prasekolah di lima TK di Kelurahan Curug. Berdasarkan hasil evaluasi menunjukan adanya peningkatan perkembangan pada anak usia prasekolah sebanyak 19% sehingga dapat disimpulkan dapat digunakan dalam meningkatkan perkembangan anak.
... It is useful to examine the human-nature connection of the multi-dimensional concept through drawings and explanations, which were also used to refer to imagining EE (Alerby, 2000;Barraza, 1999;Pellier, Wells, Abram, Gaveau, & Meijaard, 2014), as they allow children to express their inner view of external processes, their personal ideas, emotions, creativity and environmental attitudes (Chang et al., 2020;Ligorio, Schwartz, D'Aprile, & Philhour, 2017;Muhr, 2020). Drawings include information that can differ from that presented in writing, providing learners the opportunity to describe their perceptions of a specific phenomenon, which is based on real subjective live experiences (Watt & Wakefield, 2017). ...
Using drawings and accompanying written and oral explanations by third- and sixth-grade students, this phenomenological study is an examination of the children’s perception of the ideal environmental school. Analysis of the 128 features in the drawing yielded four categories: (1) physical – with natural areas and outdoor learning, (2) cognitive – core subjects and environmental ones, (3) emotional – the students’ feelings and the spaces for releasing stress and energy and (4) educational – environmental education (EE) includes a variety of pedagogies, features of nature and environmental solutions. While the drawings and explanations presented the school as the children know it, without boundary-breaking imagination and creativity, they also showed a desire for a positive school atmosphere, defined as essential to holistic EE and to leading environmental change. The positive atmosphere, nature and the environmental spaces can be the foundation of developing EE that is not fear based, which often generates helplessness and prevents action. The recommendations emphasise the need to enhance positive thinking and not to focus only on fear tactics as a means to enhance holistic EE and protect the environment.
... Her research showed interaction patterns among 5-6 year olds to be "1) working together, 2) collaboration 'coming loose' and 3) vying for control". Thus, our work suggests that collaborative drawing research may have potential for social engagement, and should therefore be read in combination with existing understandings of how learners develop rapport, cohesion and wellbeing, where their multiple and multilingual identities are recognised and accepted (Ligorio et al., 2017;Sakr, 2018;Meier, 2017). In our study we described "working together" as collaboration, and side by side or as "coming loose" as cooperation. ...
... [11] Sketches are generally understood as fast images, namely images that are made in a relatively short time by displaying essential line elements on the object displayed. Smith stated that sketches or sketches derived from English sketch, generally known as a chart or plan for a painting [12] [13]. Usually, sketches are made by designers or artists in making work designs, either as a chart or plan for a painting, or in other art works [14]. ...
... Some recent studies have also demonstrated interesting associations between the ways in which students conceptualize the learning process and gender. In educational psychology, conceptions of learning are an important psychological construct for teaching and learning ( Virtanen & Lindblom-Ylänne, 2010) because of their link with academic outcomes, also in the perspective of detecting theories able to improve learning outcomes ( Ligorio, Schwartz, D'Aprile, & Philhour, 2017). The conceptual link between conceptions of learning and academic outcomes should be tracked in the role that conceptions of learning have in affecting motivation ( Barger & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2016) and actions in learning-situations, primarily the approach and selection of learning strategies, that in turn lead to different academic outcomes ( Kember, Biggs, & Leung, 2004;Vermunt, 2005). ...
This study was aimed at inquiring the relationships between conceptions of learning and academic outcomes in middle school students, also considering gender differences. Students’ conceptions of learning were investigated in 136 participants by means of a self-report questionnaire and their academic outcomes were collected. General Linear Models were used to analyze the relationships among the variables. Conceptions of learning predicted the academic outcomes, even considering gender differences. Conceptions of learning as a ‘co-constructive and cultural process’ and as a ‘personal challenge, self-efficacy and personal growth’ were positively related to academic outcomes. Instead, a conception of learning as ‘reduction of a deficit through individual effort’ was a negative predictor. Furthermore, females showed a higher predictive association between a conception of learning as a ‘co-constructive and cultural process’ and academic outcomes, compared with this predictive association shown in males.
Bu araştırmanın amacı, Çocukların Çizim Becerilerine Yönelik Ebeveyn Desteği Ölçeği'ni Türk kültürüne uygun hale getirmek ve ölçeğin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmalarını yapmaktır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda, dil ve alan uzmanlarının görüşleriyle hazırlanan Türkçe form, 273 ebeveyne uygulanmış ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizi yapılmıştır. Analiz sonucunda belirlenen yapı doğrulanmış ve ölçeğin uyum indeksleri χ2/sd=2.13, RMSEA=.064, SRMR=.058, NFI=.96, NNFI=.97, IFI=.98, CFI=.98 ve GFI=.93 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Ölçeğin 14 maddesi için Cronbach alfa (α) iç tutarlılık katsayısı .895 olarak bulunmuştur. Ölçeğin boyutları için hesaplanan Cronbach alfa değerleri ise .731 ile .873 arasında değişmektedir. Bu sonuçlar, ölçeğin Türk kültürüne uygun bir şekilde uyarlanarak geçerli bir ölçme aracı olarak kullanılabileceğini göstermektedir.
Background and Purpose
Metavisualization plays a key role in science and technological learning in which visualization is practiced. We conducted two sequential studies with the purposes to first develop an instrument that allows individuals to report or reflect on their metavisualization, and then validate the instrument and investigate the relationships among the dimensions of metavisualization.
Sample
A total of 320 university students participated in this research.
Methods
Through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) in the first study and partial least squares – structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in the second study, the validity and reliability of the instrument measuring the four dimensions of metavisualization were reported, and a theoretical model delineating the relationships among the four variables was explored.
Findings
It was found that metacognitive skills, rather than metacognitive knowledge, significantly contributed to the demonstration of epistemic knowledge and judgment criteria during visualization. Metacognitive knowledge may also play an indirect role in learners’ epistemic performance through its relation with metacognitive skills.
Implications
The results provide insights to advance understanding of metavisualization and its relation to metacognition and epistemic practice. The validated instruments may be used for future quantitative or mixed research to advance understanding of the role metavisualization plays in various contexts of learning in science and technological education.
Innovations bring about new needs, which affect students' perceptions of learning environments. It is
necessary to determine all educational stakeholders’, especially students’, perceptions of the school
environment to be able to improve the education system. Free-hand drawing is a rich and creative
source of data that can be used to determine students' perceptions of an ideal school within the
context of their imagination typology.
The aim of this study was to determine eighth-grade students’ perceptions of an ideal school within
the context of their imagination typology. Phenomenology, which is a qualitative research design, was
used. The study sample consisted of 258 eighth graders of nine schools with different socio-economic
characteristics in the center of the city of Van in the spring semester of 2018-2019 academic year. Data
were collected using the “draw and write” method. 51.9% of participants were girls, indicating that
the study sample had a homogeneous gender distribution. Participants were recruited using
maximum diversity sampling, which is a purposive sampling method.
Data were collected using the “draw and write” method in line with the purpose of the study. In the
first stage prior to data collection, a data collection directive was developed. Within the framework of
the directive, data were collected during the visual arts lessons in coordination with teachers. In the
second stage, participants were supplied with materials. In the third stage, the question “What is your
dream school?” was written on board, and participants were asked to draw their ideal learning
environments by using artistic elements and the principles of design. In the fourth stage, they were
asked to state their demographic characteristics behind their drawings and to explain their drawings.
Data were analyzed using descriptive analysis. Bland's typology of imaginations typology (2009) was
used to determine participants’ perceptions of an ideal school through their drawings based on their
imagination typology. The four imagination typology “fantasy, creative, critical and empathy” were
analyzed as codes.
Data were sorted as M1, M2 etc. for male participants and as F1, F2 etc. for female participants. Data
were then analyzed by two visual arts experts. Unrelated data were removed from analysis. The
written and visual data were compared and coded. Intercoder agreement was calculated for the codes
to ensure reliability. The intercoder agreement was found to be 98%. Data triangulation (draw and
write) was conducted to ensure validity and reliability.
The results showed that participants’ drawings of an ideal school were related to Bland’s four
categories of imagination typology, suggesting that they had a vast imagination typology. Another
interesting result was that most drawings alluded to the category of “creative”, suggesting that, in
contrast to the conventional school, participants imagined an ideal school as an innovative
environment that encouraged problem solving. This indicates that they see the current learning
environments inadequate. Male participants' drawings were mostly related to the category of
“fantasy” while female participants’ drawings were mostly related to the category of “creative.” This
result suggests that girls are more interested in new school models than current schools while boys are
more interested in school models with fantastic elements. This suggests that students' perceptions of
an ideal school might differ by gender.
8. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin İdeal Okula İlişkin Algıları | 315
Based on this research, various researches which can contribute to the literature and which can
identify ideal school perceptions with the method of draw and write in the context of imagination
typology of students studying at different levels of education can be carried out
Understanding figurative language develops during middle childhood. Drawing can facilitate recall and may aid other aspects of linguistic expression. We examined whether children provide more symbolic interpretations of figurative statements in drawings relative to verbal explanations, and whether drawing facilitates overall symbolic interpretation. Ninety‐six children were split into three age groups (5–6, 7–8, and 9–10 years) in a between‐subjects design. In the ‘draw‐first’ condition, they were asked to depict then explain figurative statements (e.g., raining like cats and dogs), and in the ‘explain‐first’ condition, children were asked to explain before drawing. We coded for symbolic or literal content. Overall, children provided more symbolic responses for verbal explanations compared to drawings, with a developmental increase. More symbolic responses occurred in the ‘draw‐first’ condition compared to other task by condition combinations, suggesting drawing can facilitate subsequent symbolic verbal explanation. We discuss the links between drawings, figurative language, and development.
Statement of contribution
What is already known on this subject?
• Understanding figurative language such as metaphor develops during childhood.
• Drawing has been shown to aid recall and may aid other aspects of linguistic expression.
What the present study adds?
• Drawing figurative expressions facilitates subsequent symbolic verbal explanations.
• Children provide more symbolic interpretations in verbal explanations compared to drawings.
• There is a developmental progression in these abilities.
In this study, we reviewed 76 journal articles on employing drawing assessment as a research tool in science education. Findings from the systematic review suggest four justifications for using drawing as a type of research tool, including assessment via drawing as (a) an alternative method considering young participants’ verbal or writing abilities, and affective or economic reasons, (b) a unique method that can reveal aspects not easily measured by other methods, (c) a major method that reflects characteristics of science subjects, and (d) a formative assessment to diagnose students’ ideas to benefit their learning. Furthermore, five research trends of studies using drawing as assessment tools are identified, including: (a) students’ conceptions of scientists from the Draw-a-Scientist-Test (DAST) and evolving studies, (b) students’ understanding or mental models of science concepts, (c) participants’ conceptions of science learning or teaching, (d) students’ inquiry abilities and modelling skills via drawing, and (e) technology to support drawing. For each trend, we synthesised and commented on the current findings. A framework conceptualising phases and issues when designing research and instruments employing drawing assessments is proposed. The review provides insights into the design and future direction of research employing drawing assessments in science education.
This article is a sequel to the conversation on learning initiated by the editors of Educational Researcher in volume 25, number 4. The author’s first aim is to elicit the metaphors for learning that guide our work as learners, teachers, and researchers. Two such metaphors are identified: the acquisition metaphor and the participation metaphor. Subsequently, their entailments are discussed and evaluated. Although some of the implications are deemed desirable and others are regarded as harmful, the article neither speaks against a particular metaphor nor tries to make a case for the other. Rather, these interpretations and applications of the metaphors undergo critical evaluation. In the end, the question of theoretical unification of the research on learning is addressed, wherein the purpose is to show how too great a devotion to one particular metaphor can lead to theoretical distortions and to undesirable practices.
The aim of this paper is to highlight the contribution offered by the dialogical approach in understanding the interconnectedness of the situated sensemaking and situation-transcending processes occurring during the collaborative finalization of a product. We propose a dialogical theory of sensemaking based on the concepts of chronotope, voice and artefact mediation, aimed at investigating how multiple space–time frames are interconnected in collaborative sensemaking. We argue that this analysis is complementary to both the semiotic and the institutional analyses of sensemaking, which constitute the basis of our theorizing. To concretely illustrate our proposal for a chronotopic analysis of collaborative sensemaking, we qualitatively discuss an excerpt taken from a meeting of a multidisciplinary professional team working on the finalization of a web platform meant for enterprises.
Generative learning involves actively making sense of to-be-learned information by mentally reorganizing and integrating it with one’s prior knowledge, thereby enabling learners to apply what they have learned to new situations. In this article, we present eight learning strategies intended to promote generative learning: summarizing, mapping, drawing, imagining, self-testing, self-explaining, teaching, and enacting. First, we provide an overview of generative learning theory, grounded in Wittrock’s (1974) generative model of comprehension and reflected in more recent frameworks of active learning, such as Mayer’s (2014) select-organize-integrate (SOI) framework. Next, for each of the eight generative learning strategies, we provide a description, review exemplary research studies, discuss potential boundary conditions, and provide practical recommendations for implementation. Finally, we discuss the implications of generative learning for the science of learning, and we suggest directions for further research.
This "Monograph" reports the results of a series of experimental studies and a sociodemographic survey designed to determine the relative influence of age and educational experience in the development of cognitive skills as manifested in formal, psychological experiments. The research was conducted in rural Yucatan, Mexico, primarily with Indio (Maya) and Mestizo subjects ranging in age from approximately 10 to 56 years . The experimental tasks centered on (1) the categorization of objects and words using a variety of procedures, (2) memory for objects and words, and (3) problem solving using verbal and nonverbal materials. The survey, which included 393 informants, investigated a number of demographic and economic factors associated with the amount of schooling obtained by people in the population which was the target of the experimental studies. An adapted IQ test subscale was also included in the survey questionnaire. Results of the experimental studies strongly indicated that age and educational experience contributed differentially to performance on different tasks. For many of the tasks studied, performance increased as a function of education but not with age. For other tasks, both increasing age and educational experience were associated with increased performance, while for a few tasks performance improved as a function of age but was not affected by differences in education. Education exerts its strongest influence on tasks where taxonomic principles are the criterion of correct classification, where correct performance requires the subject to provide structure to the nominal stimulus array, where problems must be treated hypothetically without recourse to real-world knowledge, or where problem contents are clearly school related (e.g., arithmetic calculation). Insofar as functional criteria and real-world knowledge can produce a correct response or the task is well structured, education-related effects are reduced, and age-related effects are more prominent. Multiple-regression analysis of the sociodemographic survey showed that availability of schools in the informant's hometown was the major constraint on the amount of education obtained. Residual variation in schooling obtained was explained largely by economic factors. The IQ predicted a small but significant amount of the residual variation in schooling consistent in magnitude with other studies. The force of these survey results was to rule out massive selection artifacts as sufficient explanation of the performance differences associated with education. The final section of the "Monograph" discusses the implications of these results for developmental-psychological theory and the general problem of assessing the cognitive impact of education using standard psychological testing procedures. It is pointed out that conclusions regarding age-related differences in several kinds of cognitive performance from studies conducted in the United States and other highly developed countries should be reexamined for the extent to which their results arise from age-correlated differences in educational experience. Difficulties in specifying the generality of the cognitive changes under study is related to the difficulty of finding experimental techniques which retain analytic power and ecological validity.
The purpose of this research was to describe young pupils' learning conceptions. In this study, a learning conception was defined as a cluster of interrelated beliefs about different aspects of learning. Firstly, 27 pupils, all in the final year of primary school, were interviewed to elicit learning-related issues as being relevant for six-graders. Secondly, a questionnaire, developed on the basis of the outcomes of the interviews, was used to determine the interrelatedness of pupils' beliefs about the selected aspects. The results showed the young pupils to have different beliefs about five aspects of learning: purpose of school; learning orientation; regulation; learning demands; and mental activities. In exploring group differences, three different learning conceptions could be distinguished: a restricted learning conception; a functional learning conception; and a developmental learning conception. The characteristics of these different learning conceptions may be indicative of how young pupils conceive learning-related aspects.
Should science learners be challenged to draw more? Certainly making visualizations is integral to scientific thinking. Scientists
do not use words only but rely on diagrams, graphs, videos, photographs, and other images to make discoveries, explain findings,
and excite public interest. From the notebooks of Faraday and Maxwell (1) to current professional practices of chemists (2), scientists imagine new relations, test ideas, and elaborate knowledge through visual representations (3–5).
In this chapter, we take the position that self-regulation and metacognition reveal an undeniable conceptual core that assumes individuals make efforts to monitor their thoughts and actions, and try to gain some control over them. In the neurosciences, the higher-order processes of monitoring and control are referred to as “executive control processes”—processes that should be evident as neurological activity within known neuroanatomical locations. From this vantage point, we closely examine two predominant cognitive models of working memory—Cowan’s embedded processing model and Baddeley’s model containing a central executive component. We conclude that the former is the best fit with research from neuroscience and explains most efficiently the findings of metacognition in instruction. Thus, we offer a model of monitoring and control as a reciprocal function of the same neurologic processes that excite and inhibit, in a recursive fashion, the regions of the brain responsible for two types of activities involved in learning—the activities involved in processing the information itself relative to the goals of a task and the activities involved in processing (evaluating and correcting) the original activities deployed to seek goal attainment, activities that are metacognitive.
Creating graphical representations can foster knowledge gains on science topics in elementary school students by promoting active integration and translation of new information. Collaborating on joint representations may encourage children to discuss and elaborate their knowledge. To foster productive interactions, children may greatly benefit from additional guidance through collaboration scripts or careful group composition. In this study, we investigate the effects of script support and group composition by social preference on children’s learning processes and outcomes in a collaborative drawing setting within science education. The script foresaw a phase of individual preparation and prompted learners to engage in critical interactions. Group composition was based on children’s preferences for peers to work with. Results show that whereas the drawings of unscripted children depicted the concepts to be learned more adequately, scripted children acquired more domain knowledge during the experience. We discuss how a script can facilitate learning through collaborative drawing by imposing additional challenges on children’s interactions.
The goal of this paper is to examine efforts to understand the developmen- tal consequences, particularly the cognitive consequences, of children spending large amounts of time in formal schools where their activity is separated from the daily life of the rest of the community and mediated by technologies of liter- acy and numeracy as well as specialized uses of language. The analysis begins by examining the history of formal schooling in relation to its social and cultural circumstances and progresses through an examination of different research strategies for reaching plausible conclusions about its cognitive consequences in the sociocultural context. The discussion ends by considering two contradictory tendencies, centralized standardization versus de-centralized adaptation and separation versus embeddedness, which have characterized education since its inception and which societies around the world confront in our current historical circumstances. My goal in this paper is to examine the complex issues that intersect in seeking to specify the impact of schooling on development. Such a task requires that I begin by establishing at least some general agreement about the key terms in my title, culture and education on the one hand and cross-cultural and historical on the other. Each pair is complex in its own right, and the combinations to which their various
As teachers seek to reflect children’s diverse experience in the subject matter they present and in the questions they explore, they must also embrace children’s multifaceted ways of knowing. Their major pedagogical challenge is to help children transform what they know into modes of representation that allow for a full range of human experience. In their lives outside of school, children ‘naturally move between art, music, movement, mathematics, drama, and language as ways to think about the world [...]. It is only in schools that students are restricted to using one sign system at a time.’ (Shortet al., 2000: 160). This study uses young children’s drawings about reading and writing as an innovative way of investigating their perceptions and understandings of literacy across the broad contexts of their lives. The study challenges the politics of classroom practices that privilege language-dependent modes of representation over other modes.
Drawings by English and Mexican school children (7 to 9 years old – year three of primary education) were analysed to evaluate their environmental perceptions, and their major expectations and concerns for the future. The analyses considered whether culture and the school ethos with regard to the environment have an effect on the formation of environmental perceptions in young children. A total of 741 drawings were collected from eight schools: three in England and five in Mexico. Results show that children manifest a deep environmental concern in their pictures (37% depicted environmental problems). Children were pessimistic about the future; 54% thought the world will be in worse shape in 50 years time. Mexican children gave significantly greater importance to drawing rural places. Overall, however, children from these two countries, with significant structural and cultural differences, manifested more similarities in their drawings than differences. There was no strong evidence to suggest that children from schools with environmental policies developed a higher concern for environmental issues. Children's drawings are useful tools in providing valuable information for the assessment of children's environmental perceptions.
5 age groups (CA 7-9, 10-12, 13-16, 20-21, ∼ 27) of Ss were selected from 2 contrasting populations in urban and rural Yucatan. Whereas all urban Ss were in school, only the 2 younger rural age groups were in school-older rural Ss had little or no schooling. The Ss were tested on a short-term and incidental memory task. The developmental changes in memory performance of the urban-educated Ss were very similar to those reported for analogous tasks with American middle-class Ss. The performance of rural Ss did not show these consistent developmental changes. This fact, along with the results of several features of the data, support the hypothesis that formal schooling is an important factor in the development of mnemonic skills in short-term memory. Data from the incidental memory task implied that the development of selective attention is independent of short-term memory development and is probably influenced by both school and certain cultural factors.
This exploratory study in a classroom setting investigates first graders' (age 7–8 years, N = 25) ability to perform analogical reasoning and create their own analogies for two irreversible natural phenomena: mixing and heat transfer. We found that the children who contributed actively to a full-class discussion were consistently successful at making analogical comparisons between known objects provided by a researcher and that some of the children could come up with their own analogies for the abstract natural phenomena with which they interacted. The use of full-class and small-group settings, shared laboratory experiences of the phenomena and children's drawings as different kinds of scaffolding was found to be helpful for the children's analogical reasoning. As an implication for science education, self-generated analogies are put forward as a potential learning tool within a constructivist approach to education. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed 96:725–756, 2012
Examines epistemological belief assessment and the relationship between belief in simple knowledge and mathematical text comprehension. Exp 1, an epistemological questionnaire developed earlier (M. Schommer, 1990) was administered and factor analyzed. The factor structure was replicated, measuring beliefs in externally controlled learning, simple knowledge, quick learning, and certain knowledge. In Exp 2, Ss were instructed to read either to determine the comprehensibility of passage information or to teach passage information. Ss read a statistical passage, assessed their understanding, and completed a mastery test and study strategy inventory. Regression analyses indicated that the less Ss believed in simple knowledge, the better they performed on the mastery test and the more accurately they assessed their comprehension. A path model indicates that study strategies may mediate epistemological effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Depictive expressions of thought predate written language by thousands of years. They have evolved in communities through a kind of informal user testing that has refined them. Analyzing common visual communications reveals consistencies that illuminate how people think as well as guide design; the process can be brought into the laboratory and accelerated. Like language, visual communications abstract and schematize; unlike language, they use properties of the page (e.g., proximity and place: center, horizontal/up–down, vertical/left–right) and the marks on it (e.g., dots, lines, arrows, boxes, blobs, likenesses, symbols) to convey meanings. The visual expressions of these meanings (e.g., individual, category, order, relation, correspondence, continuum, hierarchy) have analogs in language, gesture, and especially in the patterns that are created when people design the world around them, arranging things into piles and rows and hierarchies and arrays, spatial-abstraction-action interconnections termed spractions. The designed world is a diagram.
There have been a number of research programs that have investigated students’ thinking and beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing, including definitions of knowledge, how knowledge is constructed, and how knowledge is evaluated. However, these different research programs have pursued varying definitions and conceptual frameworks and used quite different methodologies to examine students’ epistemological beliefs and thinking. In the first section of this article, we provide a critical and comprehensive review of these different research programs. In the second part of this article, we identify nine crucial theoretical and methodological issues that need to be resolved in future research on epistemological theories. As these issues are addressed in future research, there will be more consensus regarding the nature of epistemological theories, and their relation to cognition, motivation, and learning will be made more explicit.
We argue that beyond metaphors, according to which learning is a process of knowledge acquisition by individual learners (a “monological” approach) or participation to social interaction (a “dialogical” approach), one should distinguish a “trialogical” approach, i.e., learning as a process of knowledge creation which concentrates on mediated processes where common objects of activity are developed collaboratively. The third metaphor helps us to elicit and understand processes of knowledge advancement that are important in a knowledge society. We review three approaches to knowledge-creation, i.e., Bereiter‘s knowledge-building, Engeström‘s expansive learning, and Nonaka and Takeuchi‘s organizational knowledge-creation. We give a concise analysis of the trialogical character of the knowledge-creation approach, and illustrate how the third metaphor may be applied at the
school level.
The definition of epistemological beliefs takes on different shades of meaning from study to study; but, in general, researchers of personal epistemology are interested in what individuals believe about the source, certainty, and organization of knowledge, as well as the control and the speed of learning. Epistemological beliefs have been found to relate to reading comprehension, learning in complex and ill-structured domains, as well as learners' active participation and persistence in learning. Researchers are at odds on the issues of epistemological development and the roles that education and culture play in epistemological beliefs.
The ideas that individuals hold about knowledge and knowing have been the target of research programs with disparate names, such as epistemological beliefs, reflective judgment, ways of knowing, and epistemological reflection, all of which appear to be a part of a larger body of work on personal epistemology. Epistemological perspectives are salient in numerous academic experiences, have been shown to be related to learning in various ways, influence reasoning and judgment throughout our lives, and have implications for teaching. Yet this work has remained outside the mainstream of educational psychology and cognitive development. This paper addresses three main questions: (1) What is personal epistemology research and how is it conceptualized? (2) How are individuals' conceptions of epistemology related to learning and instruction? (3) Given what we know about personal epistemology, what might educators do? Suggestions are also provided for future research and theoretical development.
Theories of learning and theories of teaching often originate and operate independently from one another. This article attempts to contribute to the integration of the two types of theories. First, the cognitive, affective and regulative activities students use to learn are analyzed. Next, different ways in which teachers can regulate the learning and thinking activities of students are discussed, as well as the teaching strategies they can use for that aim. The third part focuses on different ways in which student-regulation and teacher-regulation of learning act upon one another. Congruence and friction between these modes of control are discussed. From this interplay implications are derived for process-oriented teaching, aimed at promoting congruence and constructive friction, avoiding destructive friction and reducing the gap between learning and teaching.
In this article, we build on the notion of the chronotope to investigate how students create and manage time-space contexts in their technology-mediated interactions during a collaborative learning activity. Drawing on a dialogic approach, the study defines chronotopes as socially constructed time-space configurations with a specific narrative character that represent cultural practices and values, and that operationalize the framing of the interactional situation and its actors. The empirical data derive from a case study of students’ technology-mediated interactions while collaborating in writing a school musical script. The findings show how chronotopes offer a useful conceptual heuristic for researching the creation and management of often contradictory time-space contexts in students’ technology-mediated interactions intertwined with institutional, relational, and personal spheres of activity.
This chapter discusses the generative drawing principle in multimedia learning. It proposes that asking students to create drawings while reading text causes generative processing that leads to better learning outcomes. In drawing, students have to translate the verbal text information into a picture that represents spatial relationships among functional elements referred to in the text. Asking students to draw a picture of the text content as they read a text encourages them to actively engage in deep cognitive and metacognitive processing and thus fosters deep understanding of the material to be learned. The generative drawing principle has been supported by several studies, especially when students engage in hand drawing using paper and pencil. An important logistical issue for instructional designers when using the drawing strategy is to create a form of drawing activity that minimizes the creation of extraneous cognitive processing, by providing appropriate support for drawing. Otherwise the benei ts of drawing can be diminished, as the intended generative cognitive processes can be impaired or even impeded by extraneous cognitive load caused by the mechanics of drawing, leading to insuficient cognitive recourses available for generative processing.
This article describes the ICAP framework that defines cognitive engagement activities on the basis of students’ overt behaviors and proposes that engagement behaviors can be categorized and differentiated into one of four modes: Interactive, Constructive, Active, and Passive. The ICAP hypothesis predicts that as students become more engaged with the learning materials, from Passive to active to constructive to interactive, their learning will increase. We suggest possible knowledge-change processes that support the ICAP hypothesis and address the limitations and caveats of the hypothesis. In addition, empirical validation for the hypothesis is provided by examining laboratory and classroom studies that focus on three specific engagement activities: note taking, concept mapping and self-explaining. We also consider how ICAP can be used as a tool for explaining discrepant findings, dictate the proper choice of a control condition, and evaluate students’ outputs. Finally, we briefly compare ICAP to existing theories of learning.
In recent years, multimedia learning, or learning from words and images, has developed into a coherent discipline with a significant research base. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning is unique in offering a comprehensive, up-to-date analysis of research and theory in the field, with a focus on computer-based learning. Since the first edition appeared in 2005, it has shaped the field and become the primary reference work for multimedia learning. Multimedia environments, including online presentations, e-courses, interactive lessons, simulation games, slideshows, and even textbooks, play a crucial role in education. This revised second edition incorporates the latest developments in multimedia learning and contains new chapters on topics such as drawing, video, feedback, working memory, learner control, and intelligent tutoring systems. It examines research-based principles to determine the most effective methods of multimedia instruction and considers research findings in the context of cognitive theory to explain how these methods work.
Does using a learner-generated drawing strategy (i.e., drawing pictures during reading) foster students' engagement in generative learning during reading? In two experiments, 8th-grade students (Exp. 1: N = 48; Exp. 2: N = 164) read a scientific text explaining the biological process of influenza and then took two learning outcome tests. In Experiment 1, students who were asked to draw pictures during reading (learner-generated drawing group), scored higher than students who only read (control group) on a multiple-choice comprehension test (d = 0.85) and on a drawing test (d = 1.15). In Experiment 2, students in the learner-generated drawing group scored significantly higher than the control group on both a multiple-choice comprehension test (d = 0.52) and on a drawing test (d = 1.89), but students who received author-generated pictures in addition to drawing or author-generated pictures only did not. Additionally, the drawing-accuracy scores during reading correlated with comprehension test scores (r = .623, r = .470) and drawing scores (r = .620, r = .615) in each experiment, respectively. These results provide further evidence for the generative drawing effect and the prognostic drawing effect, thereby confirming the benefits of the learner-generated drawing strategy.
The aim of this paper is to examine how drawing scientific concepts and notions affects communication, learning and collaboration in a work group. Pupils in year 7 transformed notions and information from scientific formulations found in their textbooks into personal ways of drawing and then back into words, but now as verbal formulations in class presentations. The findings seemed to be 1) an increase in the use of exploring dialogues and communication and 2) an increase in collaboration which changed the groups into examples of learning communities. Drawing appears to be an underestimated yet adequate tool when teaching and learning.
This article centres on a research project in which freehand drawings provided a richly creative and colourful data source of children's imagined, ideal learning environments. Issues concerning the analysis of the visual data are discussed, in particular, how imaginative content was analysed and how the analytical process was dependent on an accompanying, secondary data source comprising brief, explanatory written texts.
Many educational practices are based upon philosophical ideas about what it means to be human, including particular subjectivities and identities such as the rational person, the autonomous individual, or the democratic citizen. This book asks what might happen to the ways in which we educate if we treat the question as to what it means to be human as a radically open question; a question that can only be answered by engaging in education rather than as a question that needs to be answered theoretically before we can educate. The book provides a different way to understand and approach education, one which focuses on the ways in which human beings come into the world as unique individuals through responsible responses to what and who is other and different. This book raises important questions about pedagogy, community and educational responsibility, and helps educators of children and adults alike to understand what truly democratic education entails. The following chapters are included: (1) Against Learning; (2) Coming into Presence; (3) The Community of Those Who Have Nothing in Common; (4) How Difficult Should Education Be?; (5) The Architecture of Education; and (6) Education and the Democratic Person. This book also contains an Epilogue: A Pedagogy of Interruption.
The more neuroscientists explore how the brain processes, stores, and retrieves information, the more evident is the connection between emotion and reason. Scientists have discovered that the same areas of the brain that are involved in processing emotion are involved in processing memory. (Author/JOW)
This paper highlights some connections between cultural psychology, educational psychology, and identity psychology. This aim is pursued through the constructivist view of conceptualized learning as building knowledge. It is contended that identities should explicitly be considered as part of this process. Useful approaches to explore the relationship between learning and identity are the Dialogical Self Theory (DST) and the Communities of Learning model (CoL), both of which demonstrate a shared interest in dialogue and constructivism. DST defines the self as being composed of a set of I-positions, which are constantly in dialogue and in movement. The CoL model conceptualizes the classroom as a set of cultural contexts where dialogues permit the analysis of context and also shape it. Empirical examples of how relevant concepts related to learning, such as motivation and sense-making, can be viewed as innovation of the self are discussed.
The beliefs that individuals hold about knowledge and knowing have been the focus of a growing body of work on “personal epistemology.” There has been general agreement among researchers about a developmental trajectory of epistemological understanding that takes place in adolescence and adulthood. Rarely has this research included children, however, and we know little about the origins of epistemological awareness or its early development. A separate group of researchers have investigated children's “theory of mind,” or the ability to understand others’ beliefs, actions, and desires, with primary attention to the onset of this cognitive achievement between the ages of 3 and 5. This article reviews the theoretical foundation for a proposed relation between these constructs, and reports on an exploratory investigation with 3–5 year olds, in which epistemological level was significantly related to theory of mind ability. Results are discussed in relation to a general timeline depicting the development of children's beliefs about knowledge and knowing, a process that involves an ongoing tension between objective and subjective perspectives. We propose that the trajectory of epistemological development be expanded to include an initial period of egocentric subjectivity that characterizes epistemological thinking prior to the achievement of theory of mind.
Epistemological beliefs, or beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing, are currently a target of increased research interest. The present study examined two research questions: (1) how do epistemological beliefs change over time? and (2) what role do gender, ethnicity, SES, and achievement play in their development? The study was correlational with an ethnically diverse sample of 187 fifth grade students (46% Latino, 27% Anglo, and 27% African American, and 67% low SES). Self-report questionnaires that tapped four dimensions of beliefs (source, certainty, development, and justification) were given to students at two time points during the course of a nine-week science unit. Results showed that students became more sophisticated in their beliefs about source and certainty of knowledge over time, but that there were no reliable changes in development and justification. There also were no main or moderating effects of gender or ethnicity, but there were main effects of SES and achievement. Low SES and low achieving children had less sophisticated beliefs in comparison to average SES and high achieving children. There were no significant interactions between gender, ethnicity, SES, and achievement for any of the four belief measures. Results are discussed in terms of personal and contextual factors and their role in the facilitation of epistemological belief development.