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The psychology of perfectionism: An introduction
Abstract
Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition characterized by striving for flawlessness and setting exceedingly high standards of performance accompanied by overly critical evaluations of one’s behavior. Perfectionism is a complex characteristic. It comes in different forms and has various aspects. This chapter has a dual purpose: It aims to serve as an introduction to “The Psychology of Perfectionism” (the edited book you are holding in your hands) and an introduction to the psychology of perfectionism (what the book is about). To these aims, I first present a brief history of perfectionism theory and research. Then I introduce the two-factor theory of perfectionism—differentiating perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—with the intention to provide readers with a conceptual framework that may serve as a “compass” guiding them through the different models and measures of perfectionism they will encounter in this book. Going beyond the two-factor model, I next introduce three aspects of perfectionism that are important for a comprehensive understanding of perfectionism: other-oriented perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, and perfectionism cognitions. The chapter will conclude with a brief overview of the organization of the book and the contents of the individual chapters.
... Perfectionism is a stable personality trait that can generally be defined as the demand of being perfect (i.e. absolutely faultless) in all sorts of performance-related situations combined with the anxiety of being insufficient and the emotional belief that only perfection leads to self-acceptance (Greenspon, 2008;Stoeber, 2018) described perfectionism as a personality trait which combines subdimensions that are characterized by one's own exceptional high standards, the attempt to be flawless and being very critical towards Kilian Kummer kilian.kummer@uni-koeln.de 1 to imperfection (e.g., if a person shows imperfect performance, they are likely to treat it as personal failure). PS, in turn, reflects the need to set high criteria to one's own performance and the intrinsic motivation to show an outstanding performance. ...
... PS, in turn, reflects the need to set high criteria to one's own performance and the intrinsic motivation to show an outstanding performance. People with high PS are also more conscientious and show a higher endurance (Stoeber, 2018). ...
... These two perfectionism dimensions are clearly varying in their outcomes regarding psychopathology (Stoeber, 2018). PC perfectionists appear to be associated with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD; Martinelli et al., 2014), depression (Drieberg et al., 2019;Smith et al., 2017), anxiety (Handley et al., 2014;Limburg et al., 2017) or eating disorders (Bardone-Cone et al., 2007;Drieberg et al., 2019). ...
Perfectionism, intolerance of uncertainty and repetitive negative thinking are all psychological traits, which are treated as transdiagnostic phenomena for the development and the maintenance of psychopathology. The aim of the current work was to investigate the associations between repetitive negative thinking and the multidimensional aspects of perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) and intolerance of uncertainty (prospective and inhibitory) in one model. Two studies were conducted in which participants (N1 = 227; N2 = 148) completed questionnaires in an online survey. The first study measured rumination and worry separately as repetitive negative thinking processes. The second study measured repetitive negative thinking as an underlying construct of rumination and worry using a single questionnaire. We applied hierarchical regression analyses and mediation analyses in both studies. The mediation analyses in both studies showed that inhibitory intolerance of uncertainty significantly partially mediated the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and repetitive negative thinking (as well as worry and rumination). Perfectionistic concerns seem to be the more crucial perfectionism aspect for transdiagnostic considerations, particularly in association with a heighten inhibitory intolerance of uncertainty and repetitive negative thinking. Both studies strongly affirm the necessity to use the multidimensional aspects of perfectionism and intolerance of uncertainty in psychological research.
... Recent years have witnessed a growing interest in the study of both perfectionism (Stoeber, 2018) and narcissism (Miller et al., 2017). Perfectionism is a personality disposition that entails striving for flawlessness and engaging in overly critical self-evaluation (Flett & Hewitt, 2002). ...
... Of interest, adolescence represents a sensitive lifetime period for changes in both narcissism and perfectionism. Although the empirical evidence is still limited, narcissism appears to increase significantly during adolescence (Carlson & Gjerde, 2009;Klimstra et al., 2020), which has been described as an age of pronounced narcissistic tendencies (Hill & Roberts, 2012, 2018. Similarly, perfectionistic tendencies become more salient in adolescence, due to increasing demands from parents, school and peers (Damian et al., 2013;Flett et al., 2002). ...
... This is one of the few studies that report data on the mean-level and rank-order stability of the NARC (see Leckelt et al., 2019). Studies that have focused on patterns of stability and change in perfectionism are also lacking (Stoeber, 2018). Further research is needed to better understand how narcissistic admiration, rivalry and multidimensional perfectionism develop over time. ...
The current study investigates the longitudinal association between grandiose narcissism and multidimensional perfectionism over 2 years in adolescence. We adopted the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Concept, which differentiates between two aspects of grandiose narcissism. We also considered multiple dimensions of perfectionism, including Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (SPP) and two forms of Self-Oriented Perfectionism (SOP), namely the tendencies to set high standards of performance (SOP-Striving) and to engage in overly critical self-evaluations (SOP-Critical). The study was conducted in a sample of Italian high school students (n = 331). Concurrent correlations indicated that Admiration was positively related to SOP-Striving and, to a lesser extent, to SOP-Critical and SPP. Rivalry was also positively related to the three perfectionistic dimensions, although correlations were smaller in size than those found for Admiration. Prospective associations between narcissism and perfectionism were analysed using a Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model. Results showed that the predominant direction of effects was from narcissism to perfectionism, particularly from Admiration to SOP-Striving and SPP. Findings were discussed in terms of their implications for the understanding of the narcissism-perfectionism link.
... Perfectionism is a multidimensional trait of personality characterized by the pursuit of perfection and the establishment of extremely high-performance standards, accompanied by overly critical evaluations of oneself and others, as well as beliefs about perfectionist demands and criticisms of the significant others [1][2][3]. is personality trait "matters a great deal" not only because it has been associated with a large number of psychological problems [4], but also because of its considerable increasing prevalence in society [5,6]. Although perfectionism has been mainly considered as a negative construct due to its close relationship with overall psychopathology [7], several authors defend the existence of both positive and negative perfectionist dimensions [8]. ...
... us, the two-factor model proposes that perfectionist dimensions can be organized into two higher-order factors commonly labelled as perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC). PS represents the adaptive, or at least not maladaptive, dimension of perfectionism, and it reflects the need to be perfect and to follow excessively high goals, whereas PC involves constant and harsh self-criticism, chronic concerns about others' criticisms and expectations, and the impossibility of experiencing satisfaction from successful performances, representing the maladaptive dimension of perfectionism [8]. is two-factor model acts as a conceptual framework that allows comparing the results from different studies regardless of the multidimensional perfectionism scale used [2]. ...
... Specifically, the Spanish version translated by Castro et al. [44] was employed in this study. e use of Self-Oriented Perfectionism and Socially Prescribed Perfectionism as indicators of PS and PC has been supported by previous research [2]. Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (10 items; e.g., "Other people always expect me to be perfect") refers to the belief that there are excessively high expectations and criticisms from the environment. ...
This study examined the relationship between perfectionistic concerns (PC) and perfectionistic strivings (PS) with the subcomponents of emotional intelligence (EI) through a latent class person-centered approach. A sample of 1582 Ecuadorian adolescents (619 females) aged from 12 to 18 was employed. The trait meta-mood scale-24 (TMMS-24) and the child and adolescent perfectionism scale (CAPS) were used, respectively, for assessing three subcomponents of EI (i.e., emotional attention, emotional clarity, and mood repair) and two perfectionist dimensions (PC and PS). A three-class solution (High perfectionism, moderate perfectionism, and nonperfectionism) was identified by using latent class analysis. High perfectionism significantly scored higher on emotional attention in comparison with the moderate and nonperfectionism classes, with small and moderate effect sizes. Overall, results suggest that people with high perfectionism might be at greater risk of developing maladaptive emotional self-regulation strategies, such as rumination, because of their tendency to excessively attend their negative mood states.
... Perfectionism is a trait people profess a need to have . It is currently understood as a complex multidimensional and interactive trait (Stoeber and Otto, 2006;Gaudreau and Thompson, 2010), characterized by a striving for perfection, extremely high standards for oneself, and stringent self-evaluations (Stoeber, 2018). Perfectionism has been studied specifically in the educational context with regard to both teachers (Stoeber and Rennert, 2008;Gluschkoff et al., 2017;Samfira and Paloş, 2021) and students Milyavskaya et al., 2014;Madigan, 2019). ...
Perfectionism has been the object of many disputes. One such debate pertains to the nature of perfectionistic strivings. Whereas perfectionistic concerns (PC) have been shown to correlate with negative outcomes, perfectionistic strivings (PS) have been associated with mixed outcomes. This view of perfectionism assumes a motivational perspective; however, commonly used questionnaires assess motivation only implicitly. To create a more explicit measure of motivation as regard perfectionism, we aimed to assess perfectionism in post-secondary education based on Deci and Ryan’s self-determination continuum. We posit that introjected motivation represents the variance common to both dimensions of perfectionism. External motivation is considered to be specific to PC and identified motivation to PS. Amotivation represents a lack of meaningful striving. Intrinsic motivation, lacking perfectionism’s pressure, is conceptualized to be a self-determined form of striving for excellence. We further posited that this continuum is implicitly underlain by a continuum of self-definition as defined by Blatt. The resulting questionnaire showed an adequate structure with ESEM, followed a simplex structure, and had adequate reliabilities (Study 1a/Study 2). It also showed adequate convergent validity (Study 1b/Study 2). Finally, the questionnaire proved to be invariant over a 6-week period (Study 2). Results suggest that the degree of active goal pursuit, in addition to standards setting, could be a distinguishing characteristic between dimensions of perfectionism as well as striving for excellence.
... Barke et al., 2017;Drizinsky et al., 2016;Stahl et al., 2015), all of which used the same subscales. Furthermore, researchers have argued that the other FMPS subscales are not as central to the two higher-order dimensions as personal standards and concern over mistakes (Stoeber, 2018). For example, the parental criticism and expectations subscales are more important in the context of developing perfectionism (Damian, Stoeber, Negru, & Băban, 2013;Rice, Lopez, & Vergara, 2005) and the organisation subscale is often considered as existing in addition to PSP and ECP (Frost et al., 1990;Kim, Chen, MacCann, Karlov, & Kleitman, 2015). ...
Perfectionists strive for a flawless performance because they are intrinsically motivated to set and achieve high goals (personal standards perfectionism; PSP) and/or because they are afraid to be negatively evaluated by others (evaluative concern perfectionism; ECP). We investigated the differential relationships of these perfectionism dimensions with performance, post-response adaptation, error processing (reflected by two components of the event-related potential: error/correct negativity-Ne/c; error/correct positivity-Pe/c) and error detection. In contrast to previous studies, we employed a task with increased response selection complexity providing more room for perfectionistic dispositions to manifest themselves. Although ECP was related to indicators of increased preoccupation with errors, high-EC perfectionists made more errors than low-EC perfectionists. This observation may be explained by insufficient early error processing as indicated by a reduced Ne/c effect and a lack of post-response adaptation. PSP had a moderating effect on the relationship between ECP and early error processing. Our results provide evidence that pure-EC perfectionists may spend many of their cognitive resources on error-related contents and worrying, leaving less capacity for cognitive control and thus producing a structural lack of error processing.
... Perfectionism is a trait people profess a need to have . It is currently understood as a complex multidimensional and interactive trait (Stoeber and Otto, 2006;Gaudreau and Thompson, 2010), characterized by a striving for perfection, extremely high standards for oneself, and stringent self-evaluations (Stoeber, 2018). Perfectionism has been studied specifically in the educational context with regard to both teachers (Stoeber and Rennert, 2008;Gluschkoff et al., 2017;Samfira and Paloş, 2021) and students Milyavskaya et al., 2014;Madigan, 2019). ...
Perfectionism has been the object of many disputes. One such debate pertains to the nature of perfectionistic strivings. Whereas perfectionistic concerns (PC) have been shown to correlate with negative outcomes, perfectionistic strivings (PS) have been associated with mixed outcomes. This view of perfectionism assumes a motivational perspective; however, commonly used questionnaires assess motivation only implicitly. To create a more explicit measure of motivation as regard perfectionism, we aimed to assess perfectionism in post-secondary education based on Deci and Ryan’s self-determination continuum. We posit that introjected motivation represents the variance common to both dimensions of perfectionism. External motivation is considered to be specific to PC and identified motivation to PS. Amotivation represents a lack of meaningful striving. Intrinsic motivation, lacking perfectionism’s pressure, is conceptualized to be a self-determined form of striving for excellence. We further posited that this continuum is implicitly underlain by a continuum of self-definition as defined by Blatt. The resulting questionnaire showed an adequate structure with ESEM, followed a simplex structure, and had adequate reliabilities (Study 1a/Study 2). It also showed adequate convergent validity (Study 1b/Study 2). Finally, the questionnaire proved to be invariant over a 6-week period (Study 2). Results suggest that the degree of active goal pursuit, in addition to standards setting, could be a distinguishing characteristic between dimensions of perfectionism as well as striving for excellence.
... Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality characteristic that has been of interest to many researchers with varying operationalizations, in part stemming from the rich discussions on appropriate measures to assess the construct (Stoeber, 2018a). The most recent consensus through evidence from a series of factors analyses of multiple perfectionism measures supports that perfectionism is best represented by two higher-order factors of personal standards perfectionism (also commonly referred to as perfectionistic strivings) and self-critical perfectionism (also commonly referred to as perfectionistic concerns) (Stoeber, 2018b). More specifically, personal standards perfectionism or perfectionistic strivings entail self-oriented perfectionism, which reflects setting high expectations and relentlessly striving to meet those expectations (Frost et al., 1993;Stoeber & Otto, 2006). ...
Perfectionism is a vulnerability factor for a wide array of psychopathology. Despite much evidence suggesting dysregulated stress response as an intermediary process that links perfectionism to psychopathology, the lack of a cross-lagged examination deterred researchers from making causal interpretations. This study examined the directionality of effects among perfectionism dimensions, stress reactivity, and depression. A total of 189 participants at time 1 and 94 at time 2 completed an online survey that consisted of measures of perfectionism, stress reactivity, and depression, one month apart. Cross-lagged analysis results showed that personal standards perfectionism predicted later prolonged stress reactivity but not depression at time 2. Self-critical perfectionism predicted later depression but not prolonged stress reactivity at time 2. Rather, prolonged stress reactivity at time 1 predicted self-critical perfectionism at time 2. Findings suggest that perfectionism dimensions are distinct in creating a dysregulated stress process. Future studies could incorporate other stress-related variables (e.g., coping) to further explicate the stress-generation process, in conjunction with stress reactivity.
... Our results are consistent with previous findings that were obtained in different domains during the last 30 years, particularly in the population of gifted children. The results support the notion that functional and dysfunctional perfectionism are discrete and mutually exclusive types (Parker, 1997;Stoeber, 2018). Our experimental study brings new insights about the relationship between perfectionism and gamification, which has not yet been studied. ...
New game technologies seem to permeate every area of daily life. Therefore, it is not surprising that, in addition to the incorporation of entertaining gaming features into otherwise dull or tedious activities, the positive influence of user experience and user engagement has also been on the rise in recent years. It is all part of gamification. Individual differences in response to gamification deserve attention. Specifically, the objective of this experimental study was to investigate how perfectionism and gender affect behavior under two conditions—free play and competition—during a logic video game played by 155 gifted high school students. Game points monitoring frequency (GPMF) and game completion time (GCT) were measured. Functional perfectionists showed significantly higher GPMF than dysfunctional perfectionists. Furthermore, the competitive condition increased GPMF significantly more in functional perfectionists (compared to dysfunctional perfectionists) and girls tended to show higher GCT across the conditions. The results indicate that, in a competitive environment, the effectiveness of employing points for feedback is influenced by both a perfectionistic personality style and gender. Our study supports the notion that gamification elements can affect individuals differently, supporting the motivation of some students, yet being ignored by others.
The aim of the present study is to explore the relationships between cognitive-behavioral patterns of perfectionism in the context of competitive sport and both prosociality and aggressiveness in a sample of adolescents competing in federated sports. A cross-sectional and non-randomized study was designed using a selective methodology on a sample of adolescents (N = 234) competing in federated sports. Scales to assess aggressiveness, perfectionism, prosocial behavior, and competitiveness were administrated. The results show that as age increases, prosocial behaviors increase and aggressive behaviors and competitiveness decrease, while there was no one significant perfectionist tendency. Competitiveness showed a direct relationship with aggressive (positive) and prosocial behaviors (negative). Self-oriented perfectionistic behavior showed a direct and significant relationship with prosocial behaviors, but no significant relationship with aggressive responses. As P-SP and POD tendencies increased, significantly smaller links were shown with prosocial behaviors, but greater links were shown with aggressive behaviors. A path (mediation) model showed a positive and predictive relationship with aggressive behaviors and a negative relationship with prosocial altruistic behaviors. The negative influence of criticism from significant figures in their environment and unrealistic expectations about their performance are relevant to difficulties in self-regulating social relationships in adolescents. Hence, it is a challenge to promote prosocial resources (as a protective value for aggressive behaviors) in the face of the early angst of young athletes, who put their maturity to the test under conditions of high pressure and demands. The present study continues to reinforce the line drawn on perfectionism and prosocial development in young people in sports contexts where young people, measured early on according to their performance, can accentuate and deepen competitive tendencies that alter their adaptive and self-regulatory capacities, as well as their psychosocial projection.
Compared to non-perfectionists, perfectionists may not be satisfied with the growing needs in their lives to the same extent. To test whether perfectionists are dissatisfied with their lives, we investigated whether trait perfectionism attenuates the relationship between basic psychological needs, perceived control, and life satisfaction. A total of 574 college students self-reported basic psychological needs, perceived control, life satisfaction, and perfectionistic strivings and concerns, with a mean age of 19.53 (SD = 1.61), including 299 women and 275 men. A correlation analysis showed that perfectionistic strivings were significantly positively related to life satisfaction, while perfectionistic concerns were significantly negatively related to life satisfaction. The moderation analysis showed that perfectionistic strivings not only moderated the relationship between basic psychological needs and life satisfaction but also moderated the relationship between perceived control and life satisfaction. Individuals with high perfectionistic strivings generally reported high levels of life satisfaction. Perfectionistic strivings, however, reduced the positive relationship between perceived control and life satisfaction. Perfectionistic concerns moderated the relationship between perceived control and life satisfaction—the higher the perfectionistic concerns, the weaker the positive relationship between perceived control and life satisfaction. The study found that individuals with high perfectionistic tendencies are not always dissatisfied with life, but that perfectionism weakens the relationship between basic psychological needs, perceived control, and life satisfaction. We argue that one way to improve happiness is by coaching individuals who are highly perfectionistic to become self-aware of their personality so both their perfectionistic strivings and concerns are more coherent with their values and goals or character.
This article introduces a new measure of dispositional perfectionism: the Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTPS). The BTPS assesses three higher-order global factors (rigid perfectionism, self-critical perfectionism, narcissistic perfectionism) via 10 lower-order perfectionism facets (self-oriented perfectionism, self-worth contingencies, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, self-criticism, socially prescribed perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, hypercriticism, grandiosity, entitlement). The present investigation examined the structure of the BTPS using exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 (288 undergraduates), and confirmatory factor analyses in Study 2 (352 community adults) and Study 3 (290 undergraduates). Additionally, in Study 3 the relationships among the BTPS, other measures of perfectionism, and the five-factor model of personality were investigated. Overall, findings provide first evidence for the reliability and validity of the BTPS as a multidimensional measure of perfectionism.
Over the past 25 years, a number of multidimensional measures of perfectionism has been developed. Based on different models of multidimensional perfectionism, these measures contain different numbers of subscales, and most of the time the different subscales bear different names. This presents a confusing situation to researchers unfamiliar with the often complex details of the perfectionism literature who want to conduct research on perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise and need to make a decision as to what measure to use to capture individual differences in multidimensional perfectionism. The aim of the present chapter is to give researchers some guidance in this decision. To this aim, the chapter will (a) review the available multidimensional measures that have been published in international peer-reviewed journals and (b) provide a critique of these measures. In addition, the chapter will provide (c) recommendations on which measures to use and guidance on which decisions researchers have to make when using these measures to capture perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise.
Objective:
The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the existence and the importance of the distinction between self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism in the Eating Disorder Inventory Perfectionism subscale (EDI-P).
Method:
Trait perfectionism, measured by the EDI-P, and eating disorder symptoms, measured by the 26-item Eating Attitudes Test, were examined in 220 university students (110 women and 110 men) belonging to a campus-based fitness facility.
Results:
Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that, for both genders, the EDI-P is best represented by a multidimensional factor structure with three self-oriented perfectionism items (EDI-SOP) and three socially prescribed perfectionism items (EDI-SPP). Structural equation modeling demonstrated that, for both genders, EDI-SOP and EDI-SPP are related independently to eating disorder symptoms. Moderational analysis indicated that, for women, the impact of EDI-SOP on eating disorder symptoms is dependent on the level of EDI-SPP.
Discussion:
It is suggested that future research should acknowledge the empirical and theoretical implications of having EDI-SOP and EDI-SPP in the EDI-P. It is cautioned that EDI-SOP and EDI-SPP are a partial representation of an already published multidimensional model of trait perfectionism.
A concept involving the interpersonal expression of perfection, perfectionistic self-presentation, is introduced. It is argued that perfectionistic self-presentation is a maladaptive self-presentational style composed of three facets: perfectionistic self-promotion (i.e., proclaiming and displaying one's perfection), nondisplay of imperfection (i.e., concealing and avoiding behavioural demonstrations of one's imperfection), and nondisclosure of imperfection (i.e., evading and avoiding verbal admissions of one's imperfection). Several studies involving diverse samples demonstrate that perfectionistic self-presentation is a valid and reliable construct and a consistent factor in personal and interpersonal psychological distress. It is argued that the need to promote one's perfection or the desire to conceal one's imperfection involves self-esteem regulation in the interpersonal context.
Perfectionism is an overlooked trait that has both positive and negative impacts on children’s psychological and physical well-being. Research has shown that children exhibiting maladaptive perfectionism exhibit characteristics such as excessively high standards and extreme concerns over mistakes. Moreover, maladaptive perfectionism places children at risk for a variety of psychological disorders. Considering the importance of early intervention in preventing severe psychological problems that maladaptive-perfectionist children may develop in the future, identifying ways to identify and alleviate maladaptive perfectionist tendencies is key. This article provides a demonstration of Adlerian play therapy as an intervention that offers unique ways to treat maladaptive perfectionism and related emotional and behavioral symptoms in children.
Abstract
The development and validation of a new measure, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) is described. The EDI is a 64 item, self-report, multiscale measure designed for the assessment of psychological and behavioral traits common in anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia. The EDI consists of eight subscales measuring: Drive for Thinness, Bilimia, Body Dissatisfaction, Ineffectiveness, Perfectionism, Interpersonal Distrust, Interoceptive Awareness and Maturity Fears. Reliability (internal consistency) is established for all subscales and several indices of validity are presented. First, AN patients (N=113) are differentiated from femal comparison (FC) subjects (N=577) using a cross-validation procedure. Secondly, patient self-report subscale scores agree with clinician ratings of subscale traits. Thirdly, clinically recovered AN patients score similarly to FCs on all subscales. Finally, convergent and discriminant validity are established for subscales. The EDI was also administered to groups of normal weight bulimic women, obese, and normal weight but formerly obese women, as well as a male comparison group. Group differences are reported and the potential utility of the EDI is discussed.
Researchers have become very interested in socially aversive personality traits in recent years as reflected by the considerable number of publications concerning the Dark Triad of personality (i.e., Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy). The goal of the present article is to suggest that researchers broaden their view of potentially dark personality features. We provide overviews of two dark personality features that have been largely neglected by psychologists (i.e., spitefulness and greed) and point to the darker aspects of two personality features that have been studied extensively (i.e., perfectionism and dependency). We conclude the article by advocating that researchers consider a broader conceptualization of dark personality features that extends beyond the antagonistic and externalizing features captured by the Dark Triad traits.
Addresses 3 major questions: The first question focused on how the results of a prinicipal-components analysis that included the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R) would compare with the results of Frost et al, (1993) and Stanley et al, (1995); the 2nd question focused on the relationships between the perfectionism scales themselves; and the 3rd question focused on the factors' relationships with other psychological constructs. More specifically, the study examined the ability of factors derived form the 3 current measures of perfectionism to predict 3 variables that measure emotional functioning: locus of control, anxiety, and psychopathology. 196 undergraduates (aged 18-50 yrs) participated in the study. A principal-components analysis of the APS-R and 2 other measures of perfectionism yielded 3 higher order factors that were used to predict locus of control, anxiety, and psychological distress. The Maladaptive factor accounted for the most variance. These results are discussed along with suggestions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)