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The psychology of perfectionism: An introduction
Abstract
Perfectionism is a multidimensional personality disposition characterized by striving for flawlessness and setting exceedingly high standards of performance accompanied by overly critical evaluations of one’s behavior. Perfectionism is a complex characteristic. It comes in different forms and has various aspects. This chapter has a dual purpose: It aims to serve as an introduction to “The Psychology of Perfectionism” (the edited book you are holding in your hands) and an introduction to the psychology of perfectionism (what the book is about). To these aims, I first present a brief history of perfectionism theory and research. Then I introduce the two-factor theory of perfectionism—differentiating perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—with the intention to provide readers with a conceptual framework that may serve as a “compass” guiding them through the different models and measures of perfectionism they will encounter in this book. Going beyond the two-factor model, I next introduce three aspects of perfectionism that are important for a comprehensive understanding of perfectionism: other-oriented perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, and perfectionism cognitions. The chapter will conclude with a brief overview of the organization of the book and the contents of the individual chapters.
... O perfeccionismo é definido como um traço da personalidade que envolve esforços contínuos para evitar erros e falhas com estabelecimento de padrões elevados de desempenho, e também avaliações críticas e preocupações exacerbadas com o fracasso (Stoeber, 2018). ...
... Inicialmente, o perfeccionismo possuía uma única dimensão com foco nas cognições autodirigidas (Burns, 1980), mas posteriormente passou a ser entendido como um construto multidimensional (Hewitt & Flett, 1991;Stoeber, 2018). No modelo teórico de Hewitt e Flett (1991), três dimensões compõem o traço perfeccionista: 1) perfeccionismo auto-orientadodiz respeito aos padrões excessivamente exigentes estabelecidos para si mesmo; 2) Psicol. ...
A presente pesquisa realizou uma revisão sistemática sobre as propriedades psicométricas da Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale. As buscas foram realizadas nas bases de dados: Scopus, Web of Science, Wiley Online Library, GALE, SAGE, SpringerLink, DOAJ, ScienceDirect, PubMed, PsycArticles e ASP. A busca e seleção ocorreram de maneira pareada e independente. Foram identificados 276 artigos, seis foram incluídos na revisão. No exame das propriedades psicométricas, os resultados apontaram que a escala apresenta evidências de validade baseadas na estrutura interna e na relação com medidas externas e, também, evidências de fidedignidade para mensurar a autoapresentação perfeccionista.
... Other-oriented perfectionism, similar to tendencies like humor, humility, and narcissism (Cooper et al., 2018;Resick et al., 2009;Zhang et al., 2017), is an individual trait (Shoss et al., 2015;Xu et al., 2022) that manifests in specific behaviors toward others (Pincus and Ansell, 2003;Xu et al., 2022). In the leadership context, other-oriented perfectionism can be exhibited by actions toward their followers, such as imposing excessively high standards far beyond what is realistic (Shoss et al., 2015), making biased and excessively critical assessments (Hewitt and Flett, 1991;Shoss et al., 2015;Stoeber, 2015Stoeber, , 2018, and requiring flawless results without any errors and mistakes towards their followers (Xu et al., 2022). Different from transactional leadership, which involves discerning the needs of their subordinates and reciprocating with rewards corresponding to their effort and performance levels (Bycio et al., 1995), leader other-oriented perfectionism focuses on setting optimal task objectives for followers without considering their individual needs. ...
Perfectionism has gained increasing attention from researchers due to its significant impact on work and non-work outcomes. However, it remains unclear whether the influence of perfectionism on teams is positive or negative. Our research provides clarity on the group effects of leader other-oriented perfectionism. Drawing from the literature on perfectionism and approach-avoidance emotivation theory, we investigate the influence processes (e.g., team affective tones and team performance motivations) and boundary conditions (e.g., team trait resilience) of leader perfectionism on team prosocial behavior and team cheating behavior. Data collected from 152 leaders and 699 employees reveals that leader other-oriented perfectionism positively influences team energy tone, which subsequently enhances team performance approach motivation and facilitates team prosocial behavior. Additionally, leader other-oriented perfectionism positively impacts team anxious tone, which subsequently promotes team performance avoidance motivation and facilitates team cheating behavior. Moreover, team trait resilience strengthens the former chain of processes while weakening the latter. These results shed light on the complex dynamics between leader other-oriented perfectionism, team affective tone, motivation, and ethical behaviors, highlighting the significance of team trait resilience as a boundary condition in these relationships. Theoretical and practical implications are provided.
... The items were rated using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), with the higher scores indicating higher levels of perfectionism. The two dimensions reflect conceptually distinct, although potentially correlated, aspects of perfectionism (Rice et al., 2014(Rice et al., , 2019Stoeber, 2018). This scale has been used in previous research to examine the effects of individual perfectionism on romantic relationship outcomes, such as marital satisfaction (e.g., Sierra-Swiech et al., 2024). ...
Object
The current study examines whether and how self‐disclosure, the voluntary sharing of personal thoughts and feelings, explains the behavioral processes through which two dimensions of perfectionism, the drive for perfection (i.e., perfectionistic strivings) and worry about imperfection (i.e., perfectionistic concerns), are associated with both partners' marital satisfaction in different ways.
Background
Although many studies identified the contrasting effects of different dimensions of perfectionism on relationship quality, only a few clearly examined the interpersonal mechanism underlying their distinct effects in a dyadic context. This study aimed to address this research gap.
Method
The study recruited a dyadic sample of 158 mixed‐gender married couples from South Korea to investigate their levels of (a) perfectionistic strivings and concerns, (b) self‐disclosure, and (c) marital satisfaction using a pencil‐and‐paper survey. Data were analyzed using the actor–partner interdependence mediation model (APIMeM) within a structural equation modeling framework.
Results
Perfectionistic strivings were associated with being more open to sharing personal thoughts and feelings (i.e., higher self‐disclosure), which in turn predicted higher marital satisfaction for the person exhibiting them and their partner. Conversely, perfectionistic concerns were linked to being less likely to share personal thoughts and feelings, which in turn predicted lower marital satisfaction for both partners.
Conclusion
These results reveal that each partner's self‐disclosure significantly explained the processes by which perfectionistic strivings and concerns predicted higher or lower levels of couples' marital satisfaction, respectively.
... Empirical evidence demonstrated that Perfectionism among college students has risen over the last three decades (Curran & Hill, 2019). Perfectionism is characterized by intense personal strivings toward overly high standards and excessive selfcriticism (Stoeber, 2018). Perfectionism is associated with transdiagnostic clinical concerns (Limnurg et al., 2017). ...
Perfectionism among college students has been rising in the last three
decades. Perfectionism is characterized by excessively high standards and
punitive self-evaluations. It is associated with transdiagnostic clinical
concerns. College students who exhibit perfectionism are at risk of
experiencing stress. Although previous findings showed an association
between Perfectionism and stress, most of them used Western Samples
and lacked samples from Asian Countries. This paper tested if
Multidimensional Perfectionism: Self-Oriented Perfectionism, Other
Oriented Perfectionism, and Socially-Prescribed Perfectionism, predict
Perceived Stress among college students from Metro Manila, Philippines.
Results of Multiple correlation analysis indicated that Socially-Prescribed
Perfectionism and Self-oriented perfectionism significantly and
positively predicted Perceived Stress. In contrast, Other-Oriented
Perfectionism showed a small negative non-significant correlation with
Perceived Stress. These findings could serve as the basis for assessing
academic goals among college students with the objective of preventive
measures for Perfectionist goals and enhancement of mental wellness.
... PS perfectionism, sometimes referred to as Self-Oriented Perfectionism (Hewitt et al., 1991), reflects the tendency for a person to set extremely high goals and standards of excellence upon oneself (Simon, 2022;Stoeber & Rambow, 2007). Meanwhile, EC perfectionism is characterised as the tendency to doubt oneself and to show negative reactions to failure and imperfection (Simon, 2022;Stoeber, 2018a). This is also sometimes referred to as Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (Hewitt et al., 1991), which suggests that interpersonal factors play a huge role in its formation. ...
... Even though the multidimensional perfectionism construct was established over 30 years ago, whether the dimensions of perfectionism are adaptive or maladaptive remains controversial, and researchers still cannot agree on the naming of its dimensions/higher-order factors (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006;Stoeber, 2018;Stoeber et al., 2020a). Away from these discussions, studies have found perfectionism to have also a narcissistic aspect, although theories stating that narcissists have perfectionist tendencies are not new in the literature (e.g., Rothstein, 1999). ...
Narcissistic perfectionism, which is associated with such characteristics as demanding behaviors, criticism of others and grandiosity, has been conceptualized as the interpersonal dimension of perfectionism. While the relatively recent conceptualization of narcissistic perfectionism as a multidimensional construct has led to a wealth of studies of its relationships with interpersonal problems, the associations of the construct with internal psychological distress have been neglected. The present study investigates the effect of narcissistic perfectionism on psychological distress and the mechanisms by which this effect is strengthened. A total of 400 adults (Mage= 25.06, SD = 7.71) completed an online survey including scales measuring narcissistic perfectionism, self-compassion, intolerance of uncertainty and psychological distress. The results revealed a significant correlation between narcissistic perfectionism, self-compassion, intolerance of uncertainty and psychological distress. Furthermore, an applied serial mediation model was statistically significant, revealing that individuals with a high level of narcissistic perfectionism tend to show no compassion for themselves, further increasing the intolerance of uncertainty and psychological distress. The present study can be considered essential in its clarification of the mechanisms that predispose narcissistic perfectionists to psychological distress, and in its discussion of the findings within the scope of literature.
... Despite these limitations, this study highlights the importance of testing for measurement invariance before comparing two or more cultures. Comparing the equivalence of perfectionism measures across cultures may shed light on whether perfectionism dimensions are context-dependent (Smith et al., 2022;Stoeber, 2018). Finally, the results could also improve the understanding of perfectionism in non-WEIRD countries. ...
This study aimed to investigate the cross-cultural invariance of perfectionism between Brazilian and Argentinian cultures, using the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R). A series of multi-group exploratory structural equation modeling models were used to test configural, metric, and scalar measurement invariance. The total sample comprised 1589 undergraduate students, 835 Brazilians, and 754 Argentinians, mean age=25.03 (SD=6.58 years). Multi-group analyses revealed that configural and metric measurement invariance were achieved. Partial scalar invariance was found after constraints on the thresholds of items 2 and 10 were released. Minor differences were found in the high standards and order dimensions, although results should be interpreted cautiously due to non-invariance. Overall, the results suggest that the APS-R is mostly comparable between Brazilians and Argentinians. Possible differences in non-invariance specific to some of the scale items, and implications for cross-cultural research of perfectionism are discussed.
This article introduces a new measure of dispositional perfectionism: the Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTPS). The BTPS assesses three higher-order global factors (rigid perfectionism, self-critical perfectionism, narcissistic perfectionism) via 10 lower-order perfectionism facets (self-oriented perfectionism, self-worth contingencies, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, self-criticism, socially prescribed perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, hypercriticism, grandiosity, entitlement). The present investigation examined the structure of the BTPS using exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 (288 undergraduates), and confirmatory factor analyses in Study 2 (352 community adults) and Study 3 (290 undergraduates). Additionally, in Study 3 the relationships among the BTPS, other measures of perfectionism, and the five-factor model of personality were investigated. Overall, findings provide first evidence for the reliability and validity of the BTPS as a multidimensional measure of perfectionism.
Over the past 25 years, a number of multidimensional measures of perfectionism has been developed. Based on different models of multidimensional perfectionism, these measures contain different numbers of subscales, and most of the time the different subscales bear different names. This presents a confusing situation to researchers unfamiliar with the often complex details of the perfectionism literature who want to conduct research on perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise and need to make a decision as to what measure to use to capture individual differences in multidimensional perfectionism. The aim of the present chapter is to give researchers some guidance in this decision. To this aim, the chapter will (a) review the available multidimensional measures that have been published in international peer-reviewed journals and (b) provide a critique of these measures. In addition, the chapter will provide (c) recommendations on which measures to use and guidance on which decisions researchers have to make when using these measures to capture perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise.
Objective:
The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the existence and the importance of the distinction between self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism in the Eating Disorder Inventory Perfectionism subscale (EDI-P).
Method:
Trait perfectionism, measured by the EDI-P, and eating disorder symptoms, measured by the 26-item Eating Attitudes Test, were examined in 220 university students (110 women and 110 men) belonging to a campus-based fitness facility.
Results:
Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that, for both genders, the EDI-P is best represented by a multidimensional factor structure with three self-oriented perfectionism items (EDI-SOP) and three socially prescribed perfectionism items (EDI-SPP). Structural equation modeling demonstrated that, for both genders, EDI-SOP and EDI-SPP are related independently to eating disorder symptoms. Moderational analysis indicated that, for women, the impact of EDI-SOP on eating disorder symptoms is dependent on the level of EDI-SPP.
Discussion:
It is suggested that future research should acknowledge the empirical and theoretical implications of having EDI-SOP and EDI-SPP in the EDI-P. It is cautioned that EDI-SOP and EDI-SPP are a partial representation of an already published multidimensional model of trait perfectionism.
A concept involving the interpersonal expression of perfection, perfectionistic self-presentation, is introduced. It is argued that perfectionistic self-presentation is a maladaptive self-presentational style composed of three facets: perfectionistic self-promotion (i.e., proclaiming and displaying one's perfection), nondisplay of imperfection (i.e., concealing and avoiding behavioural demonstrations of one's imperfection), and nondisclosure of imperfection (i.e., evading and avoiding verbal admissions of one's imperfection). Several studies involving diverse samples demonstrate that perfectionistic self-presentation is a valid and reliable construct and a consistent factor in personal and interpersonal psychological distress. It is argued that the need to promote one's perfection or the desire to conceal one's imperfection involves self-esteem regulation in the interpersonal context.
Perfectionism is an overlooked trait that has both positive and negative impacts on children’s psychological and physical well-being. Research has shown that children exhibiting maladaptive perfectionism exhibit characteristics such as excessively high standards and extreme concerns over mistakes. Moreover, maladaptive perfectionism places children at risk for a variety of psychological disorders. Considering the importance of early intervention in preventing severe psychological problems that maladaptive-perfectionist children may develop in the future, identifying ways to identify and alleviate maladaptive perfectionist tendencies is key. This article provides a demonstration of Adlerian play therapy as an intervention that offers unique ways to treat maladaptive perfectionism and related emotional and behavioral symptoms in children.
Abstract
The development and validation of a new measure, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) is described. The EDI is a 64 item, self-report, multiscale measure designed for the assessment of psychological and behavioral traits common in anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia. The EDI consists of eight subscales measuring: Drive for Thinness, Bilimia, Body Dissatisfaction, Ineffectiveness, Perfectionism, Interpersonal Distrust, Interoceptive Awareness and Maturity Fears. Reliability (internal consistency) is established for all subscales and several indices of validity are presented. First, AN patients (N=113) are differentiated from femal comparison (FC) subjects (N=577) using a cross-validation procedure. Secondly, patient self-report subscale scores agree with clinician ratings of subscale traits. Thirdly, clinically recovered AN patients score similarly to FCs on all subscales. Finally, convergent and discriminant validity are established for subscales. The EDI was also administered to groups of normal weight bulimic women, obese, and normal weight but formerly obese women, as well as a male comparison group. Group differences are reported and the potential utility of the EDI is discussed.
Researchers have become very interested in socially aversive personality traits in recent years as reflected by the considerable number of publications concerning the Dark Triad of personality (i.e., Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy). The goal of the present article is to suggest that researchers broaden their view of potentially dark personality features. We provide overviews of two dark personality features that have been largely neglected by psychologists (i.e., spitefulness and greed) and point to the darker aspects of two personality features that have been studied extensively (i.e., perfectionism and dependency). We conclude the article by advocating that researchers consider a broader conceptualization of dark personality features that extends beyond the antagonistic and externalizing features captured by the Dark Triad traits.
Addresses 3 major questions: The first question focused on how the results of a prinicipal-components analysis that included the Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R) would compare with the results of Frost et al, (1993) and Stanley et al, (1995); the 2nd question focused on the relationships between the perfectionism scales themselves; and the 3rd question focused on the factors' relationships with other psychological constructs. More specifically, the study examined the ability of factors derived form the 3 current measures of perfectionism to predict 3 variables that measure emotional functioning: locus of control, anxiety, and psychopathology. 196 undergraduates (aged 18-50 yrs) participated in the study. A principal-components analysis of the APS-R and 2 other measures of perfectionism yielded 3 higher order factors that were used to predict locus of control, anxiety, and psychological distress. The Maladaptive factor accounted for the most variance. These results are discussed along with suggestions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)