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Is Vertical Jump Height an Indicator of Athletes' Power Output in Different Sport Modalities?
Abstract
This study aimed to identify whether the ratio standard is adequate for the scaling of peak power output (PPO) for body mass in athletes of different sports, and to verify classification agreement for athletes involved in different sports by using PPO scaled for body mass and jump height (JH). One hundred and twenty-four male athletes divided in three different groups-combats sports, team sports and runners-participated in this study. Participants performed the countermovement jump on a force plate. PPO and JH were calculated from the vertical ground reaction force. We found different allometric exponents for each modality, allowing the use of the ratio standard for team sports. For combat sports and runners, the ratio standard was not considered adequate, and therefore a specific allometric exponent for these two groups was found. Significant correlations between PPOADJ and JH were found for all modalities, but it was higher for runners (r = 0.81) than team and combat sports (r = 0.63 and 0.65, respectively). Moderate agreement generated by the PPOADJ and JH was verified in team sports (k = 0.47) and running (k = 0.55) and fair agreement in combat sports (k = 0.29). We conclude that the ratio standard seems to be suitable only for team sports; for runners and combat sports, an allometric model seems adequate. The use of JH as an indicator of power output may be considered reasonable only for runners
... Consequently, alternative methods for assessing lower limb muscle power, particularly in groups of athletes, have been proposed. 2,3 Among these alternatives, jump height has emerged as the most accessible indicator for estimating metrics related to the generation of lower limb muscle power during vertical jumps. 3,4 Jump height serves as a fundamental metric for evaluating the lower limb performance of athletes. ...
... 2,3 Among these alternatives, jump height has emerged as the most accessible indicator for estimating metrics related to the generation of lower limb muscle power during vertical jumps. 3,4 Jump height serves as a fundamental metric for evaluating the lower limb performance of athletes. 5 This measurement facilitates diverse applications such as monitoring neuromuscular status throughout a season, distinguishing between athlete groups, identifying interlimb asymmetries, and detecting muscular fatigue. ...
... 8 Additionally, vertical jump height assessed through the countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ) has been linked to specific physical movements in various sports disciplines. 2,3 For instance, it has been utilized as a judo-specific test, in sprint tasks, and to evaluate repeated shuttle sprint ability among futsal players, 2 as well as assessing attack effectiveness in volleyball players. 9 Notably, jump height has demonstrated sensitivity in detecting longterm changes in sport-specific performance, as evidenced in studies focusing on basketball players. ...
This study aimed to assess the accuracy, precision, and sensitivity of the Ergonauta contact plate in evaluating jump height performance in countermovement (CMJ) and squat jumps (SJ), compared to two previously validated devices (OptoJump and My Jump). Twenty-six young basketball players participated in the study. The participants positioned themselves on the Ergonauta contact plate along with the My Jump app and OptoJump optical measurement system. Three CMJs and SJs were performed, and jump height was analyzed. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and typical error (TE) were used as relative and absolute reliability indicators, respectively. The Bland-Altman plot was used to examine agreement between metrics (Ergonauta contact plate, My Jump app, and OptoJump) in CMJ and SJ, with significance set at p \ 0.05. Results demonstrated excellent relative reliability for both protocols in the Ergonauta contact plate (ICC= 0.94–0.99, TE = 1.07–1.23). Bland-Altman plots showed good agreement for the Ergonauta contact plate (CMJ and SJ) and devices (close to 0). In conclusion, the Ergonauta contact plate proved reliable and valid for assessing jump height performance, particularly in measuring jump height and mean propulsive velocity metrics
... This high variability of the prediction's method limits the interindividual comparisons, and it does not provide reliable data for an adequate individual monitoring of PPO and the training load control over a season. So, the usage of vertical jump height as a measure of lower limb performance has been very discussed and criticized for not being able to represent the lower limbs' mechanical power capabilities (Knudson, 2009;Kons, Ache-Dias, Detanico, Barth, and Dal Pupo, 2018;Morin, Jiménez-Reyes, Brughelli, and Samozino, 2019). ...
... The assessment of the lower limb power output of athletes is a permanent interest of coaches and sports scientists due to the great importance of this physical component for performance in many sports modalities (Ache- Dias et al., 2016;Kons et al., 2018). In the last three decades, researchers have been trying to understand the relationship between vertical jump, muscle power, and body mass, aiming to use the JH as a muscle power indicator (Nedeljkovic et al., 2009;Pazin et al., 2012). ...
... However, when analysing large amounts of jumping data, this linearity is not always clearly perceived, considering the level of statistical correlation between PPO and BM (r ~ .7) (Kons et al., 2018). We believe it happens because the performance spreads below and above the mentioned theoretical central tendency straight line, which disturbs any prediction model when considering absolute values. ...
Purpose: this study aimed to present a novel index to classify athletes using jump height (JH) as an indicator of lower limb performance considering different levels of body mass (BM). Methods: Three hundred fourteen male athletes volunteered to participate of this study. The athletes were evaluated performing the countermovement jump. Sigmoid functions were used to estimate the JH median according to the athlete’s BM and peak power output (PPO). The Jump Sigma Index was proposed, dividing the measured JH by predicted JH for BM or PPO. This index is a percentage metric that allows one to classify the athletes’ JH in four levels (Superior, Median-Superior, Median-Inferior, Inferior). Sigmoid functions (r²=0.99; p<0.01) were used as an explanatory model for the relationship of JH medians with BM (SigmaBM) and PPO (SigmaPPO) medians for each BM interval. Results: The applicability of the method was verified by the high correlations observed between SigmaBM and SigmaPPO (r=0.985, p<0.01). The total error of the classification model in the four levels was only 7.9% when comparing the classifications from SigmaBM and SigmaPPO (Kappa=0.88; p<0.01), indicating almost perfect agreement. Conclusion: The Jump Sigma Index (SigmaBM) is a valid and practical index for classifying athletes using only JH and BM as indicators of lower limb performance.
Keywords: sports performance; muscle power; countermovement jump; biomechanics.
... The power output is commonly normalized or scaled for body mass by using a ratio standard or allometric adjustment. However, it has been shown that scaling methods are highly sport-specific [18], thus not allowing for the use of a single exponent or model in vertical jump assessment. This is probably because athletes of different sports present different neuromuscular demands due to specific training [11]. ...
... As revealed by our results, JH is correlated with physical performance tests in a similar magnitude of power output adjusted for body mass, for most analysed situations. Owing to its usability, JH is probably the most applied index in vertical jump assessment, but some studies have criticized it for not being able to represent lower limb mechanical power capability [11,14,18]. Although JH cannot be considered a power output marker indicator, it is a reliable variable with a moderate to strong correlation with adjusted lower limb mechanical power [18]. ...
... Owing to its usability, JH is probably the most applied index in vertical jump assessment, but some studies have criticized it for not being able to represent lower limb mechanical power capability [11,14,18]. Although JH cannot be considered a power output marker indicator, it is a reliable variable with a moderate to strong correlation with adjusted lower limb mechanical power [18]. Therefore, we believe it may also be a practical option to monitor training for those who do not have a force platform to measure mechanical power. ...
Purpose. This study aimed to analyze the relationship between vertical jump parameters—jump height (JH), peak power output (PPO), and mean power output (MPO)—and specific physical performance in different sports using the allometric approach. In this sense, it was verified whether scaled power output for body mass may have a stronger correlation with physical performance than raw power output.
Methods. Fifty-two male athletes (21 judokas, 18 futsal players and 13 sprint runners) participated. Athletes performed the following tests: vertical jumps (countermovement and squat), specific physical tests for judo (Special Judo Fitness Test), repeated sprint ability for futsal players and sprint running (20m and 200m) for runners. A specific allometric exponent for PPO and MPO was established. Pearson’s correlation was used to determine the relationship between physical tests and vertical jump parameters for absolute and allometric scales.
Results. Moderate to very large correlations were found between physical performance and jump height (r=0.47 to 0.87), PPO (r=0.47-0.75) and MPO (r=0.49 to 0.81). Considering power output scaled for body mass, the correlation between jump parameters and physical performance was greater than absolute values, in which the r values ranged between 0.46 to 0.81 for PPO and 0.52 to 0.84 for MPO.
Conclusion. Jump height and power output seem to correlate in a similar magnitude with physical performance tests for most variables and sports analyzed. From a practical point of view, coaches and physical trainers are encouraged to use the jump height to monitor training, considering the cost of equipment and practicality.
... Therefore, the correction of BM variations may be advisable if a judo trainer, coach, or athlete is interested in a straightforward comparison between athletes with different BMs. In this regard, a traditional mathematical approach, such as the socalled allometric exponent adjustment, may be helpful [10,11]. ...
... For example, Abad et al. [12] reported that the 10 km running performance was better predicted through a model combining peak treadmill running velocity and running economic data allometrically adjusted. Actually, a recent study suggested that the allometric model seems to be a more straightforward strategy for performance analysis in combat sports [11]. In this sense, one may hypothesize that allometric exponents further correct BM variations-derived distortions in SJTF performance outcomes. ...
... Moreover, the linearity between BM and SJFT performance variables such as TNT and SJFTi, was checked through Tanner's exceptional circumstance, comparing the ratio between the coefficient of variation (CV) and the Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient (r) for these variables, that is TNT CV/BM CV and SJFTi CV/BM CV [17]. The linearity was confirmed if the ratio between BM-CV and TNT-CV, as well as between BM-CV and SJFTi-CV, matched their respective correlation between BM and TNT and between BM and SJFTi, respectively, as suggested elsewhere [11]. In contrast, a missing linear relationship was determined if r values drifted from the CV ratio, thus indicating that performance outcomes should be corrected by using allometric exponent. ...
We compared results of Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT) performance of
young athletes of two different age categories after correcting body mass
(BM) variations by allometric scales. Thirty young judokas (14.2±3.6
years) belonging to two age categories underwent a SJFT: under 15
(U15) years old (12.1±2.4 years; 46.5±15.6 kg; 152.4±11.2 cm) and
under 21 years old (U21) (18.2±0.8 years; 77.1±23.5 kg; 174.2±8.9
cm). Allometric exponents of -0.33 and 0.67 were used to correct the
influence of BM variations on SJFT performance results. After correction
by using the -0.33 exponent the U21 showed a higher number of throws
(TNT) than U15 (85.5±9.9 and 68.8±12.0, p < 0.05, respectively),
although the SJFT index has been similar between these groups
(67.3±10.1 and 61.7±8.1, p > 0.05, respectively). In contrast, TNT
normalized by the 0.67 exponent was higher in U15 than U21
(1.55±0.29 and 1.17±0.25, p < 0.05, respectively). Likewise, SJFT
index was higher in U15 than in U21 when using the same exponent
(1.55±0.29 and 1.17±0.25, p < 0.05, respectively). Conclusion: -0.33
exponent may be useful to remove influence of BM variations, thus
discriminating SJFT performance results in U15 and U21 judokas.
Moreover, 0.67 exponent may overestimate SJFT indices in low age
judokas.
... The equations used to perform these computations have been validated and discussed by Samozino et al. [8,10,19,26] Finally, two recent studies show that an athlete's absolute lower limb power output capability could not be appropriately categorised or estimated, in most sports, from jump height measurements [32,33]. Among the practical solutions to solve this issue, the current authors propose to use estimations based on regressions, and allometric scaling of raw absolute power values. ...
... For instance, scaling P jump to body mass (SJ) or body mass and countermovement depth (CMJ) at the power of 1 resulted in markedly increased correlation coefficients with jump height [11]. This led to researchers recommending the use of allometric scaling to more accurately estimate power from jump height [30,32,33]. In particular, Markovic and Jaric [30] proposed that the most justified and accurate scaling was when muscle power was proportional to body mass raised to the power of 0.67 (and even more accurately 0.75 as discussed by these authors) to account for the theory of geometric similarity, which states that some physiological features of mammals' bodies (e.g. ...
... However, allometric scaling is a correction method also based on assumptions, and may not apply correctly in heterogeneous populations, and/or in the case of very specific body composition and especially skeletal muscle mass as developed through years of specific training in elite athletes. Kons et al. recently showed that the improvement of correlations between jump height and P jump through allometric scaling was highly sport specific [33]. Interestingly, Fig. 1 shows that the correlation strongly differs between elite rugby players and other athletes when normalising power to body mass, leading to an overall lower correlation when all athletes are considered. ...
Lower limb external maximal power output capacity is a key physical component of performance in many sports. During squat jump and countermovement jump tests, athletes produce high amounts of mechanical work over a short duration to displace their body mass (i.e. the dimension of mechanical power). Thus, jump height has been frequently used by the sports science and medicine communities as an indicator of the power output produced during the jump and by extension, of maximal power output capacity. However, in this article, we contend that squat jump and countermovement jump height are not systematically good indicators of power output produced during the jump and maximal power output capacity. To support our opinion, we first detail why, theoretically, jump height and maximal power output capacity are not fully related. Specifically, we demonstrate that individual body mass, push-off distance, optimal loading and the force-velocity profile confound the jump height–power relationship. We also discuss the relationship between squat jump or countermovement jump height and maximal power output capacity measured with a force plate based on data reported in the literature, which added to our own experimental evidence. Finally, we discuss the limitations of existing practical solutions (regression-based estimation equations and allometric scaling), and advocate using a valid, reliable and simple field-based procedure to compute individual power output produced during the jump and maximal power output capacity directly from jump height, body mass and push-off distance. The latter may allow researchers and practitioners to reduce bias in their assessment of lower limb mechanical power output by using jump height as an input with a simple yet accurate computation method, and not as the first/only variable of interest.
... An elite player can perform more than 100 jumps in a single match (Kerkoski et al., 2019). While the frequency of jumps during matches may fluctuate, there is a strong relationship between vertical jump performance and lower-body power production during triple extension (Chang et al., 2015;Kons et al., 2018). The lower-body peak power output during vertical jumps is influenced by various key parameters. ...
... The lower-body peak power output during vertical jumps is influenced by various key parameters. Among these, muscular strength plays a pivotal role, especially in muscles such as quadriceps, hamstrings, and glutes (Bredeweg, 2003;Cormie et al., 2007;Kons et al., 2018;Montalvo, 2021). Maximizing force development during the push-off phase, along with adequate flexibility in the lower body, significantly affects the power generated (Montalvo, 2021). ...
Aim: This study aimed to investigate the effect of antagonist static stretching on lower-body peak power output in elite volleyball players.
Methods: Twenty-one elite female volleyball players (age: 23.95±5.04 years, height: 181.90±7.54 cm, mass: 70.96±8.38 kg) were randomly divided into two groups: 1) antagonist static stretching group and 2) dynamic stretching group. After implementing the stretching protocols, peak power output was assessed by performing loaded squat jumps using three different loads: 20%, 40%, and 60% of one-repetition maximum. Forty-eight hours later, on the second testing day, participants in the dynamic stretching group and antagonist static stretching group switched groups and underwent the same procedure.
Results: Peak power output obtained at 20% of one repetition maximum in dynamic stretching group was significantly greater than the peak power output at the same load in the antagonist static stretching group (p<0,05); no significant difference was found at the other equal loads between stretching groups (p>0,05). Peak power output values at three different exercise loads within each group were analyzed: in dynamic stretching group, peak power output was significantly greater at 20% compared to 60% of one repetition maximum (p<0,05), and at 40% compared to 60% of one repetition maximum (p<0,05). In antagonist static stretching group, peak power output was significantly greater at 20% compared to 60% of one repetition maximum (p<0,05), and at 40% compared to 60% of the one repetition maximum (p<0,05). Conclusion: Antagonist static stretching did not produce any beneficial effects in elite female volleyball players when compared to dynamic stretching.
... Vertical jump performance is recognized as an important criterion in many sports branches. [1] Especially in basketball, volleyball, football, athletics, and many other sports, the vertical jumping ability of players or athletes is an important factor determining their performance. In these sports, vertical jumping ability is usually associated with basic physical characteristics such as speed, [2] strength, [3,4] explosiveness, [5] and coordination. ...
... (Fig. 4). There was no relationship between NDT and jump height, relative force, power, relative power, average speed, take-off time, impulse, and flying time [F (1,9) = 90.48, P = .081]. ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of pes planus level on counter movement jump (CMJ) performance parameters in amateur female and male volleyball players. In this context, amateur volleyball players aged between 18 and 23 years actively playing in the university school volleyball team were included in the study. Pes planus levels of the participants were analyzed using the navicular drop test (NDT). My Jump Lab application was used for CMJ measurement. Within the scope of CMJ, the participants’ jump height, force, relative force, power, relative power, average speed, take-off speed, impulse, and flying time were analyzed. According to the linear regression results between NDT and CMJ parameters, force in males (t = 12.93, P = .049) and average speed in females (t = −3.52, P = .017) were significantly associated with NDT. NDT was similar in men and women (P > .05). However, all CMJ parameters were highly different between genders (P < .001). In the correlation analysis between sport age and physical characteristics and CMJ parameters; height (r = .386, P = .046), weight (r = .569, P = .002), leg length (r = .389, P = .045), foot length (r =. 558, P = .005), foot width (r = .478, P = .018), force (r = .407, P = .039), impulse (r = .460, P = .018) parameters, and sport age. The results suggest that the average speed in females and force in males both significantly influenced NDT, highlighting the significance of both factors in predicting NDT scores. Moreover, all CMJ measures showed significant variations between genders, although the NDT scores did not. Furthermore, the correlation analysis demonstrated a strong correlation between a number of physical attributes and CMJ parameters, highlighting the multifaceted nature of athletic performance and indicating the possible impact of these attributes on CMJ results.
... The peak power output of a vertical jump, computed as the maximum value of the curve obtained by the product of vertical force times vertical speed during the propulsion phase of the jump, is considered a good index of the muscular capacity to generate power [22]. The peak absolute power is a measure biased by body mass and poorly correlated to jump performance [23], [24], while the peak power adjusted for body mass is a good predictor of the jump height [21], [25]. The sEMG signal is also mass-independent, as the "volume" of muscle recorded, or the number of motorunits detected, only depend from the characteristics of the sensor [9]. ...
... On the other hand, muscular strength is not decisive for the performance, while muscular power, rate of force development and multisegment coordination are [21]. The peak power is a good indicator of performance capacities [25]. However, being the result of the vertical ground reaction force times the vertical velocity of the centre of mass, the peak power can be considered more an indicator of the effectiveness of the energy transfer among body segments during the execution, than an index of strength or working ability of muscles [21]. ...
... One of the other factors that affects anaerobic power or related performance parameters is one's strength. There were many studies related to sprint, strength, power output or jumping results (Bissas & Havenetidis, 2008;Harbili, 2015;Kale et al., 2009;Ache-Dias, Pupo, Gheller, Külkamp, & Moro, 2016;Kons, Ache-Dias, Detanico, Barth, & Dal Pupo, 2018;Özkan & Kin-İşler, 2010). Sprint performance was produced by stride length and stride frequency which were results of physiologic and neuromuscular mechanisms (Bissas, & Havenetidis, 2008;Alemdaroğlu, 2012;Aslan, Büyükdere, Köklü, Özkan & Şahin Özdemir, 2011;Wisløff et al., 2004). ...
... In spite of this, the results remained that all body composition parameters (except BF %) and WAnTMP showed moderate to high significant correlations (ranges between 0.46 -0.84) for males. Kons et al. (2018) found that body size with adjusted peak power output (r = 0.73) was related to the vertical jump, though these findings were not parallel with the present study. The trend showed that anaerobic power & capacity might be related with the body compartments for males. ...
Aim: The purpose of the study is to determine the relationship between body composition, vertical jump, sprint, static strength, and anaerobic power of athletes. Methods: 19-27 years old (training 2 hours/day, 4 days/week, training at least 4 years) 28 male (23.11 ± 1.71 years; 1 fitness, 1 mountain climber, 1 swimmer, 15 football, 2 basketball, and 8 tennis players), 19 female (21.95 ± 2.37 years; 3 Zumba, 1 cross country runner, 5 basketball, 2 football, 6 tennis, and 2 volleyball players) athletes participated voluntarily. Body composition compartments, height, skinfold thicknesses, Vertical Jump and 30 m sprint by using timer gates were measured. Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) was used to determine peak anaerobic power (WAnTPP) and mean anaerobic power (WAnTMP). Results: There was no significant relationship between fat compartment of body composition and vertical jump or 30 m sprint performances for male athletes. In addition to that, there were no relationship between the fat compartment and any of the performance parameters of vertical jump, sprinting, WAnT results for female athletes.Conclusion: Sport specific strength requirements to be discussed for performance determinants have yet been incomplete and versatile research subject. To predict the sport performance, follow-up and performance focused battery should be studied by all affecting parameters such as physiological, neurological, detailed body composition compartments.
... Therefore, accurately assessing the physical impact of volleyball jumps requires analyzing both the frequency and type of jumps. Apart from these factors, to further evaluate the potential physical load, existing research has used jump height as an indicator of the magnitude of forces on body tissues [4,5]. ...
The physical load of jumps plays a critical role in injury prevention for volleyball players. However, manual video analysis of jump activities is time-intensive and costly, requiring significant effort and expensive hardware setups. The advent of the inertial measurement unit (IMU) and machine learning algorithms offers a convenient and efficient alternative. Despite this, previous research has largely focused on either jump classification or physical load estimation, leaving a gap in integrated solutions. This study aims to present a pipeline to automatically detect jumps and predict heights using data from a waist-worn IMU. The pipeline leverages a Multi-Stage Temporal Convolutional Network (MS-TCN) to detect jump segments in time-series data and classify the specific jump category. Subsequently, jump heights are estimated using three downstream regression machine learning models based on the identified segments. Our method is verified on a dataset comprising 10 players and 337 jumps. Compared to the result of VERT in height estimation (R-squared=-1.53), a commercial device commonly used in jump landing tasks, our method not only accurately identifies jump activities and their specific types (F1-score=0.90) but also demonstrates superior performance in height prediction (R-squared=0.50). This integrated solution offers a promising tool for monitoring physical load and mitigating injury risk in volleyball players.
... The findings of this study suggest that the repeated execution of maximal effort punches and kicks may be unaffected if the loss of water is moderate (<3%). It has been established that jump height is directly correlated with punching power [57][58][59], so it is safe to assume that the power advantage when competing in a lower weight category does not diminish after incomplete rehydration post RWL as shown in previous research conducted on combat sports [3,10,30,60]. This is particularly relevant for combat sport practitioners who undergo RWL and do not fully recover by competition time or in between consecutive matches. ...
Background/Objectives: Acute dehydration, commonly induced through fluid restriction and/or excessive sweating, is a common weight-cutting strategy among combat sport athletes. However, its impact on muscle strength and power remains a concern. The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of 2% body mass reduction via dehydration on lower-limb strength and power in elite karate athletes. Methods: Fourteen male elite karate athletes completed two conditions: euhydrated (EUH) and dehydrated (DEH) (−2% body mass via 24-h fluid restriction). Performance was assessed using squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests, along with isokinetic knee flexion and extension at 60, 180, and 300°/s. Results: Dehydration significantly reduced squat jump height (37.19 ± 3.69 vs. 39.34 ± 5.08 cm (EUH), p = 0.04), power output (2188.2 ± 307.2 vs. 2351.1 ± 347.2 W (EUH), p = 0.001), and knee extension and flexion strength at 60°/s (p = 0.018). CMJ height and higher-velocity knee flexion/extension were unaffected (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Acute dehydration impairs lower-body maximal force production at low velocities but has no significant effect on high velocity movements. Athletes and coaches should carefully manage hydration strategies when “cutting weight” to avoid any negative performance effects.
... Lower-limb power holds significant importance for decision-making moments in competitive scenarios (i.e., team sports), transitions between defensive and offensive actions (i.e., combat sports), and for sprint performance [1]. The vertical jump, considered an expression of lower-limb power, is a commonly utilized assessment tool within sports and exercise tests [2]. ...
This study aimed to investigate the effect of Kinesio Taping (KT) application the on single-leg counter-movement jump (CMJ) and surface electromyographic (sEMG) activity in trained female athletes, in both resting and fatigued states. In this single-blind, randomized, sham-controlled trial, twenty-four healthy trained female athletes were randomly assigned to either the KT (n=12) or the sham tape group (n=12). KT was applied using an inhibition technique on rectus femoris, vastus medialis, biceps femoris, and lateral gastrocnemius muscles of the dominant leg. A single-leg CMJ test and sEMG activity were recorded at baseline (no tape), as well as at 1 hour, 24 hours, and 48 hours after taping. To induce acute neuromuscular fatigue, a 30-second repetitive CMJ test was used to evaluate KT in fatigued states. In the resting states, both groups exhibited improvements in jump height, power, mean velocity, and sEMG activity (%EMGmax) over time, with no significant between-group differences. The single-leg CMJ performance was similarly decreased after the muscle fatigue protocol in both groups, showing no between-group differences. Our findings suggest that KT treatment does not appear to influence jumping performance, sEMG activity, or muscle fatigue in female athletes.
... In practical terms and thinking of physical capacities, developing high impulse during lower limb push-off, and in turn accelerating a mass as much as possible, has often been assumed to depend on the capacity to apply force rapidly and to produce high amounts of mechanical work over a short duration (i.e., power output) (Linthorne, 2001). Several studies have shown a positive and moderate-strong correlation of mechanical power output with impulse or vertical jump height (VJH) (Kons et al., 2018). However, the role of the capacity to produce rapid force and the rate of force produced is not well elucidated in the literature. ...
This study aimed to analyze the intrasession reliability of the rate of force development (RFD) in different time windows in squat jumps (SJ) performed at different knee starting angles, and identify the relationship of RFD with vertical jump height (VJH). Twenty male volleyball and basketball players participated. Athletes randomly performed SJ from four different knee-flexion angles. The RFD was analyzed from six different windows, from force onset to instant peak force, in each position using the ground reaction forces. Reliability analysis was performed based on the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV%); Spearman’s rho was used to test the relationship between RFD and VJH. The results demonstrated that RFD0-PF was the only variable assumed to be reliable, demonstrating an ICC > 0.84 and CV < 8.5% in all positions, and significant correlations between RFD metrics and VJH were observed at SJ70 and SJPREF. Some variables were underpowered due to the small sample size, as a limitation of the study.
... Salto contra movimiento (CMJ): es un salto vertical que pretende alcanzar la máxima altura posible realizando una flexión-extensión de los miembros inferiores lo más rápida posible, por lo tanto, es una medida de la potencia de los miembros inferiores (Fernández-Galván et al., 2024;Kons et al., 2018). Su disminución sirve como medida para comprobar la presencia de fatiga. ...
La recuperación de los artistas marciales mediante la inmersión del cuerpo en agua fría es un método muy utilizado para el restablecimiento de la condición física y la mejora del rendimiento. Objetivo: examinar y agrupar, de forma crítica, las principales evidencias científicas disponibles en la actualidad sobre la efectividad de la crioterapia en la recuperación de los artistas marciales. Materiales y métodos: la búsqueda se llevó a cabo en las bases de datos Pubmed, PEDro, Scielo, Scopus y Google Scholar con las palabras clave “Cryotherapy”, “Muscle fatigue”, “Martial arts” y “MMA”. Tras la búsqueda bibliográfica se seleccionaron siete artículos en total para la revisión. Las principales variables analizadas fueron: marcadores de daño y fatiga muscular, percepción de fatiga, potencia de miembros superiores y potencia de miembros inferiores. Resultados: Todos los estudios cumplieron con los criterios de inclusión y exclusión y fueron clasificados en el grupo de crioterapia vs recuperación pasiva. Conclusión: existe una evidencia sólida sobre la efectividad de la crioterapia en la disminución del dolor percibido en artistas marciales. También existe una evidencia moderada de la efectividad de la crioterapia en la disminución de la concentración de ácido láctico (LDH), creatina quinasa (CK), cortisol y neopterina y en la recuperación de la fuerza. Palabras clave: Crioterapia, Fatiga muscular, Artes marciales, MMA, Dolor. Abstract. Recovery of martial artists by immersing their body in cold water has been a widely used method for restoring physical fitness and improving performance. Objective: to critically examine and group the main scientific evidence currently available on the effectiveness of cryotherapy in the recovery of martial artists. Materials and methods: the search was carried out in the databases Pubmed, PEDro, Scielo, Scopus and Google Scholar with the keywords "Cryotherapy", "Muscle fatigue", "Martial arts" and "MMA". After the literature search, a total of seven items were chosen for the review. The main variables analyzed were markers of muscle damage and fatigue, perception of fatigue, upper limb power and lower limb power. Results: All studies met the inclusion and exclusion criteria and were classified in the cryotherapy vs passive recovery group. Conclusion: There is strong evidence for the effectiveness of cryotherapy in decreasing perceived pain in martial artists. There is also moderate evidence for the effectiveness of cryotherapy in decreasing lactic acid (LDH), creatine kinase (CK), cortisol and neopterin concentration and in strength recovery. Key words: Cryotherapy, Muscle fatigue, Martial arts, MMA, Pain.
... Among the participants in the ST group, some reported practicing or having practiced for many years different activities such as combat sports and volleyball, but in a non-competitive way. These sports modalities are characterized by great efforts performed in a short period, which makes muscle power considered a determining factor of performance [35,36], therefore, these activities may have influenced the results of the ST group. ...
Purpose
The practice of Functional Fitness Training (FFT) combines aerobic and muscle strength exercises that can lead to adaptations different from those observed with the isolated practice of Strength Training (ST). Thus, this study aimed to compare lower limb power and hypertrophy in different muscle portions between FFT and ST practitioners.
Methods
In this cross-sectional study, men experienced (≥2 years) in FFT (n = 8; 27 ± 4.6 years) and ST (n = 8; 29.13 ± 6.12 years) participated. Additionally, physically active men were recruited for the control group (n = 8; 25 ± 8.24 years). For muscle power, jump height and peak power output (PPO) normalized by body mass were evaluated, and for hypertrophy, the cross-sectional area (CSA) was evaluated in 4 different portions of the vastus lateralis with the aid of B-mode ultrasound.
Results
It was observed that the CSA did not differ between the FFT and ST groups, and showed higher values in relation to the control group. Jump height was higher (p = 0.003) for the FFT group (53.5 ± 2.4 cm) compared to the control group (45.7 ± 3.6 cm), and did not differ in relation to the ST group (50.8 ± 5.7 cm; p = 0.058). PPO showed no statistical difference (p = 0.39) between groups (control, 50.5 ± 6 W kg⁻¹; FFT, 54.1 ± 5.8 W kg⁻¹; ST, 50.6 ± 5.6 W kg⁻¹).
Conclusion
Vastus lateralis hypertrophy does not differ between men experienced in FFT and ST. The practice of these training methods does not seem to differ in relation to muscular power, although there are indications that those of FFT perform better than those of ST.
... Before the CMJ assessment, the participants performed a familiarization/warmup involving 30 s of hopping on a trampoline, three series of 10 hops on the ground, and five submaximal countermovement vertical jumps (CMJs). 23 The participants then performed the CMJ protocol on a force plate. Ergonauta encoder was connected to the participants' bodies through a belt tied around the waist ( Figure 1). ...
This study aimed to test the reliability and criterion validity of the Ergonauta encoder to assess countermovement jump (CMJ) performance, considering jump height and mean propulsive velocity metrics. Twenty-three recreationally active men participated in this study. The participants were positioned on a force plate with the Ergonauta individually connected through a belt. Two CMJs were performed, and the jump height and mean propulsive velocity metrics were analyzed. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and typical error (TE) were used as relative and absolute reliability indicators, respectively. The Pearson correlation was used to verify the relationship between the Ergonauta and force plate derived-metrics, and the Bland-Altman plot was used to verify the agreement between the metrics ( Ergonauta encoder and force plate), with the level of significance set at p < 0.05. The results show excellent relative reliability for both metrics, considering the two evaluation devices (ICC = 0.95–0.99, TE = 1.02–2.46). The jump height and mean propulsive velocity obtained by the Ergonauta encoder and the force plate were strongly correlated ( r = 0.95; r = 0.90, respectively, p < 0.01). The Bland-Altman plot showed good agreement for both metrics (jump height and mean propulsive power) and equipment (close to 0). We concluded that the Ergonauta encoder is reliable and valid for assessing CMJ performance, particularly the jump height and mean propulsive velocity metrics.
... Before the CMJ assessment, the participants performed a familiarization/warmup involving 30 s of hopping on a trampoline, three series of 10 hops on the ground, and five submaximal countermovement vertical jumps (CMJs). 23 The participants then performed the CMJ protocol on a force plate. Ergonauta encoder was connected to the participants' bodies through a belt tied around the waist ( Figure 1). ...
This study aimed to test the reliability and criterion validity of the Ergonauta encoder to assess countermovement jump (CMJ) performance, considering jump height and mean propulsive velocity metrics. Twenty-three recreationally active men participated in this study. The participants were positioned on a force plate with the Ergonauta individually connected through a belt. Two CMJs were performed, and the jump height and mean propulsive velocity metrics were analyzed. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and typical error (TE) were used as relative and absolute reliability indicators, respectively. The Pearson correlation was used to verify the relationship between the Ergonauta and force plate derived-metrics, and the Bland-Altman plot was used to verify the agreement between the metrics (Ergonauta encoder and force plate), with the level of significance set at p < 0.05. The results show excellent relative reliability for both metrics, considering the two evaluation devices (ICC = 0.95–0.99, TE = 1.02–2.46). The jump height and mean propulsive velocity obtained by the Ergonauta encoder and the force plate were strongly correlated (r = 0.95; r = 0.90, respectively, p < 0.01). The Bland-Altman plot showed good agreement for both metrics (jump height and mean propulsive power) and equipment (close to 0). We concluded that the Ergonauta encoder is reliable and valid for assessing CMJ performance, particularly the jump height and mean propulsive velocity metrics.
... The vertical jump height was the variable most positively affected by plyometric training according to the included meta-analyses. This variable may be considered as an indicator of muscle power of lower limbs [30,63,64], and it is commonly used to verify the effects of plyometric training on physical performance [21,30,[40][41][42]44]. These results are not surprising due to the great specificity, since the same skill (i.e., vertical jump) is used in the testing method and applied in the plyometric training. ...
Background
Plyometric training can be performed through many types of exercises involving the stretch-shortening cycle in lower limbs. In the last decades, a high number of studies have investigated the effects of plyometric training on several outcomes in different populations.
Objectives
To systematically review, summarize the findings, and access the quality of published meta-analyses investigating the effects of plyometric training on physical performance.
Design
Systematic umbrella review of meta-analyses.
Data Sources
Meta-analyses were identified using a systematic literature search in the databases PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library and Scielo.
Eligibility Criteria for Selecting Meta-analyses
Meta-analyses that examined the effects of plyometric training on physical fitness in different populations, age groups, and sex.
Results
Twenty-nine meta-analyses with moderate-to-high methodological quality were included in this umbrella review. We identified a relevant weakness in the current literature, in which five meta-analyses included control group comparisons, while 24 included pre-to-post-effect sizes. Trivial-to-large effects were found considering the effects of plyometric training on physical performance for healthy individuals, medium-trivial effects for the sports athletes’ groups and medium effects for different sports athletes’ groups, age groups, and physical performance.
Conclusion
The available evidence indicates that plyometric training improves most related physical fitness parameters and sports performance. However, it is important to outline that most meta-analyses included papers lacking a control condition. As such, the results should be interpreted with caution.
PROSPERO number : CRD42020217918.
... On the lower body muscle power aspect, we examined the effect of ULLPT on vertical jump height (i.e., CMJa, CMJ, SJ) and found that there were significant moderate-to-large gains following ULLPT for CMJa (ES = 1.06) and CMJ (ES = 0.82), as well as for squat jump height (ES = 1.16). Normally, the vertical jump has been the most commonly and consistently used test for assessing athletes' lower limb power output [72]. The propulsion of the lower limbs during a vertical jump is regarded to be a useful indicator of leg muscle power in athletes [73]. ...
Objective: We aimed to meta-analyze the effects of combined upper and lower limb
plyometric training (ULLPT) on physical fitness attributes in athletes. Methods: A systematic
literature search was conducted in Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, PubMed, and SCOPUS, for up
to 13 August 2022. Controlled studies with baseline and follow-up measures were included if they
examined the effects of ULLPT on at least one measure of physical fitness indices in athletes. A random
effects meta-analysis was performed using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software. Results:
Fifteen moderate-to-high-quality studies with 523 participants aged 12–22.4 years were included in
the analyses. Small to large (ES = 0.42–1.66; p = 0.004 to <0.001) effects were noted for upper and
lower body muscle power, linear sprint speed, upper and lower body muscle strength, agility, and
flexibility, while no significant effects on static and dynamic balance were noted (ES = 0.44–0.10; all
p > 0.05). Athletes’ sex, age, and training program variables had no modulator role on the effects of
ULLPT in available data sets. Conclusions: ULLPT induces distinct neuro-muscular adaptations in the
upper and lower body musculature and is an efficient method for enhancing athletes’ physical fitness
... Currently, more than 450 million people in the world play basketball, making it among the five most popular sports on the planet [1]. Jumping ability has been shown to be a predictor of functional capacity [2][3][4] and the risk of falling [5], as well as a strong predictor of basketball performance both in elite and recreational players [6,7]. When humans jump, the tendon structures are assumed to be the major source of the elastic component; hence, the elasticity of tendon structures is a leading factor contributing to the amount of stored energy [8]. ...
Background:
The relationship between stiffness and drop jump performance in athletes in various stages of development has yet to be fully investigated. The first aim of this study was to investigate the association between the stiffness of the patellar and quadriceps tendon (PT, QT), gastrocnemius-Achilles tendon unit (GAT), and rectus femoris (RF) using drop jump (DJ) performance in young basketball players. The second aim was to investigate possible variations in the stiffness levels of those tissues in different developmental stages.
Methods:
The stiffness levels of the GAT, PT, QT, and RF were measured in both limbs in 73 male basketball players aged 12 to 18 years. The reactive strength index (RSI), contact time (CT) and jump height (JH) during 30 and 40 cm DJs were also measured.
Results:
Pearson correlation coefficients showed a significant association between DJ performance and PT, QT, GAT, and RF dynamic stiffness. Moreover, the youngest subjects were found to have lower stiffness values than the older ones.
Conclusions:
Tissue stiffness can affect athletic performance by modifying the stretch-shortening cycle in young basketball players. Stiffness of muscles and tendons increases during the maturation process. Further investigations could shed light on the effect of training on the stiffness of muscles and tendons.
... Over the years, a large amount of research has been done to define the differences in the strength of explosive power of the lower extremities (Ciacci & Bartolomei, 2018;Ferioli et al., 2018;Floría & Harrison, 2013;Gonzalo-Skok et al., 2017;Kons et al., 2018;Latorre-Román, Carrasco-López, Consuegra-González, Párraga-Montilla, García-Pinillos, 2019). Two different vertical jump types have received a lot of scientific attention (Lindberg et al., 2021). ...
Physical performance and fitness in basketball are mostly influenced by lower-limb explosive power. The aim of this study was to examine the differences in the explosive power of the lower extremities measured by countermovement jump (CMJ) in basketball players of the regional level of competition in relation to the age category. Forty-one male participants regional level were divided in three age categories U18 (N = 14; height: 1.85 ± 0.04 m; body mass: 80.18 ± 10.71 kg; age: 17.2 ± 0.6 years), U16 (N = 13; height: 1.79 ± 0.06 m; body mass: 67.8 ± 7.4 kg; age: 15.4 ± 0.6 years), U14 (N = 14; height: 1.72 ± 0.12 m; body mass: 56.35 ± 14.11 kg; age: 13.2 ± 0.5 years) and participated in cross-sectional study. Each subject performed three maximal CMJs on a Quattro Jump force platform to determine differences in vertical jump parameters between groups. The performances of jump height from flight time (JHFT), relative maximal force (RMF), relative maximal power (RMP), relative energy (RE), jump time (JT), countermovement time (CMT), push-off time (POT). ANOVA analysis showed statistically significant differences between groups in JHFT, RMF, and POT (p less than 0.05). The post hoc test indicates that the youngest U14 age group was accountable for these differences. However, no significant differences were observed between tested age categories in RMP, JT, RE, and CMT. These results reveal differences in some of the force parameters, suggesting that these differences are attributed to the youngest group of basketball players.
... Over the years, a large amount of research has been done to define the differences in the strength of explosive power of the lower extremities (Ciacci & Bartolomei, 2018;Ferioli et al., 2018;Floría & Harrison, 2013;Gonzalo-Skok et al., 2017;Kons et al., 2018; Latorre-Román, Carrasco-López, Consuegra-González, Párraga-Montilla, García-Pinillos, 2019). Two different vertical jump types have received a lot of scientific attention (Lindberg et al., 2021). ...
Introduction. The Olympic weightlifting training methodology is a powerful tool for developing motor abilities and overall fitness. In addition, it is well established that these activities have a positive effect on the physical development of adolescents. It is important that the preparation is conducted under professional coaching in sports clubs to guarantee the achievement of good sports performance without injuries. Methodology. The goal of this study is to identify the changes that occur in the physical performance of 13-15-year-old cadets (boys), under the influence of specialized training with the means of Olympic weightlifting. 30 weightlifters aged 14 on average participated in the experiment. The study was conducted in September 2021. Results. Based on the results, we can conclude that overall the structured specialized Olympic weightlifting training protocol positively affects explosive strength, speed, and flexibility in 13-15-year-old cadets. However, the results show significant between-group variability when stratified by age. Discussion and conclusions. Habitual Olympic weightlifting training is not a very popular activity among children and adolescents. It is generally considered risky and not appropriate for youngsters. However, our results painted a different picture, and based on them and our practical experience, in our opinion, if the methodology is properly modified, Olympic weightlifting is a powerful tool for the development of motor abilities in trainees of different age groups.
... Over the years, a large amount of research has been done to define the differences in the strength of explosive power of the lower extremities (Ciacci & Bartolomei, 2018;Ferioli et al., 2018;Floría & Harrison, 2013;Gonzalo-Skok et al., 2017;Kons et al., 2018; Latorre-Román, Carrasco-López, Consuegra-González, Párraga-Montilla, García-Pinillos, 2019). Two different vertical jump types have received a lot of scientific attention (Lindberg et al., 2021). ...
Enhancing motor skills has a significant impact on athletes’ field performance. Both sports depend on a combination of highlevels of physical, technical, and tactical ability. Тhe aim of this study was to examine the differences in the motor abilities and anthropometric characteristics of the football and basketball players aged 13-15 years. Thirty-six participants were divided in two groups (football players, (n=18; height:1.71 ± 8.5m; body mass: 20.1± 2.2 kg; age: 14.7 ± 0.3 years) and basketball players, n=18; height: 1.69± 10.9; body mass 3.4 ±20.6; age:0.7 ±14.1) aged 13-15 years old. Conducted motor abilities were 10m and 20m sprint, agility t-test, countermovement jump (CMJ), countermovement jump with arm swing (CMJa) and squat jump (SJ), while anthropometric characteristics were fat percentage, body mass index, muscle percentage, height, weight. Independent sample T-test revealed statistical significance only in fat percent-age (p=.003), muscle percentage (p=.002), agility (p=.000), and sprint (p=.000), while in the countermovement jump, countermovement jump with arm swing, squat jump, body mass index, height, and weight, there were no statistical significance. Athletes who play different sports have performed different results in agility test, speed test, fat percentage and muscle percentage. Football players achieved better results compared to basketball players, which is due to the character of the game, where players move within a wider space, as well as the different structure of the training process.
... Over the years, a large amount of research has been done to define the differences in the strength of explosive power of the lower extremities (Ciacci & Bartolomei, 2018;Ferioli et al., 2018;Floría & Harrison, 2013;Gonzalo-Skok et al., 2017;Kons et al., 2018; Latorre-Román, Carrasco-López, Consuegra-González, Párraga-Montilla, García-Pinillos, 2019). Two different vertical jump types have received a lot of scientific attention (Lindberg et al., 2021). ...
Introduction. One of the main goals of the Olympic weightlifting training process is to ensure a healthy motor training regime. Those activities are aimed at achieving tangible positive effects on the body, as well as providing adequate conditions for the physical development of trainees. Preparation under professional coaching in sports clubs guarantees the achievement of good sports performance. Methodology. The goal of this study is to identify the changes that occur in the physical performance of children (boys), under the influence of specialized training with the means of Olympic weightlifting. Eighteen (18) weightlifters aged 13 participated in the experiment. The study was conducted in two stages: the baseline data were collected in June 2020, and the final measurements were in June 2022. Results. Based on the results, we can conclude that the structured, specialized Olympic weightlifting training protocol positively affects explosive strength of lower limbs, speed, and flexibility in 13-year-old children. Discussion and conclusions. Habitual Olympic weightlifting training is not a very popular activity among children. It is generally considered risky and not appropriate for youngsters. However, our results painted a different picture, and based on them and our practical experience, in our opinion, if the methodology is properly modified, Olympic weightlifting is a powerful tool for the development of motor abilities in children.
... In a previous study, Suchomel et al. [2] also found excellent magnitudes of correlation between the SSC methods, considering 86 male and female athletes of different sports (e.g., soccer, tennis, and volleyball). Although jump height and power output do not represent the same thing [7], it seems that there is a similar agreement in the SSC methods using both variables, indicating that SSC indices can be calculated from the jump height or power output with similar results. ...
Purpose: This study aimed to verify if different SSC methods obtained using the vertical jump present the same characteristics through consistency and agreement analysis, and to compare the SSC methods between athletes of different sports.
Summary of facts and results: Participated in this study 341 male athletes of three sports groups (combat sports, team sports, and runners). Athletes performed the countermovement jump and squat jump to identify the SSC using three methods: reactive strength index (RSI), pre-stretch augmentation percentage (PSA), and eccentric utilization ratio (EUR). The results demonstrated very large correlations between the methods for jump height (r=0.96-0.98) and power output (r=0.95-0.98), almost perfect agreement for jump height (k=0.86-0.91) and substantial to almost perfect agreement for power output (k=0.77-0.92). The RSI, PSA, and EUR were higher in team sports than combat sports for jump height (p=0.006, p=0.008, p=0.007, respectively), EUR was higher for team sports than combat sports for power output (p=0.041).
Conclusion: The methods of SSC are strongly correlated and present excellent agreement. Regardless of the method, team sports athletes presented greater use of SSC compared to combat sports.
... Given the current uncertainty on which method is best to predict professional success, practitioners need a less extensive, single field-based/monodisciplinary powerful single predictor/method that will classify youth's soccer potential to a professional status [38]. Finding the most powerful single predictor will contribute to identifying relevant characteristics within a group (e.g., professionals vs. non-professionals) and to selecting the most appropriate training stimuli for future performance potential [19,[52][53][54]. Assuming that the proposed paradigm of Williams and Reilly has a hierarchical order [16], this raises the question of which disciplines and related variables may be worthy of inclusion in a monodimensional modeling that will provide power discriminating values for future performance levels [15]. ...
Soccer clubs invest time and money in multidimensional identification practices, but the field implementation is still problematic. The repeated vertical jump test (RVJ), as an alternative to the monodimensional vertical jump, may offer similar prognostic value. Therefore, the prognostic validity of 15 RVJ within professional (PRO, n = 24) and under 19 years old (U19, n = 20) Greek male soccer players was examined. T-test, binomial logistic regression, and receiver operating characteristic for prognostic validity of anthropometric and performance values in predicting PRO status were applied using Jamovi version 2.3.3.0. Significant group differences presented in body height and mass, body mass index (BMI), maximum and average jump height, and relative jump power. The predicting model was significant (x^2(2) = 17.12, p < 0.001). Height and BMI were positive predictors of the PRO status (b = 21.66, p = 0.008 and b = 0.94, p = 0.014, respectively). The model was 73% accurate, 75% specific, and 71% sensitive, with excellent area under the curve. The RVJ test demonstrated outstanding discriminating prognostic validity. Until the applicability of the multidimensional models in predicting future player status is further established, field practitioners may use the simplistic RVJ testing to predict future status among male soccer players.
... The countermovement jump (CMJ) is a common technique used to assess lower extremity muscular power (3). Jump height and power output are two variables of the CMJ that help determine sports performance (25). While stretching is often conducted prior to jumping activities, acute stretching has been found to decrease maximal force production and jump height performance (32). ...
Percussive therapy treatment is one form of myofascial release that has gained popularity amongst the sport community. It has been suggested that percussive therapy treatment may improve range of motion and improve athletic performance, but these claims are largely anecdotal. Currently, the effects of percussive therapy treatment on performance of athletic tasks is relatively unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to assess the effects of percussive therapy treatment on jump performance and passive range of motion. Twenty-six recreationally active college individuals performed countermovement jump and drop jump activities on two different days (one day with and one day without the use of percussive therapy treatment). Three-dimensional kinematics and kinetics were assessed during the jump activities. Passive range of motion was additionally assessed before and after warm up. A significant decrease in peak ankle eversion (2.0° during landing and 2.4° during take-off) was evident during the drop jump following the use of percussive therapy. All other frontal/sagittal plane peak joint angle and moment changes were nonsignificant. The hip and knee flexors and ankle extensors all showed increases in passive range of motion following treatment. Athletes who use percussive therapy treatment prior to physical activity will not have any adverse effects on performance or increased risk of injury. Muscles with lower levels of flexibility might be more susceptible to strain or injury. Percussive therapy treatment increased range of motion, which might help decrease the risk of injury.
... The present study normalized handgrip strength and back extensor strength using 0.67 as the allometric parameter. Vertical jump height was found to be a body sizeindependent index [47,48], which was not likely to require normalization for body size [45]. Therefore, the original jump height was used. ...
Background:
Abdominal/diaphragmatic breathing exercises are popular worldwide and have been proven to be beneficial for physical performance. Is abdominal motion (AM) during spontaneous breathing correlated with physical fitness? The present study aimed to answer this question.
Methods:
434 women (aged 20-59) were enrolled and participated in respiration tests using two respiration belts (one was tied at the height of the xiphoid and another at the navel) to detect AM and thoracic motion (TM). They also performed physical fitness tests to measure body size, muscular strength, muscular power, muscular endurance, balance, flexibility, reaction time, and cardiorespiratory endurance.
Results:
All the correlation coefficients between respiratory movements (AM, TM, AM + TM, AM/(AM + TM)) and physical fitness outcomes were less than 0.4/-0.4. Only AM and muscular power (countermovement jump height) had a weak correlation, with a correlation coefficient close to 0.4 in the 20-29-year age group (rs = 0.398, p = 0.011, n = 40).
Conclusions:
Women's respiratory movements during spontaneous breathing were not correlated with physical fitness. Future studies may focus on the relationship between AM and countermovement jump height in young women with a larger sample size and using ultrasound to directly test the excursion of the diaphragm.
... To test this hypothesis, it would be necessary to investigate the respective responses of the individual muscles (i.e., triceps surae and quadriceps) to stretching with PSA on performance parameters (such as jump height). Especially the jumping ability of an individual is a predictor of performance in various types of sports (Köklü et al., 2015;Kons et al., 2018;Pupo et al., 2020), including sprint performance (Barr et al., 2011). Therefore, it is of great interest if PNF stretching of the individual muscle-tendon units (i.e., triceps surae and quadriceps) with a short duration (i.e., 60 s) including PSA can influence the jump performance of, e.g., a drop jump (DJ) or counter movement jump (CMJ). ...
To overcome a possible drop in performance following longer stretch durations (>60 s), post-stretching dynamic activities (PSA) can be applied. However, it is not clear if this is true for isolated proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching of different muscle groups (e.g., triceps surae and quadriceps). Thus, 16 participants performed both interventions (triceps surae PNF + PSA; quadriceps PNF + PSA) in random order, separated by 48 h. Jump performance was assessed with a force plate, and tissue stiffness was assessed with a MyotonPro device. While no changes were detected in the countermovement jump performance, the PNF + PSA interventions resulted in a decrease in drop jump performance which led to a large magnitude of change following the triceps surae PNF + PSA and a small-to-medium magnitude of change following the quadriceps PNF + PSA. Moreover, in the triceps surae PNF + PSA intervention, a decrease in Achilles tendon stiffness was seen, while in the quadriceps PNF + PSA intervention, a decrease in the overall quadriceps muscle stiffness was seen. According to our results, we recommend that especially triceps surae stretching is avoided during warm-up (also when PSA is included) when the goal is to optimise explosive or reactive muscle contractions.
... The level of muscle power in the lower limbs is a vital factor in numerous disciplines, such as sprinting [56,57] or in decisive moments of team sports [58,59]. In a widespread view, the research has demonstrated that jump heigh is an applicable index to characterize power output, mainly described by the association found between them [60]. It is meaningful that upright jump may be easily evaluated and hereafter used by team staff and physical trainers to categorize the level of athletes' muscle power within a wider group of participants [61,62]. ...
Background:
It has been demonstrated that pressotherapy used post-exercise (Po-E) can influence training performance, recovery, and physiological properties. This study examined the effectiveness of pressotherapy on the following parameters.
Methods:
The systematic review and meta-analysis were performed according to PRISMA guidelines. A literature search of MEDLINE, PubMed, EBSCO, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and ClinicalTrials has been completed up to March 2021. Inclusion criteria were: randomized control trials (RCTs) or cross-over studies, mean participant age between 18 and 65 years, ≥1 exercise mechanical pressotherapy intervention. The risk of bias was assessed by the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for RCT (RoB 2.0).
Results:
12 studies comprised of 322 participants were selected. The mean sample size was n = 25. Pressotherapy significantly reduced muscle soreness (Standard Mean Difference; SMD = -0.33; CI = -0.49, -0.18; p < 0.0001; I2 = 7%). Pressotherapy did not significantly affect jump height (SMD = -0.04; CI = -0.36, -0.29; p = 0.82). Pressotherapy did not significantly affect creatine kinase level 24-96 h after DOMS induction (SMD = 0.41; CI = -0.07, 0.89; p = 0.09; I2 = 63%).
Conclusions:
Only moderate benefits of using pressotherapy as a recovery intervention were observed (mostly for reduced muscle soreness), although, pressotherapy did not significantly influence exercise performance. Results differed between the type of exercise, study population, and applied treatment protocol. Pressotherapy should only be incorporated as an additional component of a more comprehensive recovery strategy. Study PROSPERO registration number-CRD42020189382.
... The level of muscle power in the lower limbs is a vital factor in numerous disciplines, such as sprinting [54] [55] or in decisive moments of team sports [56] [57]. In a widespread view, the research has demonstrated that jump heigh is an applicable index to characterize power output, mainly described by the association found between them [58]. It is meaningful that upright jump may be easily evaluated and hereafter used by team staff and physical trainers to categorize the level of athletes' muscle power within a wider group of participants. ...
Background: It has been demonstrated that pressotherapy used post-exercise (Po-E) can influence training performance, recovery, and physiological properties. This study examined the effec-tiveness of pressotherapy on these parameters. Methods: The systematic review and meta-analysis were performed according to PRISMA guidelines. A literature search of MEDLINE, PubMed, EBSCO, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus and ClinicalTrials has been done up to March 2021. Inclusion criteria were: randomized control trials (RCTs) or cross-over studies, mean participant age be-tween 18-65 yrs., ≥ 1 exercise mechanical pressotherapy intervention. The risk of bias was assessed by the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for RCT (RoB 2.0). Results: 12 studies comprised of 322 partici-pants have been selected. The mean sample size was n = 25. Pressotherapy significantly reduce muscle soreness(Standard Mean Difference;SMD= -0.33; CI = -0.49, -0.18; p < 0.0001; I2 = 7%). Pres-sotherapy did not significantly affect jump height (SMD = -0.04; CI =-0.36, -0.29; p = 0.82). Presso-therapy did not significantly affect creatine kinase level 24-96h after DOMS induction (SMD = 0.41; CI = -0.07, 0.89; p = 0.09; I2 = 63%). Conclusions: Only moderate benefits of using pressotherapy as a recovery intervention have been observed. Results varied between the type of exercise and used protocol. Pressotherapy should only be applied as an additional component of a more compre-hensive recovery strategy. Study PROSPERO registration number- CRD42020189382.
... The jumping ability of an individual is a predictor for performance in various types of sports in elite and recreational athletes [1][2][3], including sprint performance [4]. Besides sports performance, the ability to jump was shown to be a predictor for functional capacity [5] and the risk of falling [6]. ...
While the main contributor for drop jump (DJ) performance is the calf muscle–tendon unit (MTU), for countermovement jump (CMJ) performance, it is the quadriceps MTU. However, to date, it is not clear if the muscle and/or tendon stiffness of the respective MTUs can be related to DJ or CMJ performance. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between DJ and CMJ performance parameters and tissue stiffness (i.e., muscle stiffness, tendon stiffness) of the calf MTU and quadriceps MTU, respectively. Consequently, with 16 healthy volunteers, the tissue stiffness of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM), gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) Achilles tendon (AT), vastus medialis (VM), vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), and patellar tendon (PT) were recorded with a Myoton device. Moreover, DJ and CMJ performances were assessed with a force plate. The alpha level was set to 0.05. Pearson correlation coefficients revealed no significant association between DJ performance and GM, GL, or AT stiffness (−0.07 to 0.24; p > 0.05). Similarly, no association was found between CMJ performance parameters and VM, VL, RF, or PT stiffness (−0.13–0.36; p > 0.05). According to our results, other variables, such as jump technique, body weight, or strength, were likely play a more important role in DJ and CMJ performance.
... It has been reported that the relationships between jump height and PPO are not consistently strong, suggesting that not all the PPO variance is directly explained by jump height [25]. Therefore, these variables should not be considered interchangeable [26]. The absence of soccer matches during the COVID-19 lockdown period could have negatively impacted PPO performance. ...
In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic forced most activities in Italy, including soccer, to cease. During lockdown, players could only train at home, with limited evidence regarding the effect of this period. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of COVID-19 lockdown on professional soccer players’ physical performance. Aerobic fitness and vertical jump were assessed before and after four periods in two different seasons: COVID-19 lockdown, competitive period before lockdown, competitive period and summer break of the 2016–2017 season. Linear mixed models were used to examine within-period changes and between-period differences in changes observed during COVID-19 lockdown and the three other periods. Within-period changes in aerobic fitness showed a significant improvement following COVID-19 lockdown (p<0.001) and a significant decline during summer break (p<0.001). Between-period differences were significant in the comparison of COVID-19 lockdown with both the competitive 2019–2020 season (p<0.01) and summer break (p<0.001). For the vertical jump, only the between-period comparison revealed significant differences as the changes associated with COVID-19 lockdown were worse than those of the two competitive periods, for both absolute (p<0.05; p<0.001) and relative peak power (p<0.01; p<0.001). Home-based training during lockdown was effective to improve aerobic fitness, although it did not allow players to maintain their competitive period’s power levels.
... Each participant performed two maximal countermovement jump attempts with a 30-s rest between attempts. Jump height was calculated from the vertical ground reaction force-time curve (double integration of force method) [27] of the highest jump. Participants were instructed to jump as high as possible. ...
PurposeThis study investigated the relationship between habitual nutritional intake and the responsiveness of elderly individuals to resistance training.Methods
Nineteen participants (66.0 ± 4.5 years) completed body composition (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), functional capacity (timed-up-and-go, stair ascent, and stair descent), and neuromuscular tests (5-repetition maximum and countermovement jump) before and after a 9-week resistance training intervention. Habitual nutritional intake was evaluated at the beginning, middle, and end of the intervention. Participants were also divided into two groups based on their protein intake (low protein group < 1.2 g/kg; high protein group > 1.2 g/kg).ResultsTotal Kcaloric and protein intake explained ~ 21–44% of the functional capacity improvements, while total Kcaloric and carbohydrate intake explained ~ 21–27% of the change in lean mass. Participants with high protein intake showed greater percentage improvement for timed-up-and-go (− 10.7 ± 4.9% and 0.4 ± 7.4%) and stair ascent (− 11.4 ± 7.6% and − 3.2 ± 5.3%) versus those with lower protein intake.Conclusion
Nutritional intake influenced individual responsiveness to resistance training in the elderly. Older adults with higher Kcaloric, protein, and carbohydrate intake presented greater improvement in functional capacity and lean mass following resistance training.
... Claudino et al. 53 found that the average jump height was sensitive to detect performance changes. However, some authors have criticized the use of jump height as an indicator of lower limb power or maximal power output capability, [54][55][56] especially because there are several confounding factors observed during vertical jump height, such as body mass, push-off distance, individual force-velocity profile and optimal force-velocity profile. 54 Both vertical jump height and power output measured in combat sports athletes have previously been correlated with technical-tactical variables obtained in official judo matches, 20,27 suggesting a good relationship with specific performance, particularly in grappling sports. ...
Objective:
Investigate the acute effects of repeated combat sports matches on vertical jump and handgrip strength performance in grappling and striking modalities.
Design:
Systematic review.
Methods:
PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched. The following eligibility criteria for selecting studies were adopted: Population: Combat sports athletes; Intervention: Official or simulated matches; Comparator: Baseline versus after-matches performance; Outcome: Vertical jump and/or handgrip strength performance.
Prospero:
CRD42019129264 RESULTS: The systematic search resulted in 13 studies, including Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Greco-Roman, judo, taekwondo, and wrestling (freestyle and Greco-Roman) modalities, and a diverse number of repeated matches (i.e. 1-5). None of the studies adopted a randomized and controlled design and, consequently, none of them was classified as high quality. Brazilian jiu-jitsu and freestyle wrestling athletes presented an earlier onset of fatigue in upper and lower limbs, while judo and Greco Roman wrestling presented a later onset, from the third match. In taekwondo athletes, no fatigue was observed in the lower limbs, while handgrip strength decreased. However, studies have reported unclear data regarding the time-course of lower and upper limbs' fatigue following repeated matches in taekwondo.
Conclusion:
Both upper and lower limbs performance were affected after repeated matches in grappling combat sports when assessed by handgrip strength and vertical jump performance. In taekwondo, the studies have shown unclear results concerning the effects of repeated matches on upper and lower limb performance. There is a lack of studies classified as high-quality and investigations into the neuromuscular mechanisms underpinning fatigue after the repeated matches.
... The presence of muscle damage can decrease contraction performance and consequently reduce force and velocity of contraction (Howatson and Van Someren, 2008), as observed for CMJ impulse. This variable has a large correlation (r 2 = 0.92) with jump height compared to peak power output (r 2 = 0.45) and may better represent athletic performance (Kirby et al., 2011;Kons et al., 2018a). The similar decay in CMJ impulse, without differences between treatments 24 and 48 h after the SSC protocol, is a first indicative of the absence of a PBMT effect. ...
Fatigue and muscle damage negatively affect performance in lower limb exercises involving the stretch-shortening cycle in judo athletes during competition and training sessions. Photobiomodulation therapy has emerged as an effective non-invasive strategy to attenuate fatigue and muscle damage when applied before different types of exercises. Our objective was to investigate the effects of photobiomodulation therapy on fatigue and muscle damage in judo athletes. Sixteen judo athletes participated in the study (23.1 ± 3.8 years, 77.9 ± 14.9 kg, 173.1 ± 8.9 cm, 17.5 ± 7.3 body fat%, 12.9 ± 5.0 years of practice). Each participant received, in a randomized manner, photobiomodulation in one limb and placebo in the contralateral limb on the same day. Thereafter, subjects performed a stretch-shortening cycle protocol to induce muscle fatigue and damage. Countermovement jump (impulse, peak power, peak velocity, and peak force), echo intensity (rectus femoris and vastus lateralis), and muscle soreness were assessed at different time points before, during, immediately post, and 24 h and 48 h after the protocol. Muscle fatigue was detected due to reductions in countermovement jump impulse (14.7 ± 9.8 and 15.9 ± 15.5%), peak power (12.9 ± 8.5 and 11.9 ± 6.9%), peak velocity (8.6 ± 8.1 and 6.5 ± 6.0%), and peak force (7.0 ± 5.3 and 8.0 ± 6.1%) after the protocol (p < 0.001), for placebo and photobiomodulation therapy, respectively. Muscle damage was detected due to reductions in countermovement jump impulse (-6.1 ± 19.2% and-4.5 ± 9.2%, p<0.05), increases in echo intensity (rectus femoris, 21.0 ± 11.9 and 20.8 ± 9.0%; and vastus lateralis, 22.4 ± 23.2%; and 16.7 ± 23.8%; p < 0.001), and quadriceps muscle soreness (3.6 ± 1.6 and 3.5 ± 1.7 a.u; p < 0.011), 48 h after the protocol, for placebo and photobiomodulation therapy, respectively. No differences were observed between photobiomodulation therapy and placebo at any time points for any variables (p > 0.05), indicating no positive effect favoring photobiomodulation therapy. In conclusion, our findings suggest no effect of photobiomodulation therapy applied before exercise to reduce lower limb muscle fatigue and damage during and following a stretch-shortening cycle protocol in judo athletes.
... Thus, the ratio standard (N kg −1 ) is not adequate for normalizing these data. To extract the specific allometric exponent, log-linear regressions were established for each gender based on the natural logarithms of body mass (kg) and handgrip strength (N), following the procedures used by Kons et al.[21]. It was established an exponent of 0.67 (N kg −0.67 ) for male team and 0.86 (N kg −0.86 ) for female. ...
Purpose
This study aimed to verify the relationship between physical tests and match-derived performance in official judo matches, considering the weight category.
Methods
Forty-one judo athletes participated in the study (19 women and 22 men), were divided into two groups according to weight category (lightweight and heavyweight) and were evaluated in two time points—(1) physical tests: countermovement jump (CMJ), handgrip strength (HGS), special judo fitness test (SJFT) and judogi grip strength test dynamic (JGSTDIN) and isometric (JGSTISO), and (2) match-derived performance during official matches. The t test and Pearson’s or Spearman’s coefficients were used with a significance level set at 5%.
Results
Heavyweight athletes (male and female) showed better performances in power output in the CMJ (CMJPPO), HGS, and number of throws in SJFT (female only) compared with lightweights, while lightweights (male and female) performed better in the JGSTDIN and JGSTISO, respectively (p < 0.05). Additionally, a positive correlation was found between effective combat time (ECT) and CMJPPO for male lightweight athletes (r = 0.65). In the female lightweight group, the ECT was correlated with CMJ height (r = 0.75) and HGS (r = 0.65); the number of attacks was correlated with HGS (r = 0.64) and CMJPPO (r = 0.75). Considering the heavyweight female group, we verified a significant correlation between JGSTISO and efficiency (r = 0.67), as well as between effectiveness and HGS (r = 0.68).
Conclusion
Time motion performance in lightweight athletes depends more on HGS and muscle power of the lower limbs, whereas effectiveness and efficiency depend on HGS and resistance strength of the upper limbs in heavyweight athletes.
This study aimed to compare absolute and relative peak power outputs at the optimal power load (OPL) between upper and lower limbs, as well as between lighter and heavier high-level judo athletes of both sexes. A total of 34 black belt judokas (26 men and 8 women) with extensive training backgrounds participated in this cross-sectional study. Athletes were tested during the pre-season for peak power output (PP) and OPL expressed as a percentage of body weight (OPL %BW ) in two exercises: Back Squat (lower limbs) and Bent-Over Row (upper limbs). A linear encoder measured bar velocity and power output. Data were analyzed in absolute terms, relative to body mass, and using allometric scaling. The results showed that male athletes exhibited significantly higher absolute PP than females in both exercises. Lighter athletes showed greater relative and allometric PP values than heavier athletes. No significant difference in absolute PP was found between upper and lower limbs. However, OPL %BW was significantly higher in the Back Squat compared to the Bent-Over Row. No difference in OPL %BW was observed between weight categories. In conclusion, lower-limb exercises require a higher percentage of body mass to reach OPL, while power output is similarly developed in both limbs, likely due to sport-specific demands. These findings support the need for individualized training prescriptions based on limb, sex, and weight category to optimize performance in judo athletes.
Background
Runners with visual impairment (VI) may show changes in jump technique due to momentary loss of spatial reference specifically related to the base of support on the ground and rapid postural adjustment. The vertical jump performance and the analysis of the technique can provide information about the neuromuscular characteristics of the runners with VI, motor control and training strategies.
Objective
Thus, the purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between vertical jump performance and lower limb joint angles in recreational runners with VI.
Methods
Eight recreational runners (age 33.9 ± 12.7 years and body mass 64.1 ± 13.6 kg) with VI (visual classification: 4 T1, 2 T2 and 2 T3) performed five consecutive squat jumps (SJ) and five consecutive countermovement jumps (CMJ) with 5 min of rest between them. The vertical jumps were recorded by one camera and the jump height and power were evaluated using accelerometer Myotest.
Results
No difference was found between the SJ (16.8 ± 4.9 cm) and CMJ performances (13.6 ± 5.8 cm) ( p = 0.056). Pearson’s correlation test identified a strong and negative correlation between SJ height and internal knee angle (r = −0.712; p = 0.047), while no correlation between CMJ height and internal knee angle was found (r = −0.226; p = 0.591).
Conclusion
We concluded that recreational runners with VI reach higher jump heights in a deeper squat position during SJ.
Background
Plyometric training (PT) was explored as an effective intervention for enhancing muscle strength and power. However, its specific impact on these attributes in martial arts athletes had not been systematically evaluated. Therefore, the objective of this meta-analysis was to provide a quantitative assessment of the impact of PT on muscle strength and power in martial arts athletes. Additionally, it aimed to investigate potential moderators that could influence this relationship.
Methods
A systematic literature search was conducted across several databases, including SPORTDiscus, PubMed, CNKI, Scopus, and Web of Science Core Collection. Studies were included if they were controlled trials that examined the effects of PT on measures of muscle strength and/or muscle power in martial arts athletes. Effect sizes (ESs) were calculated using a random-effects model based on weighted and averaged standardized mean differences. Moderator analyses were performed for variables related to age and training. The ROB2 and ROBINS-I tools were used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. Publication bias was evaluated using funnel plots and the extended Egger’s test.
Results
The analysis included fifteen studies with a total of 499 participants aged 12 to 24 years. The findings indicated that PT had a small-to-moderate effect on muscle strength (ES = 0.62; 95% CI = 0.38 to 0.87, p < 0.001) and power (ES = 0.45; 95% CI = 0.20 to 0.71, p = 0.001). Furthermore, neither age nor training parameters significantly moderated the effect of PT on muscle strength and power.
Conclusions
The findings of the present study indicated that PT effectively enhanced muscle strength and power in martial arts athletes. However, additional trials are recommended to determine the optimal training doses and further explore the interactions among training variables to improve muscle strength and power in these athletes.
Trial registration
https//www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php? Record ID = 579,901, identifier CRD42024579901.
Vertical jump height measures our ability to oppose gravity and lower body neuromuscular function in athletes and various clinical populations. Vertical jump tests are principally simple, time-efficient, and extensively used for assessing athletes and generally in sport science research. Using the force platform for jump height estimates is increasingly popular owing to technological advancements and its relative ease of use in diverse settings. However, ground reaction force data can be analyzed in multiple ways to estimate jump height, leading to distinct outcome values from the same jump. In the literature, four equations have been commonly described for estimating jump height using the force platform, where jump height can vary by up to 15 cm when these equations are used on the same jump. There are advantages and disadvantages to each of the equations according to the intended use. Considerations of (i) the jump type, (ii) the reason for testing, and (iii) the definition of jump height should ideally determine which equation to apply. The different jump height equations can lead to confusion and inappropriate comparisons of jump heights. Considering the popularity of reporting jump height results, both in the literature and in practice, there is a significant need to understand how the different mathematical approaches influence jump height. This review aims to investigate how different equations affect the assessment of jump height using force platforms across various jump types, such as countermovement jumps, squat jumps, drop jumps, and loaded jumps.
Introduction:
This meta-analysis examined the effects of plyometric training (PT) and resistance training (RT) on lower limb explosive power and speed quality in athletes, including lower limb jumping and short-distance sprinting abilities.
Evidence acquisition:
Empirical studies investigating the PT and RT effect on lower limb explosive power were identified using the PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, EBSOC, and CNKI databases. Heterogeneity testing and potential publication bias assessment were conducted using STATA 15 and Review Manager 5.4.
Evidence synthesis:
There were 20 articles included, involving 457 participants (230 in the PT group and 227 in the RT group). The meta-analysis results indicated no significant difference in countermovement jump (CMJ) between PT and RT groups (SMD = -1.03; 95% CI = -5.20 - 3.14). Additionally, no significant differences were found between the two training methods for standing long jump (SLJ) (MD = -0.04; 95% CI = 0.00 - 0.09), squat jump (SJ) (MD = -0.79; 95% CI = 1.79 - 0.22), 10-m sprint (MD = -0.02; 95% CI = -0.06 - 0.02), and 30-m sprint (MD = -0.02; 95% CI = -0.15 - 0.11). However, PT and RT comparisons revealed a significant difference between the 5-m sprint (MD = -0.03; 95% CI = -0.05 - 0.00) and the 20-m sprint (MD = -0.05; 95% CI = -0.09 - 0.01).
Conclusions:
This meta-analysis demonstrated that relative to RT, PT significantly improved the sprinting abilities of athletes at 5-m and 20-m distances. However, no significant differences were observed in sprinting at 10 and 30 meters, CMJ, SLJ, and SJ, indicating consistent effects of PT and RT on jumping performance.
Background: Countermovement jump (CMJ) is significant measure of physical fitness when assessing athlete performance. It closely mimics the movements utilized in gameplay & is frequently used in field evaluation for strength and power training. Aim: To investigate the differences in the force impulse, velocity and time parameters during CMJ in combat sports (Judo & Taekwondo). Method: 12 athletes were divided into two groups Group A: judo (age: 21.5 ± 2.94 years; body height: 174.71 ± 8.55 cm; weight: 70.78 ± 4.45 kg; body mass index (BMI): 23.1 ± 1.55 kg/m ² ) and Group B: Taekwondo athletes (age: 19.5 ± 1.04 years; body height: 169.91 ± 4.45; weight: 63.25 ± 4.45 kg; BMI: 21.93 ± 1.41 kg/m ² ). After the specific warm up session, 3 repetitions of CMJ were recorded for each athlete. Kinetic data acquisition was performed using forceplate (Quattro Jump Type 9290DD portable Performance Analysis System − Kistler). Results: Raw data was evaluated by the SPSS V.26. The statistical independent t -test showed significant difference in kinetic variations of force impulse, velocity and time parameters during CMJ among both the combat sports groups. Results showed the significant ( p < 0.05), yet diverse changes in various kinetics parameters while comparing both the groups and group A showed higher force impulse as compared to group B. Conclusion : This study showed there is a considerable difference in force impulse parameters among Judo group but in velocity & time a parameter there were no significant change on comparison of both the groups.
Kick Boks spor dalı yumruk ve tekme vuruşları ile yapılırken, Muay Thai Spor dalı ise yumruk ve tekme vuruşlarının yanı sıra diz ve dirsek vuruşları olan tekniklerden oluşmaktadır. Kick Boks ve Muay Thai Spor dalları günümüzde ring üzerinde müsabakaları yapılan savunma ve dövüş sporlarıdır. Ayrıca kick boks sporunun bazı yarışma stilleri tatemi üzerinde yapılmaktadır. Kick Boks ve Muay thai sporcuları yaptıkları stillerde sporcuların birbirlerine üstünlük kurmaları için yoğun performans artırıcı antrenmanlar yapmaları gerekmektedir. Kick Boks ve Muay Thai sporcularının ulaşılmak istediği bazı motorik özellikler kuvvet, sürat, dayanıklılık ve esneklik gibi sporcuların performanslarına etki eden önemli parametrelerdir. Bu araştırmada kick boks ve muay thai spor dalı yapan sporcuların seçilmiş bazı motorik özelliklerden dikey sıçrama yükseklikleri, durarak uzun atlama, penta jump (beşli sıçrama) testi, esneklik (otur uzan) testi, İllinois çeviklik testi ve flamingo denge testi ölçümleri yapılmıştır. Ayrıca antropometrik özelliklerinden boy uzunlukları, vücut ağırlıkları ve bel çevresi ölçümleri yapılarak veri toplama formuna kayıt edilmiştir. Verilerin analizinde ise ortalama ve standart sapma olarak verilmiş olup, verilerin normal dağılımı için basıklık çarpıklık değerlerine bakılmış ve Shapiro-Wilk testine göre normal dağılım gösterdiği görülmüş olup buna bağlı olarak tanımlayıcı istatistiğin yanısıra, independent sample T testi uygulanmıştır. Katılımcılardan Muaythai ve Kickboks sporcularının bel çevre ölçümü, dikey sıçrama, çift ayak sıçrama, esneklik, penta jump ve denge testlerinde iki grup arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı farklılık (p>0.05) olmadığı tespit edilirken, iki grubun çeviklik testleri arasında ise istatistiksel olarak anlamlı farklılık olduğu tespit edilmiştir (p<0,05). Fiziksel özellikleri bakımından benzerlik gösteren kickboks ve muaythai sporcularının yapılan testlerde bazı motorik özelliklerinin benzerlik gösterdiği görülmektedir. Abstract While Kick Boxing is done with punch and kick strokes, Muay Thai Sports branch consists of punch and kick strokes as well as techniques with knee and elbow strokes. Kick Boxing and Muay Thai Sports branches are defense and combat sports that are played on the ring today. In addition, some competition styles of kick boxing are performed on the tatami. Kick Boxing and Muay Thai athletes need to do intense performance-enhancing training in order for the athletes to dominate each other in the styles they do. Some of the motoric features that Kick Boxing and Muay Thai athletes want to achieve are important parameters that affect the performance of athletes such as strength, speed, endurance and flexibility. In this study, the vertical jump heights, standing long jump, penta jump (five jump) test, flexibility (sit and lie down) test, Illinois agility test and flamingo balance test were measured from some selected motoric features of the athletes doing kick boxing and muay thai sports. In addition, anthropometric features of height, body weight and waist circumference measurements were made and recorded in the data collection form. In the analysis of the data, the average and standard deviation were given, the kurtosis and skewness values were checked for the normal distribution of the data and it was seen that it showed normal distribution according to the Shapiro-Wilk test. Accordingly, besides the descriptive statistics, the independent sample T test was applied. While it was determined that there was no statistically significant difference (p>0.05) between the two groups in the waist circumference measurement, vertical jump, double-foot jump, flexibility, penta jump and balance tests of Muaythai and Kickboxing participants, there was a statistically significant difference between the agility tests of the two groups. determined (p<0.05). Kickboxing and muaythai athletes, who are similar in terms of their physical characteristics, show that some of their motoric characteristics are similar in the tests.
The aim of this study was to identify the key physical indicators that affect game performance of male team handball athletes in national team handball tournaments and explore them further in relation to playing positions. A total of 150 male handball athletes were tested before a national tournament, using squat, bench press, 30-m sprint, vertical jump, pull-ups and abdominal endurance testing. Correlation analysis was used to examine the potential relationship between fitness level and tournament ranking. The results revealed significant differences in fitness variables among different playing positions (p < 0.05), excepted abdominal endurance and vertical jump (p > 0.05). 1RM squad performance was associated with team rankings (r = 0.289, p < 0.05). For individual playing positions, bench press of backs correlate with rankings (r = 0.354, p < 0.05). For goalkeepers, ranking was significantly positively correlated with 30-m sprinting (r = 0.604, p < 0.05). No other correlations were found (p > 0.05). To conclude, fitness level is to some extent related to team ranking with higher ranked teams having better scores in some of the fitness tests for all playing positions. The key predictors of performance in sport vary from position to position and practitioners need to differentiate between them to organize strength and conditioning training more precisely. More specialized fitness tests are also needed to assess athletes' competition ability.
The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the effect of specific sprint and vertical jump training interventions on transfer of speed-power parameters. The data search was carried out in three electronic databases (PubMed, SCOPUS, and SPORTDiscus), and twenty eight articles were selected (13 on vertical jump training and 15 on sprint training). We followed the PRISMA criteria for the construction of this systematic review and used Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale to assess the quality of all studies. It was included studies with male population (athletes and non-athletes, n= 512) from 18-30 years old who performed a vertical jump or sprint training intervention. The effect-size was calculated from the values of means and standard deviations, pre- and post-training intervention. The percentage changes and transfer of training effect were calculated for vertical jump training and sprint training through measures of vertical jump and sprint performance. The results indicated that both training interventions (vertical jump training and sprint training) induced improvements in vertical jump and linear sprint performance, as well as transfer of training to speed-power performance. However, vertical jump training produced greater specific and training transfer effects to linear sprint than sprint training (untrained skill). It is concluded that vertical jump training and sprint training were effective in increasing specific actions of vertical jump and linear sprint performance, respectively; however, vertical jump training showed to be a superior alternative due to the higher transfer rate.
Time-dependent measures consisting of rate of torque development (RTD), rate of velocity development (RVD), and rate of neuromuscular activation can be used to evaluate explosive muscular performance, which becomes critical when performing movements throughout limited ranges of motion (ROM). Using a HUMAC NORM dynamometer, seven males (27 ± 7 years) and six females (22 ± 3 years) underwent 8 weeks of maximal isometric dorsiflexion training 3 days/week. One leg was trained at 0° (short-muscle tendon unit (MTU) length) and the other at 40° of plantar flexion (long-MTU length). RTD and rate of neuromuscular activation were evaluated during 'fast' maximal isometric contractions. Power, RVD, and rate of neuromuscular activation were assessed during maximal isotonic contractions in four conditions (small (40° to 30° of plantar flexion) ROM at 10 and 50% MVC; large (40° to 0° of plantar flexion) ROM at 10 and 50% MVC) for both legs, pre- and post-training. Despite no change in rate of neuromuscular activation following training, peak power, RTD, and RVD increased at both MTU lengths (p < 0.05). Strong relationships (R ² =0.73) were observed between RTD and peak power in the small ROM, indicating that fast time-dependent measures are critical for optimal performance when ROM is constrained. Meanwhile, strong relationships (R ² =0.90) between RVD and power were observed at the 50% load, indicating that RVD is critical when limited by load and ROM is not confined. Maximal isometric dorsiflexion training can be used to improve time-dependent measures (RTD, RVD) to minimize power attenuation when ROM is restricted.
Nichols, IA and Szivak, TK. Effects of different hand widths on plyometric push-up performance. J Strength Cond Res 35(2S): S80-S83, 2021-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of hand width placement during the performance of plyometric push-ups. Ten male subjects (age: 24.14 ± 2.79 years, height: 178.14 ± 5.21 cm, and body mass: 91.55 ± 6.04 kg) performed 2 plyometric push-ups at 120, 150, and 170% of the subject's biacromial width (6 total push-ups) in a randomized order. Height (H), peak force (pF), peak power (pP), and rate of power development data were collected using a force plate. One-way repeated-measures analysis of variance showed no significant differences in performance measures across all hand widths. A secondary analysis using a mixed-effects linear regression model was performed due to the small sample size. Regression analysis showed a significant difference in pF (p < 0.05) between 120 and 170% hand widths. Study results suggest that although upper-body (UB) power output seems to be similar across varying hand widths, UB force development (pF) may be significantly affected by hand width during the plyometric push-up. Study results suggest that hand-width placement may impact plyometric performance measures and should be considered if the plyometric push-up is used to assess an individual's UB power. To the best of authors' knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the effects of varying hand widths on plyometric push-up performance.
The aim of this paper was to test the validity and concept of the talent identification program “Landes-Vielseitigkeits-Test” (LVT) of the German Swim Federation (DSV). The test includes measurements of bodyheight, bodyweight, vertical and horizontal jump force, push ups, pull ups and various swim specific tests for leg propulsion, sprint ability and buoyancy ability.
Therefore, performance data of the LVT in 2014 (n = 146; male: n = 61; female: n = 65; age: 10.88 ± 1.67) and best swimming performance of the season 2017/2018 was measured. The swimmers were divided into four categories on the basis of the 2017/2018 seasonal best performance: 50 meters backstroke (n = 17; age: 10.71 years ± 1.49; FINA points 17/18 483.12 ± 151.88), 50 meters freestyle (n = 26; age: 10.58 years ± 1.75; FINA points 17/18 466.54 ± 121.98), 100 meters freestyle (n = 15; age: 12.07 years ± 1.33; FINA points 17/18 538.8 ± 83.84) and 200 meters breaststroke (n = 14; age: 10.86 years ± 1.75; FINA points 17/18 551.86 ± 136,12). The factors of the different categories (anthropometries, jump performance, upper limb strength and swimming performance) were used to retrospectively explain the FINA score of 2017/2018. To improve regressions accuracy, index values of jump performance, upper limb strength and swimming performance was constructed.
The strength performance of the upper body strength could not contribute to explain the final swimming performance in one of the chosen swimming categories (modified p value according to Benjamini & Hochberg: p < 0.05). Also the jump performance could not contribute to explain final swimming performance (modified p value according to Benjamini & Hochberg: p < 0.05). The swimming Index could have a significant influence on the regression model over 50 meters of backstroke, 50 meters freestyle and 200 meters breaststroke (modified p value according to Benjamini & Hochberg: p > 0.05).
This study supports the results of Watanabe & Takai (2005), that upper body muscle strength is an poor indicator of swimming performance in athletes younger than 14 years. Although the results of the swim performance index are in agreement with Garrido et al., (2012), based on the methodological deficiencies of the swim performance tests, this results has to be interpreted with caution. Swimming performance is the result of the interaction of various performance areas (Barbosa et al., 2010). Particularly due to the methodological deficiencies of the test battery, it can be assumed that the LVT in its current composition is not suitable for identifying talents (Abbott & Collins, 2002).
This study aimed to compare neuromuscular variables (vertical jump and shoulder external/internal rotation torque) between advanced and novice judo athletes, and to identify which neuromuscular variables allow for discrimination between them. Thirty male judo athletes participated in this study: 19 novice and 11 advanced athletes. The judo athletes performed the shoulder external/internal rotation isokinetic torque assessment in an isokinetic dynamometer and the countermovement jump in a force platform. Student’s t-test and the discriminant analysis were used, with the level of significance set at 5%. The main results showed that advanced judo athletes presented higher jump height (p=.03) and power output (p=.02) compared to novice athletes. In addition, shoulder internal rotation peak torque was higher in advanced judokas compared to novice judokas (p=.04), and the ratio between external rotation torque and internal rotation torque was higher in novice judokas compared to advanced judokas (p=.006). In this discriminant function, the variables with higher discriminatory power were (in descending order): jump height, shoulder internal peak torque, and ratio between peak torques. The results of the present study demonstrate that advanced judo athletes presented better performance in vertical jump, shoulder internal isokinetic torque, and ratio between external/internal isokinetic torques than novice athletes. The variables used to discriminate between advanced and novice judoka may provide coaches a guide for sport specific training needs.
Background and Study Aim: Judo is categorized among events which develop apart from technical aspects many physical abilities such as explosive strength, speed and co-ordination. One representative task which involves the above mentioned abilities when performed from any athlete is the vertical jump. Purpose of this paper is to answer the question: if there are differences between untrained young males and advanced level Greek judo athletes in jumping ability in four different vertical jumping tasks. Material/Methods: Twenty male [(10 untrained/10 advanced ones), mean age: 19.4±1.6 years/ 17.3±1.2 years respectively] performed squat jumps, countermovement jumps and drop jumps from 20 and 40 cm height (DJ20 and DJ40, respectively). Kinetic data for further analysis were collected by a ground mounted 40×60 cm force plate. Results: Advanced young judokas presented higher scores in all examined jumping tasks compared to untrained ones, revealed shorter duration of examined contact times of all tasks and as a result better utilisation of stretch-shortening cycle mechanism. Total neuromuscular activation that adopt judokas reveals a more mature and skill dependent strategy compared to untrained ones. Conclusions: Vertical jump does not characterizes from a technical point of view a judo athlete but it seems that performance in vertical jumping tasks is affected by the participation and years habituation to ballistic and explosive strength training. Judo specific training in advanced-level judokas improves and induces specific neuromuscular alterations as well as performance in various jumping tasks.
The aim of this study was to examine possible discriminant physical and physiological characteristics between elite male handball players from elite teams with different league rankings. Players from three teams (A, B and C), which competed in the first league of the Greek championship during the season 2011-2012 participated in the study. Team A finished first, B came second and C came eighth out of eleven clubs. Teams A and B also participated in European Cups, and team A won the European Challenge Cup. The players (n=44) were examined for anthropometric characteristics and performed a series of physical fitness tests. Players from teams A and B were taller (6.2 cm (0.7;11.7), mean difference (95% CI) and 9.2 cm (4.0;14.5), respectively), and had a higher amount of fat free mass (6.4 kg (1.1;11.8) and 5.4 kg (0.2;10.5)) compared to those of team C. Players from team A performed better than players from team C in the squat jump (5.5 cm (1.0;10.0)), the countermovement jump without (5.5 cm (0.4;10.6)) and with arm-swing (6.0 cm (0.7;11.3)) and in the 30 s Bosco test (5.7 W·kg-1 (1.2;10.2)). Also, players from team A outperformed team B in mean power during the Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT, 0.5 W·kg-1(0;0.9)) and in the Bosco test (7.8 W·kg-1 (3.4;12.2)). Overall, players from the best ranked team performed better than the lowest ranked team on WAnT, vertical jumps and the Bosco test. Stepwise discriminant analysis showed that stature and mean power during the Bosco test were the most important characteristics in TH players, accounting for 54.6% of the variance in team ranking. These findings indicate the contribution of particular physical fitness components (stature, fat free mass and anaerobic power) to excellence in TH. In addition, the use of the Bosco test as an assessment tool in talent identification and physical fitness monitoring in this sport is further recommended.
Este estudo objetivou identificar parâmetros de força e velocidade relacionados com o desempenho nos saltos verticais (SV) Counter Movement Jump (CMJ) e Squat Jump (SJ); comparar estes parâmetros entre corredores velocistas e voleibolistas. Participaram 24 atletas do sexo masculino (12 velocistas de nível estadual/nacional e 12 voleibolistas de nível nacional). Os atletas realizaram os SV CMJ e SJ sobre uma plataforma de força, sendo analisadas variáveis de desempenho (altura do salto e potência), pico de velocidade (PV), força máxima (Fmax) absoluta e relativa, taxa de desenvolvimento de força (TDF) e tempo para atingir a força máxima (TFmax). No CMJ, a altura correlacionou-se com o PV (r=0,97) e com a Fmax normalizada (r=0,47), enquanto que a potência relacionou-se com todas as variáveis, exceto com a Fmax absoluta (r=0,12). No SJ, o PV e a Fmax normalizada correlacionaram-se com a altura obtida (r=0,95; r=0,51, respectivamente) e com a potência (r=0,80; r=0,87, respectivamente). Além disso, a TFmax também correlacionou-se com a potência (r=-0,49). Os velocistas apresentaram valores superiores nas variáveis de desempenho do salto (altura e potência), na Fmax e no PV, tanto no SJ como CMJ. Conclui-se que o pico de velocidade e a força máxima normalizada foram os principais determinantes da altura e da potência obtida em ambos os SV. Contudo, a força explosiva (TDF e TFmax) também mostrou-se importante na produção de potência nos SV. Por fim, os velocistas apresentaram melhor desempenho nos SV em relação às voleibolistas.
Abstract The aims of this study were to determine the reliability of an intermittent-sprint cycling protocol and to determine the efficacy of one practice session on main trials. Eleven men, moderately trained team-sport athletes, completed three visits to the laboratory involving a graded-exercise test and practice session and two trials of a Cycling Intermittent-Sprint Protocol separated by three days. Data for practice and main trials were analysed using typical error of measurement, intra-class correlation and least-products regression to determine reliability. Typical error of measurement (expressed as a coefficient of variation) and intra-class correlation for peak power output from all 20 sprints for trial 1 and trial 2 were 2.9 ± 12.8% (95% confidence interval: 2.0-5.0%) and 0.96 (95% confidence interval: 0.85-0.99), respectively. Typical errors of measurement and intra-class correlation for mean power output for all 20 sprints for trials 1 and 2 were 4.2 ± 11.9% (95% confidence interval: 2.9-7.4%) and 0.90 (95% confidence interval: 0.66-0.97), respectively. The results suggest that peak power output provides a more reliable measure than mean power output. The Cycling Intermittent-Sprint Protocol provides reliable measures of intermittent-sprint performance.
The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a regression equation to estimate peak power (PP) using a large sample of athletic youths and young adults. Anthropometric and vertical jump ground reaction forces were collected from 460 male volunteers (age: 12-24 years). Of these 460 volunteers, a stratified random sample of 45 subjects representing 3 different age groups (12-15 years [n = 15], 16-18 years [n = 15], and 19-24 years [n = 15]) was selected as a validation sample. Data from the remaining 415 subjects were used to develop a new equation ("Novel") to estimate PP using age, body mass (BM), and vertical jump height (VJH) via backward stepwise regression. Independently, age (r = 0.57), BM (r = 0.83), and VJ (r = 0.65) were significantly (p < 0.05) correlated with PP. However, age did not significantly (p = 0.53) contribute to the final prediction equation (Novel): PP (watts) = 63.6 × VJH (centimeters) + 42.7 × BM (kilograms) - 1,846.5 (r = 0.96; standard error of the estimate = 250.7 W). For each age group, there were no differences between actual PP (overall group mean ± SD: 3,244 ± 991 W) and PP estimated using Novel (3,253 ± 1,037 W). Conversely, other previously published equations produced PP estimates that were significantly different than actual PP. The large sample size used in this study (n = 415) likely explains the greater accuracy of the reported Novel equation compared with previously developed equations (n = 17-161). Although this Novel equation can accurately estimate PP values for a group of subjects, between-subject comparisons estimating PP using Novel or any other previously published equations should be interpreted with caution because of large intersubject error (± >600 W) associated with predictions.
The main purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between countermovement jump (CMJ) variables and acceleration and maximum speed performance.
Twenty-three elite Australian football players were tested on a CMJ, which yielded several kinematic and kinetic variables describing leg muscle function. A 40 m sprint was also conducted to assess acceleration (10 m time) and an estimate of maximum speed (flying 20 m time). Players from one Australian Football League (AFL) club were tested and Pearson correlations for CMJ variables and sprint performance were calculated.
Jump height, peak velocity, peak force, and peak power had less than 50% common variance, and therefore represented independent expressions of CMJ performance. Generally, the correlations between CMJ variables and sprinting performance were stronger for maximum speed (small to large effect sizes) than for acceleration (trivial to moderate sizes). The variable that produced the strongest correlation with acceleration was jump height (r = -0.430, P = .041) and with maximum speed was peak power/weight (r = -0.649, P = .001).
The results indicate that if an integrated system comprising a position transducer and a force platform is available for CMJ assessment, jump height and peak power/weight are useful variables to describe leg muscle explosive function for athletes who perform sprints.
Muscle power is one of the most important physical qualities of soccer playerperformance and needs to be maintained during a match. Thus, the aim of this study was toinvestigate the levels of muscle power in soccer players before and after performing repeatedsprints (RS), and the association between power and RS performance. Twenty soccer playersfrom the under-20 category aged 18-20 years participated in this study. The study consisted ofthe execution of vertical jumps, execution of RS, new execution of vertical jumps, and collectionof blood samples. The continuous jump (CJ) test was performed on a piezoelectric force platformfor the measurement of muscle power and the RAST test was used to evaluate RS ability. Nosignificant difference in the levels of muscle power was observed after RS (p=0.57). Significantdifferences were observed in the first to fifth sprint times (p<0.01), but not between the fifth andsixth sprint (p=0.06). CJ height before RS was correlated with first sprint time (r=-0.62, p<0.01),best sprint time (r=-0.60, p<0.01), and average sprint time (r= -0.54, p<0.01). In conclusion,the soccer players studied showed no significant reduction in muscle power after RS. A decreasein performance was observed from the first to the fifth sprint, but not between the fifth and sixthsprint. The muscle power of soccer players was a determinant factor to perform one maximumsprint, as well as successive sprints.
To investigate the relationship between maximum strength and differences in jump height during weighted and unweighted (body weight) static (SJ) and countermovement jumps (CMJ).
Sixty-three collegiate athletes (mean +/- SD; age= 19.9 +/- 1.3 y; body mass = 72.9 +/- 19.6 kg; height = 172.8 +/- 7.7 cm) performed two trials of the SJ and CMJ with 0 kg and 20 kg on a force plate; and two trials of mid-thigh isometric clean pulls in a custom rack over a force plate (1000-Hz sampling). Jump height (JH) was calculated from flight time. Force-time curve analyses determined the following: isometric peak force (IPF), isometric force (IF) at 50, 90, and 250 ms, and isometric rates of force development (IRFD). Absolute and allometric scaled forces, [absolute force/(body mass(0.67))], were used in correlations.
IPF, IRFD, F50(a), F50, F90, and F250 showed moderate/strong correlations with SJ and CMJ height percent decrease from 0 to 20 kg. IPF(a) and F250(a) showed weak/moderate correlations with percent height decrease. Comparing strongest (n = 6) to weakest (n = 6): t tests revealed that stronger athletes (IPF(a)) performed superior to weaker athletes.
Data indicate the ability to produce higher peak and instantaneous forces and IRFD is related to JH and to smaller differences between weighted and unweighted jump heights. Stronger athletes jump higher and show smaller decrements in JH with load. A weighted jump may be a practical method of assessing relative strength levels.
In this study, we compared the effectiveness of ratio and allometric scaling for normalizing power and strength in elite male rugby union players. Rugby union forwards (n = 18) and backs (n = 20) were assessed for squat jump and bench throw peak power, and box squat and bench press one-repetition maximum strength. The performance data for the forwards and backs were compared using ratio (P/BM) and allometric scaling (P/BM(b)), where P represents performance, BM is body mass in kilograms, and b is a power exponent. A proposed allometric exponent (0.67) and exponents (+/-95% confidence intervals) derived for the box squat (0.33 +/- 0.31), bench press (0.45 +/- 0.30), bench throw (0.46 +/- 0.36), and squat jump (0.64 +/- 0.31) exercises were used. In general, the absolute expression of power and strength was superior for the heavier forwards, but after ratio scaling these performance measures then favoured the lighter backs. There were no performance differences between the forwards and backs after allometric scaling using either the proposed or the derived exponents. Thus, allometric scaling may provide a more effective method for normalizing power and strength in elite athletes when body size is a confounding variable.
The effect of body size on the output of the tests of directly assessed muscle power has been mainly ignored in the applied research. We hypothesized that the muscle power output would reveal a positive relationship with body size closely in line with the theoretical predictions, as well as that the strength of the studied relationship could justify standardized normalization procedures applied in routine testing. Male physical education students (n = 111) were evaluated in 10 standard tests of direct assessment of muscle power output. A standard allometric relationship P = A SB was applied to assess the relationship between the tested power output P and selected indices of body size S ( B = allometric exponent; A = parameter). The correlation coefficients obtained between the tested power output and body size ranged within 0.21 - 0.56 for body mass and 0.10 - 0.49 for body height. The mean (SD) values of the allometric exponents B obtained with respect to body mass and body height were 0.55 (0.15) and 1.15 (0.62), respectively. This relationship proved to be strong enough to merit applying a standard normalization. The normalization method should be based on body mass as a preferred index of body size, while the allometric exponent could correspond to the theoretically predicted one (i.e., B = 0.67).
In the exercise sciences, simple allometry (y = axb) is rapidly becoming the method of choice for scaling physiological and human performance data for differences in body size. The purpose of this study is to detail the specific regression diagnostics required to validate such models. The sum (T, in kg) of the "snatch" and "clean-and-jerk" lifts of the medalists from the 1995 Men's and Women's World Weightlifting Championships was modeled as a function of body mass (M, in kg). A log-linearized allometric model (ln T = ln a + b ln M) yielded a common mass exponent (b) of 0. 47 (95% confidence interval = 0.43-0.51, P < 0.01). However, size-related patterned deviations in the residuals were evident, indicating that the allometric model was poorly specified and that the mass exponent was not size independent. Model respecification revealed that second-order polynomials provided the best fit, supporting previous modeling of weightlifting data (R. G. Sinclair. Can. J. Appl. Sport Sci. 10: 94-98, 1985). The model parameters (means +/- SE) were T = (21.48 +/- 16.55) + (6.119 +/- 0.359)M - (0. 022 +/- 0.002)M2 (R2 = 0.97) for men and T = (-20.73 +/- 24.14) + (5. 662 +/- 0.722)M - (0.031 +/- 0.005)M2 (R2 = 0.92) for women. We conclude that allometric scaling should be applied only when all underlying model assumptions have been rigorously evaluated.
The purpose of this study was to assess the usefulness of the vertical jump and estimated vertical-jump power as a field test for weightlifting. Estimated PP output from the vertical jump was correlated with lifting ability among 64 USA national-level weightlifters (junior and senior men and women). Vertical jump was measured using the Kinematic Measurement System, consisting of a switch mat interfaced with a laptop computer. Vertical jumps were measured using a hands-on-hips method. A counter-movement vertical jump (CMJ) and a static vertical jump (SJ, 90 degrees knee angle) were measured. Two trials were given for each condition. Test-retest reliability for jump height was intra-class correlation (ICC) = 0.98 (CMJ) and ICC = 0.96 (SJ). Athletes warmed up on their own for 2-3 minutes, followed by 2 practice jumps at each condition. Peak power (PP) was estimated using the equations developed by Sayers et al. (24). The athletes' current lifting capabilities were assessed by a questionnaire, and USA national coaches checked the listed values. Differences between groups (i.e., men versus women, juniors versus resident lifters) were determined using t-tests (p < or = 0.05). Correlations were determined using Pearson's r. Results indicate that vertical jumping PP is strongly associated with weightlifting ability. Thus, these results indicate that PP derived from the vertical jump (CMJ or SJ) can be a valuable tool in assessing weightlifting performance.
Subjects performed maximum vertical jumps on a force platform to reveal whether resulting force-time curves could identify characteristics of good performances. Instantaneous power-time curves were also derived from the force-time curves. Eighteen temporal and kinetic variables were calculated from the force- and power-time curves and were compared with the takeoff velocities and maximum heights via correlation and multiple regression. The large variability in the patterns of force application between the subjects made it difficult to identify important characteristics of a good performance. Maximum positive power was found to be an excellent single predictor of height, but the best three-predictor model, not including maximum power, could only explain 66.2% of the height variance. A high maximum force (> 2 body weights) was found to be necessary but not sufficient for a good performance. Some subjects had low jumps in spite of generating high peak forces, which indicated that the pattern of force applica...
The purposes of this study were: i) to verify the agreement of categorization and ranks based on the actual power output measured by a force plate (PPact) and the estimated power output (PPest) from jump height (JH) and body mass (BM); and ii) to verify whether the ratio standard is adequate to scale the PPact for body mass (BM). The countermovement jumps of 309 male athletes were analysed. The athletes were first categorized into tertiles (superior, intermediate and inferior) according to PPact and PPest. After, the athletes were ranked (highest to lowest power output) according to PPact and PPest. The PPest equation explained 81% of PPact variance (SEE = 277.4 W). The PPest (3757.1 ± 579.8 W) displayed similar mean values compared to PPact (3757.1 ± 642.3 W). However, the agreement between the categories generated by PPact and PPest was only moderate (k=0.6; p<0.01) and in the intermediate tertile, the categorization differs 38.8%. The agreement between the ranks analysed from a Bland-Altman plot shows bias zero, but a wide limits of agreement (81 ranks; 26.2%). For the PPact scaling, the ratio standard may be considered an adequate method for removing the BM effect, considering the lack of correlation between the scaled PPact (PPact /BM) and BM and also the confirmation of Tanner's special circumstance. In conclusion, our findings indicate that the athlete's power output was not appropriately categorized or ranked when using PPest. Furthermore, the use of the scaled PPact is recommended to fairly compare athletes with different body masses.
The validity and reliability of the jumping ergometer method for evaluating performance in two-legged vertical countermovement and serial rebound jumps were investigated. The internal segmental and nonvertical energy flow components for drop jumps were also studied. The exact dynamic equations governing the jumping motion in three dimensions were derived and used together with the approximate relations of the jumping ergometer method to evaluate a total of 72 vertical jumps of different types executed by 22 subjects (15 males, 7 females), average age 24.59 years. The forceplate method was selected as a reference procedure, to which the jumping ergometer results were related. For countermovement jumps, the relative error for jumping height was 3.55% (±2.92%), and for average power per kilogram body mass during the propulsion phase it was 23.79% (±4.85%). For serial rebound jumps, the respective errors were 7.40% (±4.58%) and 5.09% (±4.48%). Internal and nonvertical energy flow components amounted to about 3% of the total. It was concluded that, because of a number of invalid assumptions, unpredictable errors, and contradictory performance requirements, the validity and reliability of the jumping ergometer method for evaluating certain aspects of athletic performance are highly questionable.
The primary aim of this study was to determine reliability and factorial validity of squat (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests. The secondary aim was to compare 3 popular methods for the estimation of vertical jumping height. Physical education students (n = 93) performed 7 explosive power tests: 5 different vertical jumps (Sargent jump, Abalakow's jump with arm swing and without arm swing, SJ, and CMJ) and 2 horizontal jumps (standing long jump and standing triple jump). The greatest reliability among all jumping tests (Cronbach's alpha = 0.97 and 0.98) had SJ and CMJ. The reliability alpha coefficients for other jumps were also high and varied between 0.93 and 0.96. Within-subject variation (CV) in jumping tests ranged between 2.4 and 4.6%, the values being lowest in both horizontal jumps and CMJ. Factor analysis resulted in the extraction of only 1 significant principal component, which explained 66.43% of the variance of all 7 jumping tests. Since all jumping tests had high correlation coefficients with the principal component (r = 0.76-0.87), it was interpreted as the explosive power factor. The CMJ test showed the highest relationship with the explosive power factor (r = 0.87), that is, the greatest factorial validity. Other jumping tests had lower but relatively homogeneous correlation with the explosive power factor extracted. Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that CMJ and SJ, measured by means of contact mat and digital timer, are the most reliable and valid field tests for the estimation of explosive power of the lower limbs in physically active men.
Fourteen male elite sprinters performed short-distance sprints and jump tests up to 18 days prior to 100-m dash competitions in track & field to determine if these tests are associated with 100-m sprint times. Testing comprised squat jumps (SJ), countermovement jumps (CMJ), horizontal jumps (HJ), maximum mean propulsive power relative to body mass in loaded jump squats (MPPR) and a flying start 50-m sprint. Moderate associations were found between speed tests and competitive 100-m times (r = 0.54, r = 0.61 and r = 0.66 for 10-, 30- and 50-m, respectively, P < 0.05). In addition, the MPPR was very largely correlated with 100-m sprinting performance (r = 0.75, P < 0.01). The correlations of SJ, CMJ and HJ with actual 100-m sprinting times amounted to -0.82, -0.85 and -0.81, respectively. Due to their practicality, safeness and relationship with the actual times obtained by top-level athletes in 100-m dash events, it is highly recommended that SJ, CMJ, and HJ be regularly incorporated into elite sprint testing routines.
Vertical jump (VJ) performance is an important element for successful volleyball practice. The aims of the study were (i) to explore the overall VJ performance of elite volleyball players of both sexes, (ii) to explore the differences in VJ performance among different competition levels and different playing positions and (iii) to evaluate the sex-related differences in the role of the arm swing and three step approach with arm swing on the jump height. We assessed the VJ capacity in 253 volleyball players (113 males, 140 females) from Slovenian 1st and 2nd Volleyball Division. The height of squat jump, countermovement jump, block jump and attack jump was tested using an Optojump system. We observed significant differences (p<0.05) in VJ height between different levels of play that were most pronounced in the squat jump. Position-related differences in VJ performance were observed in male players between receivers and setters (p<0.05), while in females VJ performance across different playing positions seems equal. Finally, we found that male players significantly better utilize the arm swing during VJ than females (p<0.05), while the use of eccentric part of the jump and approach prior to the spike in order to improve VJ performance seem to be equally mastered activity in both sexes. These results could assist coaches in the development of jumping performance in volleyball players. Furthermore, presented normative data for jump heights of elite male and female volleyball players could be useful in selection and profiling of young volleyball players.
The Lewis formula and nomogram, published in widely distributed textbooks, are used to calculate power output from vertical jump-and-reach distance and body weight. Despite the fact that the method has never been supported by refereed journal publication and the texts never revealed whether peak or average power was being estimated, the test has become increasingly used by physical educators, coaches and researchers. Theoretical analysis has raised questions about the the formula's validity. In order to evaluate the test, Lewis formula derived power output was compared to peak power and average power generated by 17 male subjects jumping vertically from a computer-interfaced force plate. Use of the Lewis formula should be discontinued because it does not provide accurate estimates of either peak or average power produced by the muscles. While the force-platform technique remains the method of choice for precise jumping-power determinations in the laboratory, the above equations can be used in conjunction with other tests to screen applicants for athletic teams and physically demanding jobs, and to monitor progress among participants in physical training and programs. Keywords: Lewis formula; Force platform; Tests.
The previously proposed maximum dynamic output hypothesis (MDO: i.e. the optimum load for maximizing the power output during jumping is one's own body) was tested on individuals of various activity profiles. Forty males (10 strength-trained athletes, 10 speed-trained athletes, 10 physically active non-athletes, and 10 sedentary individuals) performed different vertical jumps on a force plate while a pulley system was used to either reduce or increase the subject's body weight by 10-30 %. As expected, an increase in external loading resulted in a significant increase (p < 0.001) in force output and a concomitant decrease of peak jumping velocity in all groups of participants. The main finding, however, was that all groups revealed the maximum peak and mean power output at approximately the subjects' own body weight although their weight represented prominently different percentage of their maximum dynamic strength. While a significant (p < 0.05), albeit moderate, 'group × load' interaction in one jump was observed for the peak power output, the individual optimum load for maximizing the power output number did not differ among the groups. Although apparently further research on various types of movements is needed, the present results provide, so far, the strongest support of the MDO hypothesis.
The aim of this study was to examine the validity of vertical jump (VJ) performance variables in elite-standard male and female Italian soccer players. One-hundred-eighteen National teams soccer players (n=56 male and n=62 female) were tested for countermovement (CMJ) and squatting jump (SJ) heights. The stretch-shortening cycle efficiency (SSCE) was assessed as % of CMJ gain over SJ ([INCREMENT]CMJ-SJ), difference (CMJ-SJ) and ratio (CMJ/SJ). Results showed significant sex difference in SJ and CMJ. Difference in SSCE were mainly in the absolute variables between sexes. Cut-off values for CMJ and SJ using sex as construct were 34.4 and 32.9 cm respectively. No competitive-level differences in VJ performance were detected in the male players. Female National team players showed VJ performance higher than the under 17 counterpart. The results of this study showed that VJ performance cannot discriminate between competitive levels in male national-teams selected soccer players. However the use of CMJ and SJ normative data may help strength and conditioning coaches in prescribing lower-limbs explosive strength training in elite soccer players. In this variations in VJ performance in the range of ∼1 cm may be regarded as of interest in tracking non casual variation in elite-standard soccer players.
PURPOSE: Equations, commonly used to predict peak power from jump height, have relied on linear additive models that are biologically unsound beyond the range of observations due to high negative intercept values. This study explored the utility of allometric, multiplicative modelling to better predict peak power in adolescent basketball players. METHODS: Seventy seven elite junior basketball players (62 male, 15 female, age = 16.8 ± .8 years) performed three counter movement jumps (CMJ) on a force platform. Both linear and multiplicative models were then used to determine their efficacy. RESULTS: Four previously published linear equations were significantly associated with actual peak power (all P<0.01), althoughhere were significant differences between actual and estimated peak power using the Sayers-SJ and Sayers-CMJ equations (both P< 0.001). Allometric modelling was used to determine an alternative, biologically sound, equation which was more strongly associated with (r = .886, P<0.001), and not significantly different to (P>0.05), actual peak power and predicted 77.9% of the variance in actual peak power (adjusted R = .779, P<0.001). Exponents close to 1 for body mass and CMJ height indicated that peak power could also be determined from the product of body mass X CMJ height. This equation was significantly associated (r = .871, P<0.001) with and not significantly different to actual peak power (adjusted R = .756, P>0.05) and offered a more accurate estimation of peak power than previously validated linear additive models examined in this study. CONCLUSIONS: The allometric model determined from this study or the multiplicative model (body mass multiplied by CMJ height) provide biologically sound models to accurately estimate peak power in elite adolescent basketballers that are more accurate than equations based on linear additive models.
The purpose of the study was (a) to assess the accuracy of the regression equations available in the literature to estimate the actual peak power (PPac) of the countermovement jump (CMJ) executed by young male soccer players, (b) to develop new regression equations from this population, and (c) to verify whether regression equations obtained from age-based subgroups could increase the accuracy of the estimation (PPes) of PPac. In all, 117 young players (age: 13.6 ± 2.4 years) were enrolled in the study. Each subject performed 5 CMJs on a force platform. The new regression equations were obtained from the entire experimental sample (G1) and 3 age-based subsamples (G2 = prepubertal, G3 = peripubertal, G4 = postpubertal) using 2 different approaches: the best jump and the mean values achieved by each subject. All the equations in the literature underestimated the peak power (p < 0.00005) in all the groups. The approach based on the mean values was more accurate (adjusted R = 0.925, SEE = 302.9 W) than the one based on the best jump (adjusted R = 0.892; SEE = 360.8 W). Moreover, calculating the regression equations from the 3 age-based subsamples, SEE resulted improved (15.5% in G2, 5.6% in G3 and 0.9% in G4). Regression equations must be derived from homogeneous populations, in terms of gender, sports practice, and age. The approach based on the mean values for each subject was more accurate than the approach used in the literature up to now. In practical applications, regression equation estimates cannot be used to assess the performance of a single subject, because errors may exceed 50%, whereas they may be useful for group comparisons.
The purpose of the present study was to examine the differences in upper body power output among lineman and nonlineman division I collegiate football players and to examine the influence of 2 normalization procedures: (a) simple ratio scaling and (b) standardized allometric scaling. Ten lineman (mean +/- SD: age = 19.3 +/- 1.6 years; height = 187.7 +/- 4.7 cm; mass = 127.7 +/- 13.3 kg) and 14 nonlineman (19.6 +/- 1.4 years; 181.8 +/- 5.2 cm; 92.3 +/- 10.6 kg) performed a multiple repetition bench press power test at 50% of their 1 repetition maximum. Peak power (PP) was determined from a Tendo weightlifting analyzer that was attached to the barbell. The PP values were then analyzed under 3 conditions that included: (a) no scaling (absolute values), (b) ratio scaling (PP body mass), and (c) allometric scaling (PP body mass). The results indicated that the larger lineman demonstrated greater absolute PP values (p = 0.02); however, ratio scaling favored the smaller nonlineman group (p = 0.04). There were no differences in PP values between positions after the standardized allometric scaling procedure (p = 0.60). These findings indicated that the standardized allometric scaling procedure may be a more effective method for normalizing PP values among elite division I collegiate football players.
Many strength and conditioning papers have incorrectly adopted the colloquial use of the term "power" as a measure of short-term, high-intensity muscular performance despite a long history of research and editorials critical of this practice. This has lead to confusion, incorrect interpretations, and conflicting results in the literature. This paper summarizes the scientific evidence on external mechanical power as a short-term, high-intensity neuromuscular (anaerobic) performance or training variable. Many problems in the measurement and use of power in strength and conditioning research were identified, as well as problems in the use of the vertical jump as a field test of power. A critical review of the biomechanics, measurement, and training research does not support this colloquial use of the term "power." More research is needed that improves our understanding of the domains of muscular strength or neuromuscular performance, as well as partial correlation and multiple regression analyses to document the unique associations between these domains, biomechanical variables, training effects, and sport performance. Strength and conditioning research should limit the use of the term power to the true mechanical definition and provide several specific and measurement details on this measurement.
Among other routinely tested physical abilities, the tests of rapid movement performance and the tests of direct assessment of muscle power have been independently evaluated in complex batteries of physical fitness tests. Based on the scaling effects, we hypothesized that the tests of rapid movement performance assess the same physical ability as the tests of direct assessment of muscle power properly normalized for the effect of body size. Young physically active men (n = 111) were evaluated on 23 physical ability tests based on the assessment of muscle strength, muscle power, and rapid movement performance. When non-normalized data were used, a principle component analysis revealed a structure with overlapping tests from the above-mentioned groups including the indices of body size. However, when the indices of muscle strength and directly assessed muscle power were properly normalized for the effect of body size, the obtained structure was in line with the hypothesis. Most of the tests of both the direct assessment of muscle power and rapid movement performance proved to belong to the same factor, whereas the muscle strength tests and body size measures, respectively, loaded the remaining 2 factors. This result suggests that the rapid movement performance could be employed to assess muscle power and, possibly, the neuromuscular efficiency in general, which could be important for understanding some basic aspects of the design and function of the human locomotor system. An important practical implication of our findings could be that the direct assessment of muscle power (that usually requires expensive equipment and complex data processing procedures) could be skipped from the complex batteries of physical fitness tests and replaced by generally simpler tests of rapid movement performance.
It is well known that both individual muscle and muscle groups produce maximum power against particular external loads. Within the present review, we propose the hypothesis that the lower-limb muscles of physically active individuals are predominantly designed to provide the maximum dynamic output (MDO; assessed as power and momentum) in rapid movements like jumping and sprinting against the load imposed by the weight and the inertia of their own body. The evidence supporting the MDO hypothesis can be found in some general considerations (e.g., certain evolutionary aspects, muscular system design in animals, effects of athletic training) as well as in recent experimental findings. Specifically, here we show that the optimal load for the power and momentum production in vertical jumping in habitually active individuals (but not in strength/power-trained athletes) could be the subject's own body. This also implies that the performance of rapid movements corresponds to body-size-independent MDO of the lower-limb muscles. If supported by future research, MDO hypothesis could 1) provide a theoretical framework for relating both structure and function of the muscular system and for understanding long-term adaptation of the muscular system; 2) suggest that rapid movements, such as vertical jumps, performed without external load could be used for the assessment of MDO (power and momentum) of lower limbs in nonathletic population; and 3) simplify the assessment of physical abilities and neuromuscular function in general through the usage of simple and relatively inexpensive physical performance tests based on natural rapid movements.
The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between strength - power parameters and sprint performance and to predict sprint times from strength - power parameters.
Twenty-five male young sprinters participated in this study. Squat Jump(SJ), counter-movement jump (CMJ), drop jump height (DJH), repeated jump(RJ) and 100m sprint time from block start, including reaction time (RT) and times at 10m, 30m and 60m were measured. Reactive strength index (RSI), the difference between counter-movement and squat jump (CMJ-SJ) and the mean velocities of the intermediate sections 0-10m, 10-30m, 30-60m, 60-100 m (V0-10, V10-30, V30-60 and V60-100) were also calculated.
The canonical correlation analysis with strength - power parameters as predictors and reaction time and mean velocities as dependent variables revealed two canonical variables that explained 89.6% of the total variance. The first canonical variable (R=0.840) explained the association between SJ, RJ, DJH, RSI and all mean velocities. The second canonical variable (R=0.707) had only one predictor, CMJ-SJ, and loaded only on RT. Stepwise multiple regression analysis confirmed that RT depends only on CMJ-SJ. V0-10 depends on both DJ and SJ, while V10-30 depends only on SJ. Finally, V30-60 and V60-100 are primarily dependent on RSI. Multiple regression analysis of the 100m sprint time revealed that 46.5% of the variability could be explained by the variability of the strength- power predictors.
Performance at 100m sprint is strongly associated with strength-power parameters. The best predictor of the overall performance is probably SJ (or CMJ).
This paper presents a general statistical methodology for the analysis of multivariate categorical data arising from observer reliability studies. The procedure essentially involves the construction of functions of the observed proportions which are directed at the extent to which the observers agree among themselves and the construction of test statistics for hypotheses involving these functions. Tests for interobserver bias are presented in terms of first-order marginal homogeneity and measures of interobserver agreement are developed as generalized kappa-type statistics. These procedures are illustrated with a clinical diagnosis example from the epidemiological literature.
This paper examines how selected physiological performance variables, such as maximal oxygen uptake, strength and power, might best be scaled for subject differences in body size. The apparent dilemma between using either ratio standards or a linear adjustment method to scale was investigated by considering how maximal oxygen uptake (l.min-1), peak and mean power output (W) might best be adjusted for differences in body mass (kg). A curvilinear power function model was shown to be theoretically, physiologically and empirically superior to the linear models. Based on the fitted power functions, the best method of scaling maximum oxygen uptake, peak and mean power output, required these variables to be divided by body mass, recorded in the units kg 2/3. Hence, the power function ratio standards (ml.kg-2/3.min-1) and (W.kg-2/3) were best able to describe a wide range of subjects in terms of their physiological capacity, i.e. their ability to utilise oxygen or record power maximally, independent of body size. The simple ratio standards (ml.kg-1.min-1) and (W.kg-1) were found to best describe the same subjects according to their performance capacities or ability to run which are highly dependent on body size. The appropriate model to explain the experimental design effects on such ratio standards was shown to be log-normal rather than normal. Simply by taking logarithms of the power function ratio standard, identical solutions for the design effects are obtained using either ANOVA or, by taking the unscaled physiological variable as the dependent variable and the body size variable as the covariate, ANCOVA methods.
Physical strength has often been expressed per kilogram of body mass. Research suggests that strength increases in proportion to a body mass raised to a power between 0.6 and 0.7 rather than the ratio held exponent of 1. The current study was designed to identify differences in the strength of elite-level rugby league players and to identify whether ratio (per kg(-1)) expressions would penalize heavier subjects. Fifty-four elite rugby league players were recruited to the study during the preseason. Subjects were classified according to their highest playing level. Players performed 3 maximal lifts, using a dynamometer, to determine leg strength. Body mass and muscle mass estimations were also recorded. Results showed that absolute expressions of strength revealed differences by playing level (p < 0.05). These differences were removed when a ratio scaling technique was applied (p > 0.05). Mass and muscle mass exponents of 0.62 and 0.63 were derived and applied to the strength data. Differences in strength by playing level were reestablished following this adjustment (p < 0.05). These findings emphasize that ratio (per kg(-1)) expressions, despite being commonly used, can penalize heavier athletes and mask differences in performance. Coaches and sports scientists should reconsider using the ratio expression due to its potential for error when describing physical strength.
The primary aim of this study was to determine reliability and factorial validity of squat (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests. The secondary aim was to compare 3 popular methods for the estimation of vertical jumping height. Physical education students (n = 93) performed 7 explosive power tests: 5 different vertical jumps (Sargent jump, Abalakow's jump with arm swing and without arm swing, SJ, and CMJ) and 2 horizontal jumps (standing long jump and standing triple jump). The greatest reliability among all jumping tests (Cronbach's alpha = 0.97 and 0.98) had SJ and CMJ. The reliability alpha coefficients for other jumps were also high and varied between 0.93 and 0.96. Within-subject variation (CV) in jumping tests ranged between 2.4 and 4.6%, the values being lowest in both horizontal jumps and CMJ. Factor analysis resulted in the extraction of only 1 significant principal component, which explained 66.43% of the variance of all 7 jumping tests. Since all jumping tests had high correlation coefficients with the principal component (r = 0.76-0.87), it was interpreted as the explosive power factor. The CMJ test showed the highest relationship with the explosive power factor (r = 0.87), that is, the greatest factorial validity. Other jumping tests had lower but relatively homogeneous correlation with the explosive power factor extracted. Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that CMJ and SJ, measured by means of contact mat and digital timer, are the most reliable and valid field tests for the estimation of explosive power of the lower limbs in physically active men.
This study examined the torque-velocity and power-velocity relationships of quadriceps muscle function, stretch shortening cycle function, and leg-spring stiffness in sprint and endurance athletes. Isokinetic maximal knee extension torque was obtained from 7 sprinters and 7 endurance athletes using a Con-trex isokinetic dynamometer. Torque and power measures were corrected for lean-thigh cross-sectional area and lean-thigh volume, respectively. Stretch-shortening cycle function and muscle stiffness measurements were obtained while subjects performed single-legged squat, countermovement, and drop-rebound jumps on an inclined sledge and force-plate apparatus. The results indicated that sprinters generated, on average, 0.15 +/- 0.05 N.m.cm(-2) more torque across all velocities compared with endurance athletes. Significant differences were also found in the power-velocity relationships between the 2 groups. The sprinters performed significantly better than the endurance athletes on all jumps, but there were no differences in prestretch augmentation between the groups. The average vertical leg stiffness during drop jumps was significantly higher for sprinters (5.86 N.m(-1)) compared with endurance runners (3.38 N.m(-1)). The findings reinforce the need for power training to be carried out at fast contraction speeds but also show that SSC function remains important in endurance running.
There is a lack of standardized methodology for normalizing various indices of muscle strength and movement performance tests for differences in body size in human movement-related disciplines. Most of the data presented in the literature have been body size dependent, which precludes both comparisons between subjects and establishment of standards for specific subject populations. The goal of the present review was to propose standardized tests that normalize physical performance tests to body size. Specifically, we propose (a) using an allometric normalization based on theoretical models that presume geometric similarity, (b) using classification of performance tests based on particular values of the allometric parameters required for normalization, and (c) using a simple "performance index" that represents an individual or group performance relative to a reference population. Correspondences between theory and experimental findings and limitations are discussed.
The present study investigates the relationship between muscle power recorded in vertical jumps and body size, and explores possible differences in this relationship between the concentric (CON) and stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) muscle action. Physical education students (N = 159) were tested with the performance of various CON and SSC maximum vertical jumps. The relationship between muscle power (P) and body size (S) was assessed by P=aS
b
where a and b were the constant multiplayer and scaling exponent, respectively. With respect to body mass and fat-free mass, the scaling exponents b for mean muscle power (calculated from the ground reaction force) in CON and SSC jumps were within the range 0.69–0.82 and 0.90–1.15, respectively. With respect to body height, the scaling exponent was higher (0.76–0.97 and 1.23–1.79, respectively), but the observed relationship proved to be relatively weak. However, when jump height was used as an index of muscle power, the same exponents were close to zero (suggesting no relationship with any of the indices of body size) in all the jumps except an SSC based hopping jump that demonstrated a weak but positive relation to body size. In conclusion, muscle power could scale to body size at a higher rate than predicted by geometric similarity (i.e. b = 0.67), while larger individuals could gain more when switching from CON to SSC muscle action. These findings could be based on a non-geometric scaling of transversal with respect to longitudinal dimensions and/or on different scaling rates of muscles and tendons.
Determination of the strongest possible relationship between isokinetic quadriceps and functional performance measurements in healthy females would allow sports medicine practitioners to establish normative values when examining muscular performance in injured females. Previous attempts to correlate both measurements have, however, produced inconsistent results. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of allometric scaling, isokinetic testing velocities, reciprocal and non-reciprocal isokinetic testing on the relationship between countermovement jump (CMJ) and isokinetic quadriceps torque and power in recreational females athletes. Seventeen females (age 21.0 +/- 2.0 years, body mass index 19.5 +/- 1.0 kg x m(-2)) performed isokinetic quadriceps and CMJ tests. Isokinetic peak torque and average power were obtained reciprocally and non-reciprocally at 1.05 and 3.14 rad x s(-1), and were corrected for body mass by allometric modelling. Pearson product-moment correlation (r) was used to assess the relationship between the isokinetic parameters and the CMJ measurements. Coefficients of determination (r(2)) were calculated to determine the magnitude of common variance. The r-values for all non-allometrically modelled non-reciprocal parameters were greater (r = 0.58-0.63) than isokinetic parameters obtained reciprocally (r = 0.28-0.47). Using allometric scaling, non-reciprocal isokinetic data accounted for an additional 2-9% of the CMJ height variance, and statistically significant correlations were obtained at both 1.05 and 3.14 rad x s(-1). Allometrically scaled, non-reciprocal isokinetic peak torque and average power at 1.05 rad x s(-1) had the highest correlation with CMJ (r(2) = 0.49). At both 1.05 and 3.14 rad x s(-1), non-reciprocal quadriceps parameters correlated more closely with CMJ measurements than do reciprocal contractions. Normalization for body size by allometrically scaling may further improve correlations with CMJ performance.
It has been established that, in the sports of Olympic weightlifting (OL) and powerlifting (PL), the relationship between lifting performance and body mass is not linear. This relationship has been frequently studied in OL, but the literature on PL is less extensive. In this study, PL performance and body mass, for both men and women, was examined by using data from the International Powerlifting Federation World Championships during 1995-2004. Nonlinear regression was used to apply 7 models (including allometric, polynomial, and power models) to the data. The results of this study indicate that the relationship between PL performance and body mass can be best modeled by the equation y = a - bx(-c), where y is the weight lifted (in kg) in the squat, bench press, or deadlift, x is the body mass of the lifter (in kg), and a, b, and c are constants. The constants a, b, and c are determined by the type of lift (squat, bench press, or deadlift) and the gender of the lifter and were obtained from the regression analysis. Inspection of the plots of raw residuals (actual performance minus predicted performance) vs. body mass revealed no body mass bias to this formula in contrast to research into other handicapping formulas. This study supports previous research that found a bias toward lifters in the intermediate weight categories in allometric fits to PL data.
We tested the hypothesis that the performance of rapid movements represents body size-independent indices of muscle power. Physical education students (n = 159) were tested on various vertical jump (jump height and average power calculated from the ground reaction force) and muscle strength tests. When non-normalized data were used, a principal components analysis revealed a complex and inconsistent structure where jump height and muscle power loaded different components, while muscle strength and power partially overlapped. When the indices of muscle strength and power were properly normalized for body size, a simple and consistent structure of principal components supported the hypothesis. Specifically, the recorded height and muscle power calculated from the same jumps loaded the same components, separately for the jumps predominantly based on concentric actions and jumps based on a rapid stretch--shortening cycle of the leg extensors. The finding that the performance of rapid movements assesses the same physical ability as properly normalized tests of muscle power could be important for designing and interpreting the results of batteries of physical performance tests, as well as for understanding some basic principles of human movement performance.
The 5-jump test (5JT) was proposed to evaluate lower limb explosive power of athletes competing in various disciplines. Although 5JT performance is usually expressed in absolute terms as the overall distance covered (i.e., in meters), subject size can play a significant role in the performance. The aims of the present study were to test the relationship of 5JT absolute performance with laboratory tests for explosive power and to develop performance notations useful to improve the diagnostic value of 5JT. Fifteen elite soccer players, members of the Under-23 Tunisian national team, were tested for 5JT, force platform vertical jumping (squat jump [SJ] and arm-aided countermovement jump [Arm-CMJ]), and concentric isokinetic leg extension/flexion (90 degrees x s(-1) and 240 degrees x s(-1)). 5JT performance was expressed in absolute terms (meters), relative to leg length (5JT-relative) and with body mass-dependent notations (Body mass x 5JT, 5JT-body mass). 5JT performance was significantly correlated with SJ height and scaled (W x kg) peak power (0.72 and 0.77, respectively, p < 0.01). 5JT-relative values were significantly related to SJ and Arm-CMJ height (0.61 and 0.71, respectively, p < 0.05) and scaled peak power (0.57 and 0.59, respectively, p < 0.05). 5JT-body mass revealed significantly related of SJ (0.82, p < 0.0001) and Arm-CMJ peak power (0.54, p < 0.05) and to SJ and Arm-CMJ peak force (0.67 and 0.65, respectively p < 0.05). 5JT-relative and 5JT-body mass correlated significantly with knee extensors 240 degrees x s(-1) (0.60, p < 0.05) and knee flexors 90 degrees x s(-1) (0.67, p < 0.01) isokinetic acceleration time, respectively. The results of this study suggest that the 5JT may be regarded as an explosive strength diagnostic tool under field conditions in elite soccer players. The use of performance notation accounting for body size differences may improve the diagnostic ability of 5JT.
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