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Nutritional analysis of diet items available to captive and free-ranging hellbenders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis)
... Larvae and large juveniles require cobble beds (Nickerson and Mays 1973, Nickerson et al. 2003, Rossell et al. 2013. Primary food sources for larval and small juvenile hellbenders include aquatic insects, other stream invertebrates, as well as other aquatic salamanders (Hecht-Kardasz et al. 2013, Augustine et al. 2016. Adults and larger juveniles eat mainly crayfish but also small cyprinids, snails, worms, other invertebrates, frogs, and salamanders (Nickerson and Mays 1973, Peterson et al. 1989, Groves and Williams 2014, Augustine et al. 2016. ...
... Primary food sources for larval and small juvenile hellbenders include aquatic insects, other stream invertebrates, as well as other aquatic salamanders (Hecht-Kardasz et al. 2013, Augustine et al. 2016. Adults and larger juveniles eat mainly crayfish but also small cyprinids, snails, worms, other invertebrates, frogs, and salamanders (Nickerson and Mays 1973, Peterson et al. 1989, Groves and Williams 2014, Augustine et al. 2016. Hellbenders also scavenge for discarded bait, carrion, and in some instances harvested trout on in-stream stringers (Townsend 1882, Nickerson and Mays 1973, Nickerson and Krysko 2003. ...
... Historic and current mining and forestry practices have likely caused hellbender extirpations in some affected watersheds. Water quality has improved from older mining operations in some streams and rivers after long-term acid mine treatment in National Parks and on U.S. Forest Service land and may have become suitable for hellbenders where translocation projects could prove beneficial (see Cravotta et, al., 2010) Some factors that likely impact survival rates of translocated hellbenders include: age/size at release, habitat quality in the given stream reach , microbiome diversity and acquired disease resistance of released hellbenders (Bodinof-Jachowski et al., 2018, Hernández-Gómez 2019, Hecht et al., 2019, and diet and training of hellbenders while under human care (Crane and Mathis 2011, Augustine et al. 2016, Kenison, 2018. Finally, lighting regimens for hellbenders while being raised under human care was postulated to have an impact on released hellbenders in New York (Boerner 2014). ...
... For instance, commercially produced pelleted feeds often contain high mineral content stemming from raw ingredients, supplementation, and trace amounts from milling equipment [23]. Previous studies found that commercially sourced macroinvertebrates fed to hellbenders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) contained less than one third as much ash, reflecting total minerals within a food, than wild macroinvertebrates [24]; gut microbiomes indicated a higher plant-based diet and a deficiency in fruits in captive versus wild Beal's eyed turtles (Sacalia bealei) [25]; and unlike the nine elements that were higher in wild green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas), copper and selenium were higher in captive sea turtles due to an enrichment in their pelleted diet [8]. ...
The diets and environments that individuals experience can vary greatly within and among wildlife populations. These individual experiences can be compared using the chemical signatures of animal tissues, which can differentiate animals into groups, including those raised in the wild versus those held in captive facilities. In this study, we compared different combinations of four stable isotope ratios and 15 trace elements derived from the claw tips of captive wood turtles throughout the eastern U.S. and wild wood turtles (Glyptemys insculpta) from Maine to develop predictive models used to determine their origins. The purpose of this work is to develop an objective statistical tool that law enforcement can use to help prosecute poachers. We found that the chemical signatures of 14 (12 trace elements and 2 stable isotope ratios) of the 19 markers we explored were different between wild and captive wood turtles, thus reflecting the differences in their diets and environments. We found that our stable isotope ratio model had nearly perfect predictive accuracy in classifying wild wood turtles as wild and captive wood turtles as captive, whereas our trace element and combined model were 100% accurate, thus validating this statistical approach for determining the origins of confiscated wood turtles from Maine.
... Prey availability. Because prey availability can influence animal movements [50,51], we conducted post-hoc crayfish density surveys at the conclusion of the study for each of the four sites to evaluate prey availability for hellbenders, as crayfish are known to be a primary food source [52,53]. Crayfish surveys were carried out once per site by randomly sampling a minimum of 30 sections (1.5 m 2 areas) of runs and riffles using kick-sampling with a D-net as well as a seine, following methods from Mather and Stein [54]. ...
Translocations of freshwater species have become a widespread conservation strategy to mitigate the impacts of habitat fragmentation, yet they are not often rigorously monitored using animal movement data to determine their success. We demonstrate the value of monitoring pre- and post-translocation movements and home-range sizes of a fully-aquatic, benthic stream salamander, the eastern hellbender (Cryptobranchus a. alleganiensis) to determine translocation success. We studied the home range sizes, movements, and habitat use of individuals (n = 27) in two self-sustaining populations (S1 & S2) for one year, and then subsequently collected similar data from a subset of these individuals (n = 17) that were translocated into two nearby streams (T1 & T2) with dam-isolated, declining populations in the Blue Ridge Ecoregion of Tennessee. We collected 1,571 location data points (869 pre-translocation and 715 post-translocation) from four study sites, and evaluated effects of mass, sex, and pre-translocation home range size/sedentariness, as well as habitat covariates on home range size and movements. Hellbender home range sizes increased from pre-translocation estimates at both sites, but response depended primarily on physical characteristics of release sites. Home range and fine-scale movement metrics indicated that hellbenders translocated from S1 to T1 settled in more quickly, had greater site fidelity, and smaller home ranges than hellbenders translocated from S2 to T2. Hellbender movements were influenced by cover rock size and density rather than individual characteristics. Study-long survival rates of translocated hellbenders increased from S1 to T1 (80% to 100%) and decreased from S2 to T2 (76% to 33%). Monitoring pre- and post-translocation movements was a valuable method for evaluating short-term translocation success in a freshwater environment. For future hellbender translocations, managers should prioritize selecting suitable release sites with contiguous boulder-dense areas (1–2 per m²), adequate prey (crayfish) densities (>1/m²), and habitats with low risk of predation.
... We conceived a "salamander hall" in the Reptile Discovery Center that would have a custom-built multi-species Plethodon salamander wall on one side, and an active Appalachian salamander research lab on the other, where researchers and docents could engage visitors and promote our conservation message (Fig. 8). Using this space, we have conducted studies related to climate change (Terrell et al. 2013), olfaction (Kuppert 2013), and captive nutrition (Augustine et al. 2016). ...
... Such a study will be helpful in the formulation of diets for captive individuals. Moreover, knowledge on diets and the relevant nutritional parameters are crucial for an effective captive husbandry (Augustine et al., 2016). ...
Being endemic to Borneo, the Earless monitor, Lanthanotus borneensis (Steindachner, 1878) is rarely found in its habitats due to its cryptic behavior. We provide care for confiscated animals in the Reptile House of Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (MZB) in Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia since 2014. Little is known on its natural prey but from scattered descriptive reports. This study is aimed at documenting the feeding behavior of ten captive Earless monitors and events of predation on frogs. We set up two experiments, one with meat of Rice Field Frog, Fejervarya limnocharis, and the other with live frog of the same species. Our recorded observations ran for four weeks for the frog meat feeding experiment and followed by the frog predation experiment. Our results showed that lizards constantly accepted frog meat. Lizards tended to feed before sunset for a short period of time on the muddy soil surface, although a few individuals inconsistently fed under water. The average body mass for these lizards increased by 4.29 g and average SVL by 0.45 cm. We recorded predation on frogs in three out of ten individuals observed during this study. If F. limnocharis is confirmed to occur in the natural habitats of L. borneensis, it is possible that this frog species is among the natural prey for Earless monitors. Further studies on its natural diets should be conducted to gain in-depth knowledge essential for generating effective captive husbandry for this nationally protected species in Indonesia.
... Such a study will be helpful in the formulation of diets for captive individuals. Moreover, knowledge on diets and the relevant nutritional parameters are crucial for an effective captive husbandry (Augustine et al., 2016). ...
Being endemic to Borneo, the Earless monitor, Lanthanotus borneensis (Steindachner, 1878) is rarely found in its habitats due to its cryptic behavior. We provide care for confiscated animals in the Reptile House of Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (MZB) in Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia since 2014. Little is known on its natural prey but from scattered descriptive reports. This study is aimed at documenting the feeding behavior of ten captive Earless monitors and events of predation on frogs. We set up two experiments, one with meat of Rice Field Frog, Fejervarya limnocharis, and the other with live frog of the same species. Our recorded observations ran for four weeks for the frog meat feeding experiment and followed by the frog predation experiment. Our results showed that lizards constantly accepted frog meat. Lizards tended to feed before sunset for a short period of time on the muddy soil surface, although a few individuals inconsistently fed under water. The average body mass for these lizards increased by 4.29 g and average SVL by 0.45 cm. We recorded predation on frogs in three out of ten individuals observed during this study. If F. limnocharis is confirmed to occur in the natural habitats of L. borneensis, it is possible that this frog species is among the natural prey for Earless monitors. Further studies on its natural diets should be conducted to gain in-depth knowledge essential for generating effective captive husbandry for this nationally protected species in Indonesia.
... Many vertebrate taxa are at least partially insectivorous and, when maintained in captivity, often require invertebrates on which to feed. Although a number of feeder invertebrate species are available in sufficient numbers to form staple dietary items, the range of feeder insects available is still highly limited taxonomically and nutritionally compared with wild diets (Augustine et al. 2016;Jayson et al. 2018). Although some taxa (especially amphibians) can obtain calcium both from the environment and from food, the diet remains the principal calcium source for most vertebrates (Baldwin and Bentley, 1980). ...
The diets provided to many captive insectivores are deficient in calcium and high in phosphorus, which can lead to nutritional disease. Husbandry professionals may address this imbalance through supplementation, but the efficacy of different methods varies between invertebrate taxa. Earthworms are frequently used for aquatic and fossorial insectivores and this along with their rapidly shed mucus layer makes dusting with supplements ineffective; gut loading is likely the only available route to improving nutritional quality. Moreover, earthworms are often considered a good source of calcium, though data exist only for some taxa and results are mixed with regards to calcium content. The present study analysed the calcium and phosphorus content of Dendrobaena veneta earthworms, a species commonly commercially reared and sold for insectivore food, gut loaded on three diets (fresh vegetables, fortified instant porridge oats and a commercial gut loading diet) and quantified the zinc, copper and magnesium content of fasted worms. Dendrobaena worms contained sufficient zinc, copper and magnesium to meet the general requirements of domestic birds, mammals and other vertebrates for these metals. However, calcium and calcium:phosphorus ratios of worms were deficient and did not improve after being offered fortified diets. Insufficient calcium in the diets, unpalatability of food and habituation effects also potentially contributed to this result. Unless better means of improving calcium content of Dendrobaena can be developed, husbandry professionals should be circumspect in their use of this species in a diet and ensure that dietary items with sufficient calcium are also provided.
Significance
Chytridiomycosis has resulted in the serious decline and extinction of >200 species of amphibians worldwide and poses the greatest threat to biodiversity of any known disease. This fungal disease is currently known to be caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , hitherto the only species within the entire phylum of the Chytridiomycota known to parasitize vertebrate hosts. We describe the discovery of a second highly divergent, chytrid pathogen, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp. nov., that causes lethal skin infections in salamanders, which has resulted in steep declines in salamander populations in northwestern Europe. Our finding provides another explanation for the phenomenon of amphibian biodiversity loss that is emblematic of the current global biodiversity crisis.
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a pathogenic chytrid fungus implicated in worldwide amphibian declines, is considered an amphibian specialist. Identification
of nonamphibian hosts could help explain the virulence, heterogeneous distribution, variable rates of spread, and persistence
of B. dendrobatidis in freshwater ecosystems even after amphibian extirpations. Here, we test whether mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) and crayfish (Procambarus spp. and Orconectes virilis), which are syntopic with many amphibian species, are possible hosts for B. dendrobatidis. Field surveys in Louisiana and Colorado revealed that zoosporangia occur within crayfish gastrointestinal tracts, that B. dendrobatidis prevalence in crayfish was up to 29%, and that crayfish presence in Colorado wetlands was a positive predictor of B. dendrobatidis infections in cooccurring amphibians. In experiments, crayfish, but not mosquitofish, became infected with B. dendrobatidis, maintained the infection for at least 12 wk, and transmitted B. dendrobatidis to amphibians. Exposure to water that previously held B. dendrobatidis also caused significant crayfish mortality and gill recession. These results indicate that there are nonamphibian hosts for
B. dendrobatidis and suggest that B. dendrobatidis releases a chemical that can cause host pathology, even in the absence of infection. Managing these biological reservoirs
for B. dendrobatidis and identifying this chemical might provide new hope for imperiled amphibians.
Studies that assess current and historical population densities accurately provide valuable information for management of wildlife species, particularly those in need of immediate conservation concern. The Eastern Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) has experienced drastic declines throughout its range during the previous few decades. This study documents its continued decline over the past 25 years in the last known remaining population in southern Indiana. We conducted mark–recapture surveys from June 2008 to October 2008 and July 2009 to September 2009 at 35 sites. Despite a considerable increase in effort over previous surveys, we documented fewer total captures and extremely low population densities. Density was estimated at 0.06 individuals/100 m2, and catch per unit effort was 0.05 individuals/person hour throughout the entire study area. This represents not only a significant decline in numbers from the historical study, but also is well below that reported for populations throughout the species' range. Sex ratios were skewed significantly toward males (2.6 males 1 female). No subadults or larvae were found, and only two nests were located. This population consists almost exclusively of large, older-age class individuals that show limited signs of reproduction.
We documented abnormalities of Ozark hellbender {Cryptobranchus alleganiensis bishopi) populations in the Eleven Point River (Randolph County, Arkansas) and the Spring River (Fulton County, Arkansas) as part ofongoing monitoring efforts in this species. We found abnormalities in 90% (9 of 10) and 40% (36 of 97) of hellbenders in the Spring River and Eleven Point River, respectively, during the 2003-2004 field seasons. Most abnormalities found inEleven Point hellbenders were generally less invasive and seemed to be more intrinsic to the species' natural history (i.e., vicissitudes of living), whereas those found in Spring River hellbenders were gross morphological aberrations. We compared the type and rate of observed abnormalities with those found in museum vouchers collected from the Spring River between 1970 and 1975. Abnormalities were found in 12.5% of the museum specimens from our Spring River localities. This rate is much higher than previously reported for hellbenders. The increase in the abnormality rate appears to be concurrent with the documented population decline observed in the Spring River. Our study illustrates an increasing trend of hellbenders exhibiting unusual morphological problems (e.g., epidermal papillomas, extreme abrasions/lacerations, fungal infections, etc.) and also stresses the need for inclusion of abnormalities observed in field data. The causes of hellbender abnormalities remain speculative; however, plausible explanations may be related to intraspecific interactions, anthropogenic interactions with the microhabitat, viral infections, non-point/point source pollution, and the preponderance of older individuals. These findings emphasize the need for a proactive conservation effort within this species.
Extant amphibians comprise three lineages-- salamanders (Urodela or Caudata), frogs and toads (Anura), and caecilians (Gymnophiona, Apoda, or Caecilia)--which contain more than 6,000 species. Fewer than a dozen species of amphibians are commonly maintained in laboratory colonies, and the husbandry requirements for the vast majority of amphibians are poorly known. For these species, a review of basic characteristics of amphibian biology supplemented by inferences drawn from the morphological and physiological characteristics of the species in question provides a basis for decisions about housing and feeding. Amphibians are ectotherms, and their skin is permeable to water, ions, and respiratory gases. Most species are secretive and, in many cases, nocturnal. The essential characteristics of their environment include appropriate levels of humidity, temperature, and lighting as well as retreat sites. Terrestrial and arboreal species require moist substrates, water dishes, and high relative humidity. Because temperature requirements for most species are poorly known, it is advisable to use a temperature mosaic that will allow an animal to find an appropriate temperature within its cage. Photoperiod may affect physiology and behavior (especially reproduction and hibernation), and although the importance of ultraviolet light for calcium metabolism by amphibians is not yet known, ecological observations suggest that it might be important for some species of frogs. Some amphibians are territorial, and some use olfactory cues to mark their territory and to recognize other individuals of their species. All amphibians are carnivorous as adults, and the feeding response of many species is elicited by the movement of prey. Diets should include a mixture of prey species, and it may be advisable to load prey with vitamins and minerals.
The capacity of cetyl trimethylammonium bromide to dissolve proteins in acid solution has been utilized in development of a method, called acid-detergent fiber method (ADF), which is not only a fiber determination in itself but also the major preparatory step in the determination of lignin. The entire procedure for determining fiber and lignin is considerably more rapid than presently published methods. Compositional studies show ADF to consist chiefly of lignin and polysaccharides. Correlations with the new fiber method and digestibility of 18 forages (r = —0.79) showed it to be somewhat superior to crude fiber (r = —0.73) in estimating nutritive value. The correlation of the new lignin method and digestibility was —0.90 when grass and legume species were separated.
The hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) is an imperiled salamander that has experienced declines in many parts of its range. Little knowledge of the general ecology of the larval stage exists because studies including all stage classes, particularly larvae, are rare. In 2000, a brief study in Great Smoky Mountains National Park discovered a population of C. alleganiensis where larvae were regularly encountered and few adults were captured. The authors of the 2000 study hypothesized that the size structure of hellbenders in Little River, Tennessee was potentially influenced by differences in larval hellbender habitat and crayfish abundance from other studied localities due to the geologic structure of the streambed. To further investigate this hypothesis, this study examined three main components: trends in hellbender population structure, microhabitat use of hellbender stage classes within Little River, and body condition of hellbenders in rivers with different crayfish abundances. Diurnal skin diving surveys were conducted in the summer and early fall months of 2008-2010 to locate hellbenders and collect habitat, morphometric, and diet data. Surveys conducted since 2000 in Little River suggest that the hellbender population appears stable, with abundant larvae and regular recruitment. The number of larvae in Little River appears to be much higher than in most studied hellbender populations. Flooding induced mortality of larvae may affect long-term population structure in Little River due to the influence of stream geomorphology on larval habitat use. Of the habitat variables measured during this survey, only shelter size appears to differ among stage classes, with larvae utilizing smaller shelters on average than adults and sub-adults. Very coarse gravel was positively associated with hellbender occupancy in Little River. Abundance of crayfish, based on crayfish relative frequencies, correlated to overall body condition of hellbenders in the three rivers examined. Stomach samples collected from larvae suggest that hellbenders experience an ontogenetic shift in diet, with young individuals primarily consuming aquatic insect larvae. These results help fill in knowledge gaps regarding the larval stage of the hellbender, as well as highlight the potential impacts of stream geomorphology on the ecology of a hellbender population.
Evaluations were made of >4000 reptiles maintained in captive situations to assess numerous abnormal behaviours and any related environmental and other influences. Certain behavioural restrictions warrant concern because they result in physical injuries while others are primarily related to inhibited ethological expression; this paper concentrates on the latter. Hyperactivity, hypoactivity, persecution from other occupants, disposition-related environmental temperature preference, interaction with transparent boundaries and aggression are a few examples of abnormal behaviours resulting from concept- and design-deficient artificial environments, and all may be related to poor adaptability and environmentally induced trauma. It is probable that the adaptability of reptiles to unnatural environments is substantially compromised by the fundamental biological principle of their innate education system which results in greatly reduced susceptibility to other educative influences.The importance of a sound knowledge of a species natural life style (wherever possible prior to their acquisition) is to be emphasised if preventative action regarding abnormal behaviour and evaluations of current problems are to be thoroughly addressed. Very little work has been done on this subject probably because natural behaviours of reptiles may present observational difficulties and because “lower” vertebrates are often perceived as being highly adaptable to captivity and thus warrant low priority.
We conducted a tag and release study of the Ozark hellbender along a 26 km stretch of the Spring River from mid-July through mid-November, 1991, to determine current population levels. Salamanders were collected by hand with the aid of scuba diving equipment. Thirteen visits (36 dive hrs.) to 10 selec!OO access sites yielded 20 animals. Compared to previously published data of the early 1980's which indcated large, striving populations of C. bishopi (in some cases, > 300 individuals) in the Spring River, our study found perilously low numbers of salamanders. This drastic decline may be attributed to overcollection of specimens for scientific or other purposes and habitat alteration related to recreational activities. Other contributing factors for this dedine could be the inadventent killing of animals dJring human activity (seining, swimming, canoeing, and fishing), the elimination of riparian habitats leading to an increase in the silt burden, and water pollution associated with human occupation and development along the river. IN1RODUCIlON� River in Arkansas. Peterson (1985) confirmed the presence of these large aggregates while performing a mark and recapture on two populations in The Ozark hellbender, Cryplobranchus bishopi, is a large, long-lived, the Spring River from 1980 to 1982; he captured and tagged 370 animals.
Studies that document changes in long-lived species are valuable in determining how demographic and environmental changes are affecting populations. This study documents apparent declines in Eastern Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) populations over the last 20 years in the Allegheny River drainage of New York State. We compared current mark–recapture data to similar data collected in the 1980s at eight sites using a comparable method of capture (rock turning). In addition, we employed several other methods of capture including trapping, bank searching, and night lighting. Despite these extra efforts, the number of Hellbenders captured was less than the number captured historically. Hellbenders were extirpated from a single site and the ecological density (number of individuals per 10 m2 of habitable area) decreased in several other sites relative to the 1980s. Current and historical populations contained more mature adults than juveniles, but we found more Hellbenders <20 cm total length at five sites compared to the 1980s study. The sex ratio changed from predominantly female in the 1980s to predominantly male currently. Eggs in nests were found in both studies, although little is known about egg or larval survival and overall recruitment. Although demographic issues such as reproduction and recruitment may be contributing to Hellbender declines in the Allegheny drainage, these do not appear to have changed drastically from the 1980s. Other possible causes of decline include factors such as land use changes, introduced species, or some other environmental issue.
The aim of this study was to determine the chemical composition of eight invertebrate species and evaluate their suitability as alternative prey. The species selected were rusty red cockroaches (Blatta lateralis), six-spotted cockroaches (Eublaberus distanti), Madagascar hissing cockroaches (Gromphadorhina portentosa), fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), false katydids (Microcentrum rhombifolium), beetles of the mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), and superworm beetles (Zophobas morio), as well as woodlice (Porcellio scaber). Dry matter (DM), crude protein, crude fat, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, ash, macro and trace minerals, vitamins A and E, and carotenoid concentrations were quantified. Significant differences were found between species. Crude protein content ranged from 38 to 76% DM, fat from14 to 54% DM, and ash from 2 to 8% DM. In most species, calcium:phosphorus was low (0.08–0.30:1); however, P. scaber was an exception (12:1) and might prove useful as a dietary source of calcium for insectivores. Vitamin E content was low for most species (6–16 mg/kg DM), except for D. melanogaster and M. rhombifolium (112 and 110 mg/kg DM). The retinol content, as a measure of vitamin A activity, was low in all specimens, but varied greatly among samples (0.670–886 mg/kg DM). The data presented can be used to alter diets to better suit the estimated requirements of insectivores in captivity. Future research on the topic of composition of invertebrate prey species should focus on determination of nutrient differences owing to species, developmental stage, and diet. Zoo Biol 31:40;–54, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Accurate assessment of whether long-lived species are stable or declining is challenging. Life history characteristics such as delayed maturity result in relatively slow population responses to perturbations, so data should be collected across a relatively long time span. Because differential effects on age classes can be important, studies should also examine potential changes in the population's age structure. Moreover, multiple populations should be studied to indicate whether changes are regional or are restricted to local populations. We incorporated all three factors (long duration, multiple populations, age structure data) into our study of the conservation status of a long-lived aquatic salamander, the hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis. Over the 20+ years of this study, populations of hellbenders declined by an average of about 77%. This decline was characterized by a shift in size (age) structure, with a disproportionate decrease in numbers of young individuals. The change in density and age structure was consistent for populations in five rivers and for two subspecies (C. a. alleganiensis and C. a. bishopi), indicating that the decline is not restricted to one or two local populations. For the population with the most extensive data, the decline had clearly begun by the 1980s and there was a significant decrease in body condition over the period of the study. It is not known whether population declines for hellbenders have a single cause or whether each population has experienced independent declines.
This article reviews the solids NMR research conducted on insect sclerotized structures in the last 10 years and previews some of the experiments that will be conducted in the future. Solids NMR has been used as a noninvasive approach to investigate the chemical compositions of, and some covalent interactions that occur in, several types of sclerotized structures that are otherwise highly intractable to conventional chemical analyses. Sclerotization is a complex process used by insects to confer stability and mechanical versatility to their cuticular exoskeletons and certain other proteinaceous structures. Samples analyzed include cuticular exoskeletons, egg cases, egg shells, cocoons and peritrophic membranes. Cross polarization, dipolar decoupling, magic angle spinning, magnetization dephasing, and isotropic enrichment were used to obtain high resolution spectra that provide information about the types and relative concentrations of carbon atoms as well as internuclear distances and covalent bonds between carbon and nitrogen atoms. Relative amounts of protein, chitin, catechols, lipids, pigment, and oxalate were estimated. Covalent interactions between protein nitrogens and catechol carbons were detected in the stiff brown pupal cuticle of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta. The results of these solids NMR studies support the hypothesis that sclerotization of insect structures occurs primarily when quinones derived from N-acylcatecholamines form cross-links and adducts with functional groups of proteins deposited in the structures. Future applications of solids NMR will utilize advanced techniques for further probing the covalent interactions of 13C, 15N and 17O-labeled catechols, chitin and protein in sclerotized structures.
Amphibians and reptiles are a diverse group with stringent demands for suitable management. All are ectothermic and heterothermic. To simplify nutritional assessment, reptiles and amphibians can be grouped into broad categories as carnivores, herbivores, and omnivores. Imbalanced diets and poor feeding management often lead to nutritional disease in captive species. The more common nutritional disorders include metabolic bone disease from deficiencies of calcium and vitamin D3, hypovitaminosis A, visceral and articular gout from dehydration, and starvation from calorie deficits. Nutritional support aids reptiles and amphibians that have medical or surgical problems.
A variety of invertebrates are commonly fed to insectivorous animals by both zoos and hobbyists, but information as to the nutrient composition of most commercially raised species is limited. Adult house crickets, house cricket nymphs (Acheta domesticus), superworms (Zophobas morio larvae), giant mealworm larvae, mealworm larvae and adult mealworms (Tenebrio molitor), waxworm larvae (Galleria mellonella), and silkworm larvae (Bombyx mori) were analyzed for moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash, acid detergent fiber (ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), minerals, amino acids, fatty acids, and vitamins. Earthworms (Lumbricus terresstris) were analyzed for moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash, ADF, NDF, minerals, amino acids, and vitamins A and D3. Proximate analyses were variable, with wide ranges found for moisture (57.9–83.6%), crude protein (9.3–23.7%), crude fat (1.6–24.9%), ADF (0.1–7.4%), NDF (0.0–11.5%), and ash (0.6–1.2%). Energy content ranged from a low of 674 kcal/kg for silkworms to 2,741 kcal/kg for waxworms.Using an amino acid scoring pattern for rats, the first limiting amino acid for all invertebrates tested was the total sulfur amino acid methionine+cystine. Deficiencies by nutrient (% of samples deficient vs. NRC requirements for rats on a dry matter (DM) basis) were as follows: calcium (100%), vitamin D3 (100%), vitamin A (89%), vitamin B12 (75%), thiamin (63%), vitamin E (50%), iodine (44%), manganese (22%), methionine-cystine (22%), and sodium (11%). Deficiencies by invertebrate species (number of nutrients deficient vs. the NRC requirements for rats on a DM basis) were as follows: waxworms (9), superworms (8), giant mealworm larvae (7), adult mealworms (6), mealworm larvae (5), adult house crickets (4), house cricket nymphs (4), silkworms (4), and earthworms (4). These data provide a basis for determining nutrient intake of captive insectivores, and will aid in the development of gut-loading diets to provide captive insectivorous animals with appropriate levels of necessary nutrients.
The transmission of nematode parasites of vertebrates is reviewed with special reference to the phenomena of monoxeny, heteroxeny, paratenesis, and precocity. Monoxeny is divided into 2 types. Primary monoxeny assumes that there was never an intermediate host in the transmission. Secondary monoxeny assumes the loss of an intermediate host during the course of evolution and its replacement by a tissue phase in the final host. Heteroxeny, or the use of intermediate hosts, is a common feature of many nematode groups. The Spirurida utilize arthropods, the Metastrongyloidea molluscs, and Ascaridida arthropods and vertebrates. Paratenesis, or the use of transport hosts, is a common feature of the transmission of nematode parasites of carnivores. It is postulated that in some instances paratenic hosts have become intermediate hosts and replaced the original intermediate host. Precocity in the development of nematodes in intermediate hosts (including what may have been paratenic hosts) is defined as growth and/or development beyond the expected. Its occurrence among the nematode parasites of vertebrates is reviewed. It is regarded as a transmission strategy which accelerates gamete production in the final host. Precocity could also provide the mechanism for the transfer of a parasite from a predator final host to a prey final host.
The development and refinement of amphibian medicine comprise an ongoing science that reflects the unique life history of these animals and our growing knowledge of amphibian diseases. Amphibians are notoriously fastidious in terms of captive care requirements, and the majority of diseases of amphibians maintained in captivity will relate directly or indirectly to husbandry and management. Investigators have described many infectious and noninfectious diseases that occur among various species of captive and wild amphibians, and there is considerable overlap in the diseases of captive versus free-ranging populations. In this article, some of the more commonly reported infectious and noninfectious diseases as well as their etiological agents and causative factors are reviewed. Some of the more common amphibian diseases with bacterial etiologies include bacterial dermatosepticemia or "red leg syndrome," flavobacteriosis, mycobacteriosis, and chlamydiosis. The most common viral diseases of amphibians are caused by the ranaviruses, which have an impact on many species of anurans and caudates. Mycotic and mycotic-like organisms cause a number of diseases among amphibians, including chytridiomycosis, zygomycoses, chromomycoses, saprolegniasis, and ichthyophoniasis. Protozoan parasites of amphibians include a variety of amoeba, ciliates, flagellates, and sporozoans Common metazoan parasites include various myxozoans, helminths (particularly trematodes and nematodes), and arthropods. Commonly encountered noninfectious disease etiologies for amphibians include neoplasia, absolute or specific nutritional deficiencies or overloads, chemical toxicities, and inadequate husbandry or environmental management.
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