Content uploaded by Tim Lomas
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Tim Lomas on Dec 29, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
143
Positive developmental psychology: A review of literature concerning
well-being throughout the lifespan
Pozitif gelişimsel psikoloji: Yaşam boyu iyi oluşla ilgili literatür taraması
Tim Lomas
1
, Kate Hefferon
2
, Itai Ivtzan
3
Abstract
As positive psychology has matured as a discipline, sub-fields have emerged focusing on particular areas,
including a number concentrating on specific life stages. These include positive parenting, positive education,
positive youth development, and positive aging. However, until now, there has not been a systematic appreciation
of these various developmental paradigms, nor an attempt to consider them as a whole. As such, the current paper
introduces the overarching notion of positive developmental psychology, an umbrella term encompassing these
intersecting developmental disciplines. The paper offers a narrative review of selected literature within these areas
– highlighting key theoretical concepts, empirical studies and applied interventions – doing so through the prism
of a multidimensional framework. Thus the paper provides a synthesis of the wealth of theory and research within
positive developmental psychology, offering a much-needed overview of this burgeoning new field, and setting
out a comprehensive research agenda for the years ahead.
Keywords: Developmental psychology, positive parenting, positive education, positive youth development,
positive aging
Özet
Pozitif psikoloji geliştikçe, belirli yaşam evrelerinin de dahil olduğu, spesifik alanlara odaklanan alt dallar ortaya
çıkmıştır. Bunlar pozitif ebeveynlik, pozitif eğitim, pozitif gençlik gelişimi ve pozitif yaşlamayı kapsıyor. Fakat
şimdiye kadar bu gelişimsel paradigmalar sistematik bir şekilde gözden geçirilmedi ya da bütünüyle ele alınmadı.
Bu nedenle bu çalışma pozitif gelişimsel psikolojiyi kapsayıcı bir kavram ve bu kesişen gelişimsel disiplinleri
birleştiren bir çatı terim olarak ortaya koyuyor. Mevcut çalışma bu alanlardan seçilmiş olan literatürün anlatımsal
taramasını anahtar teorik kavramların, deneysel çalışmaların ve uygulanan müdahalelerin altını çizerek çok
boyutlu çerçeveden bakarak sunuyor. Böylelikle çalışma yeni gelişen bir alanın çok gerekli olan kısa gözden
geçirmesini, gelecek için kapsamlı bir araştırma ajandası ortaya koyarak pozitif gelişimsel psikoloji alanında
zengin teori ve araştırmaların sentezini sunuyor.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Gelişimsel psikoloji, pozitif ebeveynlik, pozitif eğitim, pozitif geçlik gelişimi, pozitif
yaşlanma
1
University of East London, Department of Psychology, Stratford Campus, London. E-mail: t.lomas@uel.ac.uk
2
University of East London, Department of Psychology, Stratford Campus, London
3
University of East London, Department of Psychology, Stratford Campus, London
Received: 20.06.2016 Accepted: 22.08.2016
© The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being (JHW)
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
144
Introduction
As positive psychology has developed, sub-fields have emerged focusing on particular areas of
interest. Among these are disciplines concentrating upon specific life stages. There is a nascent
literature on positive parenting (Latham, 1994), which approaches children’s wellbeing by focusing on
the role of parents/caregivers. Positive education – arguably the most prominent of these
developmental paradigms – looks at flourishing in the context of school (Seligman et al., 2009). At a
slightly later age, we have ‘positive youth development’ (Larson, 2000), addressing the potentially
turbulent waters of adolescence and early adulthood. Finally, at the end of the existential journey, we
find ‘positive aging’ (Tornstam, 2005), which aims to add “more life to years, not just more years to
life” (Vaillant, 2004, p.561). We might group all these paradigms together under the overarching label
of ‘positive developmental psychology’ (PDP). Much of the empirical and theoretical work of concern
to PDP has been on-going for years, pre-dating the emergence of positive psychology itself;
nevertheless, PDP does offer a new conceptual and discursive space where literature focusing on the
wellbeing aspects of development can be systematically brought together.
The current paper, then, offers a narrative summary of PDP – including key theories, studies, and
applied interventions – drawing on the subfields elucidated above. To do this, the paper will explore
the various life stages through the prism of a multidimensional framework for conceptualizing
wellbeing, the LIFE (Layered Integrated Framework Example) model (Lomas et al., 2015). In contrast
to most other multidimensional models – such as Engel’s (1977) biopsychosocial medical paradigm –
the LIFE model identifies four main ontological domains of the person. While acknowledging the
distinction between subjective ‘mind’ and objective ‘body/brain’ (as per Engel), it also separates the
collective ‘social’ dimension of Engel’s model into subjective (or ‘intersubjective) and objective (or
‘interobjective’). The former can be referred to as ‘culture,’ encompassing shared language and
worldviews, while the latter can be termed ‘society,’ and pertains to the material and structural
scaffolding of these networks (e.g., economic systems).
The LIFE model provides further nuance to our multidimensional understanding of the person,
and their wellbeing, by stratifying the four dimensions into five layers/levels. (The choice of five is
just a heuristic. One could stratify each dimension into fewer or more levels according to one’s
priorities. Thus, the model is just one ‘example’ of stratification, hence the name.) The mind is
differentiated into embodied sensations, emotions, cognitions, conscious awareness, and ‘awareness+’
(advanced states of consciousness). The body is deconstructed into biochemistry, neurons, neural
networks, the nervous system, and the body as a whole. Finally, culture and society are both stratified
using Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological systems theory (into microsystems, mesosystems,
exosystems, macrosystems), plus an additional outer layer of the global environmental exosystem.
(See Lomas (2015) for a more detailed examination of this socio-cultural stratification, labelled as
‘Positive Social Psychology.’) The dimensions and levels of the LIFE model are shown in figure 1
below.
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
145
Figure 1. The Layered Integrated Framework Example (LIFE) model
The LIFE model offers a meta-theoretical ‘map’ of the person, and their wellbeing. Each level
within each dimension encompasses the various ‘aspects’ of wellbeing, from the subjective (e.g.,
positive affect) to the objective (e.g., neurotransmitter levels) to the intersubjective (e.g., interpersonal
trust) to the interobjective (e.g., socioeconomic status). This model can be used to understand the ways
in which wellbeing is manifested and experienced across the lifespan. Thus, in this paper, the aim is to
introduce a synchronic element to the LIFE model, exploring it through the prism of a lifespan
perspective. This aim is in keeping with Bronfenbrenner’s systems theory (which helped form the
basis of the LIFE model), as a key aspect of his model was the ‘chronosystem,’ defined as ‘change or
consistency over time not only in the characteristics of the person but also of the environment in which
that person lives’ (Bronfenbrenner, 1994, p.1646).
In this paper, a chronosystem perspective will be applied to the LIFE model by considering the
four dimensions in turn (body, mind, then culture and society together), with each differentiated into
their five levels, exploring research and interventions aimed at promoting wellbeing at each of these
levels. For each level, there will be a sense of progression through the lifespan, focusing on five broad
phases: infancy, childhood, youth, adulthood, and aging. The relevant literature is so vast that rather
than provide a comprehensive summary of all relevant theories and research – far beyond the scope of
any paper – the paper will simply alight on indicative research in the respective areas to show the
scope of enquiry in PDP. Even then, just highlighting exemplars in this way, in order to cover all the
‘bases’ there are 75 different strands of research, given that there are four dimensions, each with five
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
146
levels, each of which can be considered with respect to five life stages. As such, the paper merely
offers an illustrative birds-eye review, capturing the vast sweep of enquiry that constitutes PDP.
Body
We begin by considering the ‘objective’ dimension of the body, i.e. physiological functioning and
behaviour. This is differentiated into five levels – biochemistry, neurons, neural networks, the nervous
system, and the body as a whole – which are considered in turn.
Biochemistry
Although in one sense the entire body is a biochemical entity, biochemistry is used in the LIFE model
to refer to all subcellular components and processes, like DNA. Research here relates to what Narvaez
and Gleason (2013) refer to as ‘developmental optimization,’ which examines ‘the complex
interactions among genes, environment, critical periods, the timing, intensity, and duration of
experiences and their contexts’ in order to explore their ‘interrelationships and effects on the
functioning of brain and body systems.’ Beginning with the antenatal and perinatal phases, as the
baby’s wellbeing is ‘inextricably linked’ to the health of the mother (Darmstadt, Donnay, & Starrs,
2013, p.1), we find a wealth of recommendations for healthy antenatal practices. These include
suggestions around nutritional substances which impact upon the physiology of the mother, and
consequently upon the embryonic child (NHS, 2014a, 2014b). Nutrition is equally important post-
birth; for instance, breast milk contains active biological compounds that support the development of
the infant's immune system (Niers et al., 2007). Progressing through infancy and childhood, a notable
line of work has been on the biochemistry of maternal bonding, particularly the role of oxytocin (see
IsHak et al. (2011) for a review). As children move into adolescence, overall morbidity and mortality
increases by 200% in adolescence (compared to early school age), principally due to ‘difficulties in the
control of behaviour and emotion’ (Dahl, 2004, p.3). As such, it is relevant that there is a genetic
component to the extent to which adolescents are susceptible to parental influence vis-à-vis such
adaptive self-regulation (Belsky & Beaver, 2011). Moving into adulthood, work has explored the
genetic contribution to wellbeing, such as Lykken and Tellegen’s (1996) analysis, which suggested
around 44–52% of the variance in subjective wellbeing is associated with genetic variation. Finally,
Gatz et al. (1992) found that the genetic contribution to emotional wellbeing appears to actually
increase into older age.
Neurons
The next emergent level in the LIFE model are neurons. Relevant work here falls generally within the
‘neural correlates of consciousness’ paradigm, which explores ‘neural systems and properties of those
systems’ (Fell, 2004, p.709), and more specifically, within the ‘neural correlates of wellbeing’ subfield
(Urry et al., 2004, p.376). In infancy, there is work around the factors supporting synaptogenesis, like
‘affectively laden attachment communications’ between mother and child, which drive an epigenetic
relational process of ‘experience-dependent maturation’ (Schore, 2013, pp.35-36). Into childhood,
research on neuroplasticity includes analyses of the impact of stress, which can increase the growth of
the amygdala, but hinder the development of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (Davidson &
McEwen, 2012). The brain continues to develop throughout adolescence, with peaks in grey matter
volume around age 11-12, reflecting dendritic overproduction, followed by selective pruning (Spear,
2000). Factors affecting this process include maternal responsiveness in childhood (Frye et al., 2010).
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
147
Into adulthood, a prominent line of enquiry (which also pertains to all other ages) is the impact of
neurotransmitter levels upon wellbeing, such as serotonin (Ferguson, 2001) and endorphins (Boecker
et al., 2008). Finally, entering older age, a promising area of research is on activities, e.g., meditation,
that help prevent or slow age-related cortical thinning in areas of the brain associated with attention
and executive function (Lazar et al., 2005).
Neural networks
The next level is neural networks, which reflect the notion that mental states are produced by the
interaction of areas distributed throughout the brain (Fell, 2004). In infancy, the newborn’s
undifferentiated neural systems depend on environmental cues, such as responsiveness and synchrony
within the caregiver-infant dyad, to support the maturation of neural connections (Pickler et al., 2010).
Lines of enquiry includes analysis of mirror neuron system during mother-infant interaction (Lenzi et
al., 2009), or the way oxytocin exerts its bonding effects by modulating affiliation-related neural
networks (Bora et al., 2009). Still in childhood, Davidson’s (2000) linkage between wellbeing and left-
sided hemispheric asymmetry has been found at this age too (Light et al. 2009). Adolescence brings
further development of neural networks, including circuits pertaining to intentionality and perspective-
taking, which underpin social cognition and skills (Güroğlu et al., 2009). Other intriguing analyses
include functional neuroimaging studies of loci underpinning feelings of love (Beauregard et al.,
2009). Analyses of the impact of aging on neural networks include St. Jacques et al. (2010), who found
age-related differences in the functional connectivity of the amygdala with the rest of the brain, such as
greater connectivity with the anterior cingulate cortex in older adults, possibly reflecting greater
emotional regulation.
Nervous system
Encompassing neural networks is the broader nervous system. In infancy, relevant research includes
studies on the vagus nerve (which helps regulate the autonomic nervous system); for instance,
Doussard-Roosevelt et al. (1997) found that vagal activity predicted developmental outcomes in low
birthweight infants. Moreover, Feldman et al. (2010) found that maternal touch during a stressful task
helped increase infants’ vagal tone, and reduced cortisol levels. Into childhood, Bothe et al. (2014)
report the positive lasting impact of a school-based stress management course (involving biofeedback
training) on anxiety and heart-rate variability (an index of vagal activity). Other relevant analyses
include the beneficial effects of exercise on physiological measures such as blood pressure and
respiration across age ranges, including children (Murphy et al., 2009), adolescents (Rocchini et al.,
1988), adults (Mueller, 2007) and older adults (Turner et al., 2011).
The body
The final tier is the body ‘as a whole,’ which encompasses generic health-related factors and activities,
from nutrition to sleep. In infancy, eating behaviour may impact upon weight later in life, with
protective factors against future obesity including breastfeeding (Koletzko et al., 2009) and parenting
styles that help infants regulate food intake (Epstein, 1996). Moreover, childhood obesity may also
adversely impact aspects of psychological wellbeing, such as self-esteem; as such, interventions to
promote healthy eating in childhood have been found to enhance both physical and psychological
health (see De Bourdeaudhuij et al. (2011) for a review). Research has also highlighted the importance
of restorative sleep patterns to the wellbeing of infants and young children (Smaldone et al., 2007).
Moving into adolescence, emergent pressures that affect adolescents include differential sleep pattern
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
148
needs (Boergers et al., 2014), and new barriers to exercise participation, such as alcohol use (Tappe et
al., 1989). Into adulthood, research on the toll that work takes on the body has generated
recommendations around healthy practices, such as regulations to limit excessive working hours
(Sparks et al., 2013). Finally, factors that promote healthy aging include refraining from smoking or
alcohol abuse, maintaining a healthy weight, and engaging in regular exercise, as well as non-physical
factors such as marriage and education (Vaillant, 2004). Here we also see interventions tailored for
older adults, such as including physical activity initiatives (see King et al. (1998) for a review).
Mind
The ‘subjective’ dimension of the mind refers to subjective experiences of wellbeing, and to
psychological skills that help to promote wellbeing. This is differentiated into five levels: embodiment,
emotions, cognition, consciousness and awareness+.
Embodiment
Embodiment refers to ‘the subjectivity of the lived body’ (Turner, 2001, p.253), and to the related
notion of body awareness, an ‘overall concept for experience and use of the body, representing body
consciousness, body management and deepened body experience’ (Roxendale, 1985, p.10). In infancy,
research on embodiment focuses on the importance of touch, particularly since in Piaget’s (1971)
theory of cognitive development, learning during the initial sensorimotor stage proceeds primarily
through exploratory tactile engagement with the world. The importance of parental touch at this stage
is illustrated by interventions, like moderate-pressure massage, which can help accelerate the cognitive
and emotional development of pre-term and low birth weight babies (Field et al., 2010). Into
childhood, there is work around the value of increasing children’s awareness and understanding of
their bodies, e.g., through yoga, which can be helpful for children with emotional and behavioural
issues who may be resistant to more cognitive interventions (Steiner et al., 2013). In adolescence,
different pressures relating to embodiment arise; for instance, girls in particular may face pressures to
adopt unrealistic standards of beauty that can lead to problematic relationships with one’s body; as
such, initiatives have been developed to help young people cultivate more adaptive embodied identities
(Yarnal et al., 2006). Into adulthood, activities enabling people to explore their embodiment in positive
ways include yoga (Rani & Rao, 1994) and Pilates (Latey, 2001). These continue to be relevant into
old age, although modifications may be needed to render these suitable; an effective intervention in
this regard is Tai Chi, which as well as being relatively gentle, is also helpful for maintaining balance,
which is particularly vital in older age (Wolfson et al., 1996).
Emotions
In this level, the focus is not so much on emotions as an outcome (which arguably applies to all of
PDP), but with emotional skills and processes that are conducive to wellbeing, such as emotional
regulation (Gross, 1999) and resilience (Werner, 1993). The development of emotional regulation
begins in infancy, with parental interaction taking a crucial role, particularly through actions such as
mirroring (Feldman et al., 1999). There is also a large literature on the development of resiliency in
childhood, much of which stems from Werner’s (1993) longitudinal work, in which the key factors
include a positive self-concept, a close bond with a caregiver, and a strong support network. We are
also seeing emergent interventions to promote resilience in childhood, which fall under the general
banner of social and emotional learning (SEL) programmes. Among the most prominent and
successful is the Penn Resilience Program (Gillham et al., 1990), although meta-analyses of its
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
149
longitudinal effectiveness are inconclusive (Brunwasser et al., 2009). Overall though, SEL
programmes appear beneficial: a meta-analysis of 213 studies found these were generally successful in
reducing conduct and emotional issues (Durlak et al., 2010). Such initiatives continue to be important
in adolescence, although the challenges addressed often shift according to the needs of the age, such as
violence and substance abuse (Belfield et al., 2015). Into adulthood, there are initiatives to enhance
emotional skills in a work context, like Reivich et al.’s (2011) ‘Master Resilience Training,’ which has
been widely and successfully implemented in the U.S. military (Elbogen et al., 2014). Finally, factors
that enhance resiliency in older age include personal control/self-efficacy and a sense of meaning in
life (Lamond et al., 2008).
Cognition
In the LIFE model, cognition encompasses non-emotional mental functioning, from discursive
thoughts to perceptual processing. Here we can also situate constructs that pertain to ‘character’
(Lickona, 1996), such as morals (Kohlberg, 1981) and strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Pre-
birth, research aims to identify factors linked to the subsequent cognitive development of the infant,
such as the mother’s prenatal stress levels (Buitelaar et al., 2003); likewise, post-birth factors include
the quality of childcare (Burchinal et al., 1996). In childhood, we see initiatives designed to inculcate
cognitive qualities that are beneficial to wellbeing, such programmes in moral values, ethics and
citizenship education (Lickona, 1996). In adolescence, there is an emergent focus on skills relevant to
entering adulthood. For instance, in Oyserman et al.’s (2002) career-orientated intervention, students
contemplate their ideal ‘future selves,’ and are assisted to connect this to current educational
engagement. In adulthood, similar themes recur, again reconfigured to meet the demands of the life
stage. For instance, in the work arena, initiatives include facilitation of strengths, such as Page and
Vella-Brodrick’s (2013) Working for Wellness Program. There is also research stemming from
Erikson’s (1963) and Kohlberg’s (1981) work on psychosocial and moral development throughout the
lifespan. Into older age, retrospectively-focused interventions promote wellbeing by helping people to
develop meaningful life narratives, such as reminiscence therapies (Cook, 1998).
Consciousness
In the LIFE model, consciousness refers to awareness and attention. The development of awareness
and attention skills – most prominently through practices like meditation – can impact upon wellbeing
in multiple ways, such as the self-regulation of emotions (Gross, 1999). As such, there is a wealth of
meditation-based research, adapted for all stages of the lifespan. There are mindfulness-based
interventions (MBIs) for the antenatal period (Vieten & Astin, 2008), childbirth (Sale, 2008), and the
whole perinatal phase (Duncan & Bardacke, 2010), as well as Duncan et al.’s (2009) ‘mindful
parenting,’ which covers childhood more generally. There are likewise MBIs specifically tailored for
educational contexts (see Burnett (2011) for a review), and for adolescents, including vulnerable
subsets like at-risk youth (Himelstein et al., 2012). Into adulthood, there are dozens of MBIs, adapting
Kabat-Zinn’s (1982) prototypical mindfulness-based stress reduction course for both clinical and non-
clinical settings. Finally, mindfulness can help reduce burdens associated with aging, including
ameliorating age-related cognitive decline (Gard et al., 2014), and assisting pain management and
mobility (Morone et al., 2008).
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
150
Awareness+
Finally, ‘awareness+’ features work suggesting that conscious awareness can be superseded by
‘higher’ states/levels of consciousness (cf. Maslow, 1972). It also includes literature on spiritual
experiences and practices, which are seen as conducive to wellbeing (Koenig, 2009). In infancy, some
attention has been paid to spiritual care in nursing, and to the possibility that infants may experience an
age-specific ‘spiritual developmental stage’ (Murphy et al., 2015, p.114). In children, spirituality is
operationalised in an age-specific way, for instance as reflecting the ‘spiritual essence of wonder,’ a
capacity which may be cultivated through make-believe play (Harris, 2014, p.12). Entering
adolescence, spirituality takes on additional beneficial attributes appropriate to that age, like an
association with health behaviours such as abstinence, partly because such spirituality is frequently
intertwined with participation in a religious tradition that contains proscriptions against such
behaviours (Delva et al., 2015). In adulthood, there is a large literature on spirituality, including as a
source of meaning, and a potent resource in coping with adversity (Wachholtz et al., 2007). It is also
argued that spiritual experiences constitute an existential and/or developmental zenith, as encapsulated
by Maslow’s (1972) notion of ‘peak experiences.’ Finally, since spirituality almost always involves
some type of ‘positive’ perspective on mortality (e.g., belief in an afterlife), it can be valuable in older
age, and is a predictor of resilience (Lamond et al., 2008).
Culture & Society
The collective dimensions of the LIFE model, culture and society, are both stratified using
Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) systems theory (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem),
together with an outer tier of the ecosystem. As we proceed through the levels, bear in mind that all
initiatives and factors considered here have an intersubjective aspect (e.g., how the social dimension is
experienced) and an interobjective aspect (e.g., the non-personal scaffolding of this dimension).
Microsystems
The microsystem refers to the immediate social setting of the person, e.g., the family. Such settings
feature a range of relevant factors, from aesthetics to their level of comfort; above all though, of
overriding importance are relationships, arguably the most important contextual factor for wellbeing
(Helliwell & Putnam, 2004). In infancy, the quality of infant-parent relationships is vital for wellbeing
in multiple ways. As outlined above, mother-infant interactions impact upon most aspects of
emotional, cognitive and social development (Schore, 2013), and help establish secure attachments
which are not only beneficial in childhood, but predict wellbeing and development in later life too
(Mikulincer & Shaver, 2013). Moving into childhood, there is recognition of the impact of parenting
styles on wellbeing (Cameron & Maginn, 2011). School is also a key microsystem, with research
highlighting the importance of a positive ‘ethos’ in a school (Wells et al., 2003). Into adolescence, the
‘positive youth’ paradigm (Larson, 2000) highlights the importance of programmes aimed at the needs
of adolescents, such as helping them develop Lerner’s (2009) ‘5 Cs’ – competence, confidence,
connection, character, and caring – through activities like volunteering (Johnson et al., 1998). Into
adulthood, aside from the family, the dominant microsystem is work. Here we see a vast literature on
the importance of good relationships, as reflected in Levering’s (1988) Great Place to Work initiative.
Finally, in older age, other microsystems assume prominence, such as residential homes, the quality of
which markedly impacts on wellbeing (Ballard et al., 2001). As such, there are efforts to encourage the
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
151
design of these homes with quality of life in mind, facilitating factors that contribute to positive aging
like autonomy (Lamond et al., 2008).
Mesosystems
The mesosystem refers to the interaction between microsystems, recognising that people ‘exist in inter-
locking contexts’ which together affect functioning (Sheridan et al., 2004, p.7). In infancy, a key
mesosystem interaction for parents is work-life balance; there is consequently work on the value of
employers providing assistance with childcare (Brandon & Temple, 2007). Into childhood, it is
recognised that school-based interventions are more effective if they also engage with family life. For
instance, adapted the Penn Resilience Program for adults as an adjunct to the school-based programme;
this encouraged parents to develop/use resilience skills and to support their child’s use of these at
home. Likewise, Families and Schools Together – a multifamily intervention in which families attend
the school to participate in joint activities with their children – has been successful on a range of
wellbeing and developmental indices (McDonald et al., 2006). In adolescence, many development
programmes take a mesosystem approach, recognising the multiple contextual influences that affect
youth behaviour and wellbeing (Larson et al., 2004). This is particularly important with at-risk youth,
for whom community assets, like mentoring programmes, are especially vital (Smith, Faulk, et al.,
2013). Into adulthood, the importance of work-life balance for wellbeing has already been highlighted.
Finally, mesosystem consideration in older age include providing community resources to older adults
who are themselves caregivers (Simpson & Lawrence-Webb, 2009).
Exosystems
The exosystem is the wider ‘social structures’ that ‘impinge upon or encompass’ one’s microsystems
(Bronfenbrenner, 1977, p.515), and essentially refers to the community in which one lives/works.
Beginning in infancy, exosystem considerations include community provision of infant care
facilities/services (Baqui et al., 2008) and safe spaces for play and recreation (Farley et al., 2007).
Likewise, research shows the value of providing structured leisure, culture and exercise opportunities
for children and adolescents in the community, such as sports clubs (Fletcher et al., 2003). Entering
adulthood, there is a wide range of community-based initiatives to improve wellbeing, such as the
‘Well London’ project (Phillips et al., 2012). Then, for older adults, quality of life can be enhanced
through interventions such as community-based exercise programmes (Munro et al., 2004), and the
provision of good public services, such as transport and accessible facilities (Cramm et al., 2013).
Macrosystems
The macrosystem refers to ‘overarching institutional patterns’ at a national and international scale,
including ‘economic, social, educational, legal, and political systems’ of which the other levels are
‘concrete manifestations’ (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, p.515). With infancy, a macrosystem perspective is
evident in national/international policies pertaining to infant health and wellbeing, such as nutrition
guidance issued by the World Health Organization and UNICEF (2003). Moving into childhood and
adolescence, all manner of macrosystem analyses are possible. For instance, Embse and Hasson (2012)
highlight the detrimental impact of an intrusive culture of testing in schools, which is associated with
emotional issues like anxiety. Likewise, scholars have argued for systemic policy-level changes to
child-time-structure patterns, e.g., incorporating time for play into the school day (Ginsburg, 2007).
Into adulthood, macrosystemic analyses include assessment of the impact of socioeconomic status
upon wellbeing; for instance, men in the poorest 5th of the population are almost three times more
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
152
likely to suffer a common mental disorder than men in the richest 5th (EHRC, 2011). As such, macro
level attempts to improve wellbeing include policy recommendations such as reducing societal
inequality through redistributive mechanisms like taxes (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2010). Regarding older
age, macrosystemic considerations include the interaction of demographic changes (e.g., in the UK, the
number of people aged over 85 has increased by 30% from 2005 to 2014) and public spending cuts
(funding for care of the elderly in the UK has been reduced by 10% from 2010 to 2014), and
consequently the need for cost-effective ways of meeting the needs of an aging population (Abrahams
et al., 2014).
Ecosystems
Lastly, the LIFE model adds a final tier of the broader ecosystem, reflecting the idea that all other
levels are embedded within a still larger context of the biosphere. Existentially, human wellbeing is
recognised as dependent upon ‘environment wellbeing’ (Smith, Case, et al., 2013). As such, research
situated within this level concerns efforts to promote environmental wellbeing at the various stages of
the lifespan. In infancy, this includes efforts to develop environmentally-friendly childcare products
(Weisbrod & Van Hoof, 2012). In childhood, ‘environmental education’ aims to teach children the
importance of sustainable behaviour (Stevenson, 2007). Entering adolescence, relevant research
includes analysis of factors that enhance environmental behaviours, such as perceived self-efficacy
(Meinhold & Malkus, 2005), and pro-environmental modelling behaviour by parents (Grønhøj &
Thøgersen, 2012). Into adulthood, relevant initiatives include interventions that encourage engagement
with nature, such as gardening (Milligan et al., 2004); and the promotion of environmentally-friendly
behaviours like recycling (Hopper & Nielsen, 1991). Finally, into older age, scholars are incorporating
environmental concerns into research on healthy aging, including notions such as environmental
‘stewardship’ (Wright & Lund, 2000).
Conclusion
The paper has provided a brief tour of PDP, highlighting key theoretical and empirical work that
provides the substance of this new field. It has done so using a multidimensional meta-theoretical
framework, Lomas et al.’s (2015) LIFE model, which provides a conceptual space that allows one to
situate all relevant concepts and work within a particular field, in this case, wellbeing throughout the
lifespan. Such a framework is useful in that it enables one to fully appreciate the vast scope of relevant
literature. While it would be beyond the scope of any paper to outline all relevant research, one can at
least offer an overview of the terrain by highlighting indicative examples of relevant work. This means
not only taking into account the four key ontological dimensions of the person (mind, body, culture
and society), but aiming for an even more nuanced understanding by delineating different levels within
these. Thus, this paper has provided indicative research examples for each of the levels within each of
the domains, and moreover doing so for each of the broad life stages (infancy, childhood, youth,
adulthood, and older age), as encapsulated in Table 1 below.
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
153
Table 1. Table showing indicative research pertaining to life stages, differentiated according to the
dimensions and levels of the LIFE model
Phase
Domain
Level
Indicative research
Infancy
Body
Biochemistry
Role of breast milk in supporting the infant’s immune
system (Niers et al., 2007).
Neurons
Synaptogenesis influenced by maternal wellbeing (Schore,
2013)
Neural networks
Activation of mirror neuron system during mother-infant
interaction (Lenzi et al., 2009)
Nervous system
Vagal tone shaping through caregiver touch (Ruth Feldman
et al., 2010)
Body
The importance of nutrition for development (Niers et al.,
2007)
Mind
Embodiment
Touch interventions (e.g., massage) for pre-term and low
birth weight babies (Field et al., 2010).
Emotions
Learning emotional self-regulation through parental
interaction (R. Feldman et al., 1999)
Cognition
Quality of childcare impacts on cognitive development
(Burchinal et al., 1996)
Consciousness
Peri-natal mindfulness interventions (Duncan & Bardacke,
2010)
Awareness+
The role of spiritual care in infant nursing (M. M. Murphy
et al., 2015)
Culture/
Society
Microsystem
Positive parenting guidelines (Cameron & Maginn, 2011)
Mesosystem
Family provision in the workplace – e.g., childcare
facilities (Brandon & Temple, 2007)
Exosystem
Health impact of provision of infant care facilities and
services in the community (Baqui et al., 2008)
Macrosystem
National/international policies around infant nutrition
(Organization & UNICEF., 2003)
Ecosystem
Development of environmentally-friendly childcare
products (Weisbrod & Van Hoof, 2012)
Childhood
Body
Biochemistry
Role of oxytocin in maternal bonding and child wellbeing
(IsHak et al., 2011)
Neurons
Analysis of stress on neural development and
neuroplasticity (Richard J. Davidson & McEwen, 2012)
Neural networks
link between wellbeing and left-sided hemispheric
asymmetry (Light et al., 2009)
Nervous system
Improvement of heart-rate variability in children through
biofeedback training (Bothe et al., 2014)
Body
Importance of restorative sleep patterns (Smaldone et al.,
2007).
Mind
Embodiment
Yoga for children with emotional and behavioural
problems (Steiner et al., 2013)
Emotions
Penn resilience programme (J. E. Gillham et al., 1990)
Cognition
School based ‘character education’ programmes (Lickona,
1996)
Consciousness
Mindfulness interventions for schoolchildren (Burnett,
2011)
Awareness+
Spirituality in children reflected in experiences of wonder
and imagination (Harris, 2014)
Culture/
Society
Microsystem
School-wide positive education culture-shifts, i.e.,
changing school ‘ethos’ (Wells et al., 2003)
Mesosystem
School-family initiatives – e.g., Families and Schools
Together ((McDonald et al., 1997)
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
154
Exosystem
Provision of safe spaces for play (Farley et al., 2007)
Macrosystem
Systemic time allowances for play in school (Ginsburg,
2007)
Ecosystem
Environmental/sustainability education in schools
(Stevenson, 2007)
Youth
Body
Biochemistry
Genetic influence on the impact of parenting on self-
regulation in adolescence (Belsky & Beaver, 2011)
Neurons
Cortical thickness in adolescence linked to supportive
parenting (Frye et al., 2010)
Neural networks
Development of networks pertaining to intentionality and
perspective-taking (Güroğlu et al., 2009)
Nervous system
Reduced blood relating to exercise (Rocchini et al., 1988)
Body
Altered sleep patterns in adolescence (Boergers et al.,
2014)
Mind
Embodiment
Promoting positive body image and embodiment in
adolescence (Yarnal et al., 2006)
Emotions
Life Skills Training for adolescents (Belfield et al., 2015)
Cognition
Career-based interventions relating to ‘ideal selves’
(Oyserman et al., 2002)
Consciousness
Mindfulness interventions for at-risk youth (Himelstein et
al., 2012)
Awareness+
Spirituality as protective factor for health (e.g., reduced
alcohol use) in adolescence (Delva et al., 2015)
Culture/
Society
Microsystem
Positive youth programmes (R. W. Larson, 2000)
Mesosystem
Impact of linkage to community resources on youth
wellbeing (E. P. Smith et al., 2013)
Exosystem
Positive impact of community youth development
programmes (R. M. Lerner et al., 2005)
Macrosystem
Negative impact of culture of testing (Embse & Hasson,
2012)
Ecosystem
Impact of family behaviour on adolescent attitudes to
environment (Grønhøj & Thøgersen, 2012)
Adulthood
Body
Biochemistry
Genetics may account for up to 50% of the variance of
wellbeing in adulthood (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996)
Neurons
Endorphin release related to exercise (Boecker et al., 2008)
Neural networks
Analysis of the functional neuroanatomy of love
(Beauregard et al., 2009)
Nervous system
Beneficial effects of exercise in on blood pressure and
respiration (Mueller, 2007)
Body
Regulations to limit excessive working hours (Sparks et al.,
2013)
Mind
Embodiment
Body awareness therapies/activities – e.g., Pilates (Latey,
2001)
Emotions
Work-based emotional resilience initiatives (Reivich et al.,
2011)
Cognition
Workplace strengths-based programmes (Page & Vella-
Brodrick, 2013)
Consciousness
Generic mindfulness interventions for adults, e.g., MBSR
(Kabat-Zinn, 1982)
Awareness+
Spirituality as a source of meaning (Wachholtz et al.,
2007).
Culture/
Society
Microsystem
Importance of quality relationships at work (Levering,
1988)
Mesosystem
Promoting work-life balance (Brandon & Temple, 2007)
Exosystem
Community wellbeing interventions for adults (Phillips et
al., 2012)
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
155
Macrosystem
Active labour market programs that aim towards full
employment (Coutts et al., 2014)
Ecosystem
Promotion of environmentally-friendly behaviours, e.g.,
recycling (Hopper & Nielsen, 1991)
Aging
Body
Biochemistry
Genetic contribution to emotional wellbeing appears to
increase in older age (Gatz et al., 1992)
Neurons
Prevention of age-related cortical thinning – e.g., through
meditation (Lazar et al., 2005)
Neural networks
Improved amygdala connectivity with regions involved in
emotional regulation (St. Jacques et al., 2010)
Nervous system
Impact of positive emotions on hypertension in older adults
(Ostir et al., 2006)
Body
Physical activity initiatives for older adults (King et al.,
1998))
Mind
Embodiment
Tai-Chi programmes for older adults to enhance body
awareness (Wolfson et al., 1996)
Emotions
Personal control/self-efficacy enhance resiliency in later
life (Lamond et al., 2008).
Cognition
Reminiscence therapies/interventions (e.g., (Cook, 1998)
Consciousness
Mindfulness interventions for older adults (Morone et al.,
2008).
Awareness+
Spirituality as a predictor of wellbeing in older age (Jahan
& Khan, 2014)
Culture/
Society
Microsystem
Designing care homes with quality of life as a priority
(Ballard et al., 2001)
Mesosystem
Provision of community resources for older adults who are
caregivers (Simpson & Lawrence-Webb, 2009)
Exosystem
Community-based exercise programme for older adults
(Munro et al., 2004)
Macrosystem
Importance of national funding for care of older adults
(Abrahams et al., 2014)
Ecosystem
Incorporating environmental concerns into research on
healthy aging (Wright & Lund, 2000)
In summarising the literature in this way, the paper provides the outlines of a comprehensive
future research agenda. At a minimum, as set out in this paper (and the table), this agenda features 75
lines of enquiry, comprising 15 levels (three dimensions, each with five levels), over five different life
stages. Moreover, the framework allows for far more complexity than is contained in the paper and the
Table. For instance, while each of the 75 lines of enquiry outlined here featured just one or two
indicative pieces of research, there are of course many others that could be explored in that particular
realm. Furthermore, there is no reason to limit the number of lines of enquiry to 75. The choice of five
levels per dimension, and five broad life stages, is just a heuristic device. Each of the dimensions could
be stratified into many more levels, and it would likewise be possible to segment the lifespan into a
greater number of levels. Finally, arguably the key point about a multidimensional model is that its
different dimensions and levels are not compartmentalised, but intersect and interact. As such, it is
possible to analyse any given line of enquiry in terms of all the other lines of enquiry. Take, for
example, the PRP (Gillham et al., 1990), situated here in the subjective domain under the level of
‘emotion.’ While ostensibly about the development of emotional skills, the PRP could be analysed in
all manner of ways. In terms of the other layers of the subjective domain, participation may impact
upon embodiment, cognition, consciousness and awareness+. Taking a physiological perspective, one
might analyse participation in terms of biochemistry, neural activity, nervous system functioning, and
the body as a whole. One could also look at it as a socio-cultural phenomenon, exploring its impact on
the microsystem of the school and its mesosystemic impact on family life, or considering how it is
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
156
supported by exo and macrosystem contexts (e.g., local and national educational policy), and even
looking at how it affects participants’ attitudes towards the environment. As such, it is hoped that this
framework may not only provide a useful conceptual and discursive space for the consideration of
existing work, but can also promote a future research agenda aimed at furthering our understanding of
how to facilitate flourishing across the lifespan.
References
Abrahams, C., Green, M., & Mortimer, J. (2014). Care in crisis. London, UK: Age.
Ballard, C., O'Brien, J., James, I., Mynt, P., Lana, M., Potkins, D., . . . Fossey, J. (2001). Quality of life for people
with dementia living in residential and nursing home care: The impact of performance on activities of daily
living, behavioral and psychological symptoms, language skills, and psychotropic drugs. International
Psychogeriatrics, 13(1), 93-106.
Baqui, A. H., El-Arifeen, S., Darmstadt, G. L., Ahmed, S., Williams, E. K., Seraji, H. R., . . . Black, R. E. (2008).
Effect of community-based newborn-care intervention package implemented through two service-delivery
strategies in Sylhet district, Bangladesh: A cluster-randomised controlled trial. The Lancet, 371(9628),
1936-1944. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60835-1
Beauregard, M., Courtemanche, J., Paquette, V., & St-Pierre, É. L. (2009). The neural basis of unconditional love.
Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 172(2), 93-98. doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2008.11.003.
Belfield, C., Bowden, B., Klapp, A., Levin, H., Shand, R., & Zander, S. (2015). The economic value of social and
emotional learning. Columbia, CA: Center for Benefit-Cost Studies in Education.
Belsky, J., & Beaver, K. M. (2011). Cumulative-genetic plasticity, parenting and adolescent self-regulation.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(5), 619-626. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02327.x
Boecker, H., Sprenger, T., Spilker, M. E., Henriksen, G., Koppenhoefer, M., Wagner, K. J., . . . Tolle, T. R.
(2008). The runner's high: Opioidergic mechanisms in the human brain. Cerebral Cortex, 18(11), 2523-
2531. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhn013
Boergers, J., Gable, C. J., & Owens, J. A. (2014). Later school start time is associated with improved sleep and
daytime functioning in adolescents. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 35(1), 11-17. doi:
10.1097/dbp.0000000000000018
Bora, E., Yucel, M., & Allen, N. B. (2009). Neurobiology of human affiliative behaviour: implications for
psychiatric disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 22(3), 320-325. doi:
10.1097/YCO.0b013e328329e970
Bothe, D. A., Grignon, J. B., & Olness, K. N. (2014). The effects of a stress management intervention in
elementary school children. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 35(1), 62-67. doi:
10.1097/dbp.0000000000000016
Brandon, P. D., & Temple, J. B. (2007). Family provisions at the workplace and their relationship to absenteeism,
retention, and productivity of workers: Timely evidence from prior data. Australian Journal of Social
Issues, 42(4), 447-460.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist,
32(7), 513-531. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.),
International Encyclopedia of Education (pp. 1643-1647). Oxford, UK: Pergamon.
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
157
Brunwasser, S. M., Gillham, J. E., & Kim, E. S. (2009). A meta-analytic review of the Penn Resiliency Program’s
effect on depressive symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(6), 1042-1054. doi:
10.1037/a0017671
Buitelaar, J. K., Huizink, A. C., Mulder, E. J., de Medina, P. G. R., & Visser, G. H. A. (2003). Prenatal stress and
cognitive development and temperament in infants. Neurobiology of Aging, 24, Supplement 1, S53-S60.
doi: 10.1016/S0197-4580(03)00050-2
Burchinal, M. R., Roberts, J. E., Nabors, L. A., & Bryant, D. M. (1996). Quality of center child care and infant
cognitive and language development. Child Development, 67(2), 606-620. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-
8624.1996.tb01754.x
Burnett, R. (2011). Mindfulness in schools: Learning lessons from the adults, secular and Buddhist. Buddhist
Studies Review, 28(1), 79-120.
Cameron, S., & Maginn, C. (2011). Living psychology: The 'emotional warmth' dimension of professional
childcare. Educational and child psychology, 28(3), 44-62.
Cook, E. A. (1998). Effects of reminiscence on life satisfaction of elderly female nursing home residents. Health
Care for Women International, 19(2), 109-118. doi: 10.1080/073993398246449
Coutts, A. P., Stuckler, D., & Cann, D. J. (2014). The health and wellbeing effects of active labor market
programs. In F. A. Huppert & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Interventions and policies to enhance wellbeing (Vol.
VI, pp. 465-482). Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Cramm, J. M., van Dijk, H. M., & Nieboer, A. P. (2013). The importance of neighborhood social cohesion and
social capital for the well being of older adults in the community. The Gerontologist, 53(1), 142-152. doi:
10.1093/geront/gns052
Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Keynote address.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021(1), 1-22. doi: 10.1196/annals.1308.001
Darmstadt, G. L., Donnay, F., & Starrs, A. (2013). Healthy mother, healthy newborn: An interconnected
continuum. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 26(S1), 1-2. doi:
10.3109/14767058.2012.741154
Davidson, R. J. (2000). Affective style, psychopathology, and resilience: Brain mechanisms and plasticity.
American Psychologist, 55(11), 1196-1214.
Davidson, R. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Social influences on neuroplasticity: Stress and interventions to
promote well-being. Nature Neuroscience, 15(5), 689-695. doi: 10.1038/nn.3093
De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Van Cauwenberghe, E., Spittaels, H., Oppert, J. M., Rostami, C., Brug, J., . . . Maes, L.
(2011). School-based interventions promoting both physical activity and healthy eating in Europe: A
systematic review within the HOPE project. Obesity Reviews, 12(3), 205-216. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-
789X.2009.00711.x
Delva, J., Han, Y., Sanchez, N., Andrade, F. H., Sanhueza, G., & Krentzman, A. (2015). Spirituality and alcohol
consumption among adolescents in Chile: Results of propensity score stratification analyses. Social Work
Research. doi: 10.1093/swr/svv019
Doussard-Roosevelt, J. A., Porges, S. W., Scanlon, J. W., Alemi, B., & Scanlon, K. B. (1997). Vagal regulation of
heart rate in the prediction of developmental outcome for very low birth weight preterm infants. Child
Development, 68(2), 173-186. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01934.x
Duncan, L. G., & Bardacke, N. (2010). Mindfulness-based childbirth and parenting education: Promoting family
mindfulness during the perinatal period. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(2), 190-202. doi:
10.1007/s10826-009-9313-7
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
158
Duncan, L. G., Coatsworth, J. D., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). A model of mindful parenting: Implications for
parent–child relationships and prevention research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12(3),
255-270. doi: 10.1007/s10567-009-0046-3
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., & Pachan, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of after-school programs that seek to
promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. American Journal of Community
Psychology, 45(3-4), 294-309. doi: 10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6
Economic and Human Rights Commission (2011). How fair is Britain? Equality, human rights and good relations
in 2010, triennial review 2010. London, UK: EHRC
Elbogen, E. B., Johnson, S. C., Newton, V. M., Timko, C., Vasterling, J. J., Van Male, L. M., . . . Beckham, J. C.
(2014). Protective mechanisms and prevention of violence and aggression in veterans. Psychological
Services, 11(2), 220-228. doi: 10.1037/a0035088
Embse, N. V. D., & Hasson, R. (2012). Test anxiety and high-stakes test performance between school settings:
Implications for educators. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth,
56(3), 180-187. doi: 10.1080/1045988X.2011.633285
Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196(4286), 129-
136. doi: 10.1126/science.847460
Epstein, L. (1996). Family-based behavioural intervention for obese children. International Journal of Obesity and
Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 20, S14-
21.
Farley, T. A., Meriwether, R. A., Baker, E. T., Watkins, L. T., Johnson, C. C., & Webber, L. S. (2007). Safe play
spaces to promote physical activity in inner-city children: Results from a pilot study of an environmental
intervention. American Journal of Public Health, 97(9), 1625-1631. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.092692
Feldman, R., Greenbaum, C. W., & Yirmiya, N. (1999). Mother-infant affect synchrony as an antecedent of the
emergence of self-control. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 223-231. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.35.1.223
Feldman, R., Singer, M., & Zagoory, O. (2010). Touch attenuates infants’ physiological reactivity to stress.
Developmental Science, 13(2), 271-278. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00890.x
Fell, J. (2004). Identifying neural correlates of consciousness: The state space approach. Consciousness and
Cognition, 13(4), 709-729. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2004.07.001
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Norton.
Ferguson, J. M. (2001). SSRI antidepressant medications: Adverse effects and tolerability. Journal of Clinical
Psychiatry, 3(1), 22-27.
Field, T., Diego, M., & Hernandez-Reif, M. (2010). Preterm infant massage therapy research: A review. Infant
Behavior and Development, 33(2), 115-124. doi: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.12.004
Fletcher, A. C., Nickerson, P., & Wright, K. L. (2003). Structured leisure activities in middle childhood: Links to
well-being. Journal of Community Psychology, 31(6), 641-659. doi: 10.1002/jcop.10075
Frye, R. E., Malmberg, B., Swank, P., Smith, K., & Landry, S. (2010). Preterm birth and maternal responsiveness
during childhood are associated with brain morphology in adolescence. Journal of the International
Neuropsychological Society, 16(05), 784-794. doi: doi:10.1017/S1355617710000585
Gard, T., Hölzel, B. K., & Lazar, S. W. (2014). The potential effects of meditation on age‐related cognitive
decline: A systematic review. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1307(1), 89-103.
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
159
Gatz, M., Pederson, N. L., Plomin, R., & Nesselroade, J. R. (1992). Importance of shared genes and shared
environments for symptoms of depression in older adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(4), 701-
708. doi: 10.1111/nyas.12348
Gillham, J. E., Jaycox, L. H., Reivich, K. J., Seligman, M. E. P., & Silver, T. (1990). The Penn Resiliency
Program: Unpublished Manual. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania.
Gillham, J. E., Reivich, K. J., Freres, D. R., Lascher, M., Litzinger, S., Shatté, A., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2006).
School-based prevention of depression and anxiety symptoms in early adolescence: A pilot of a parent
intervention component. School Psychology Quarterly, 21(3), 323-348. doi: 10.1521/scpq.2006.21.3.323
Ginsburg, K. R. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong
parent-child bonds. Pediatrics, 119(1), 182-191. doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-2697
Grønhøj, A., & Thøgersen, J. (2012). Action speaks louder than words: The effect of personal attitudes and family
norms on adolescents’ pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(1), 292-302.
doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2011.10.001
Gross, J. J. (1999). Emotion regulation: Past, present, future. Cognition & Emotion, 13(5), 551-573. doi:
10.1080/026999399379186
Güroğlu, B., van den Bos, W., & Crone, E. A. (2009). Neural correlates of social decision making and
relationships. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1167(1), 197-206. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-
6632.2009.04502.x
Harris, K. I. (2014). Embracing make believe play and theories of early childhood: Understanding children's
spirituality and the spiritual essence of a young child. International Journal of Integrative Pediatrics and
Environmental Medicine, 1, 12-21.
Helliwell, J. F., & Putnam, R. D. (2004). The social context of well–being. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 359(1449), 1435-1446. doi:
10.1098/rstb.2004.1522
Himelstein, S., Hastings, A., Shapiro, S., & Heery, M. (2012). Mindfulness training for self-regulation and stress
with incarcerated youth: A pilot study. Probation Journal, 59(2), 151-165. doi:
10.1177/0264550512438256
Hopper, J. R., & Nielsen, J. M. (1991). Recycling as altruistic behavior: Normative and behavioral strategies to
expand participation in a community recycling program. Environment and Behavior, 23(2), 195-220. doi:
10.1177/0013916591232004
IsHak, W. W., Kahloon, M., & Fakhry, H. (2011). Oxytocin role in enhancing well-being: A literature review.
Journal of Affective Disorders, 130(1–2), 1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2010.06.001
Johnson, M. K., Beebe, T., Mortimer, J. T., & Snyder, M. (1998). Volunteerism in adolescence: A process
perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 8(3), 309-332. doi: 10.1207/s15327795jra0803_2
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the
practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and preliminary results. General Hospital
Psychiatry, 4(1), 33-47. doi: 10.1016/0163-8343(82)90026-3
King, A. C., Rejeski, W. J., & Buchner, D. M. (1998). Physical activity interventions targeting older adults: a
critical review and recommendations. American journal of preventive medicine, 15(4), 316-333. doi:
10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00085-3
Koenig, H. G. (2009). Research on religion, spirituality, and mental health: A review. Canadian Journal of
Psychiatry, 54(5), 283-291. doi: 10.1177/070674370905400502
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
160
Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development: Moral stages and the idea of justice. London, UK:
Harper & Row.
Koletzko, B., von Kries, R., Monasterolo, R. C., Subías, J. E., Scaglioni, S., Giovannini, M., . . . Grote, V. (2009).
Can infant feeding choices modulate later obesity risk? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5),
1502S-1508S. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27113D
Lamond, A. J., Depp, C. A., Allison, M., Langer, R., Reichstadt, J., Moore, D. J., . . . Jeste, D. V. (2008).
Measurement and predictors of resilience among community-dwelling older women. Journal of
Psychiatric Research, 43(2), 148-154. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.03.007
Larson, R., Jarrett, R., Hansen, D., Pearce, N., Sullivan, P., Walker, K., . . . Wood, D. (2004). Organized youth
activities as contexts for positive development. In P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in
practice (pp. 540-560). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist, 55(1), 170-
183. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.170
Latey, P. (2001). The Pilates method: History and philosophy. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies,
5(4), 275-282.
Latham, G. I. (1994). The power of positive parenting. North Logan, UT: P&T Ink.
Lazar, S. W., Kerr, C. E., Wasserman, R. H., Gray, J. R., Greve, D. N., Treadway, M. T., . . . Benson, H. (2005).
Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness. NeuroReport, 16(17), 1893-1897.
Lenzi, D., Trentini, C., Pantano, P., Macaluso, E., Iacoboni, M., Lenzi, G. L., & Ammaniti, M. (2009). Neural
basis of maternal communication and emotional expression processing during infant preverbal stage.
Cerebral Cortex, 19(5), 1124-1133. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhn153
Lerner, R. (2009). The positive youth development perspective: Theoretical and empirical bases of a strengths
based approach to adolescent development. In S. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Handbook of positive
psychology (2nd ed., pp. 149–164). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Levering, R. (1988). A great place to work. New York, NY: Avon Books.
Lickona, T. (1996). Eleven principles of effective character education. Journal of Moral Education, 25(1), 93-100.
doi: 10.1080/0305724960250110
Light, S. N., Coan, J. A., Frye, C., Goldsmith, H. H., & Davidson, R. J. (2009). Dynamic variation in pleasure in
children predicts nonlinear change in lateral frontal brain electrical activity. Developmental Psychology,
45(2), 525-533. doi: 10.1037/a0014576
Lomas, T. (2015). Positive social psychology: A multilevel inquiry into socio-cultural wellbeing initiatives.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 21(3), 338-347. doi: 10.1037/law0000051
Lomas, T., Hefferon, K., & Ivtzan, I. (2015). The LIFE model: A meta-theoretical conceptual map for applied
positive psychology. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16(5), 1347-1364. doi: 10.1007/s10902-014-9563-y
Lykken, D., & Tellegen, A. (1996). Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon. Psychological Science, 7(3), 186-189.
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00355.x
Maslow, A. H. (1972). The farther reaches of human nature. London, UK: Maurice Bassett.
McDonald, L., Moberg, D. P., Brown, R., Rodriguez-Espiricueta, I., Flores, N. I., Burke, M. P., & Coover, G.
(2006). After-school multifamily groups: A randomized controlled trial involving low-income, urban,
Latino children. Children & Schools, 28(1), 25-34. doi: 10.1093/cs/28.1.25
Meinhold, J. L., & Malkus, A. J. (2005). Adolescent environmental behaviors: Can knowledge, attitudes, and self-
efficacy make a difference? Environment and Behavior, 37(4), 511-532. doi: 10.1177/0013916504269665
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
161
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2013). Adult attachment and happiness: Individual differences in the experience
and consequences of positive emotions. In S. A. David, I. Boniwell & A. Conley Ayers (Eds.), The Oxford
handbook of happiness (pp. 834-846). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Milligan, C., Gatrell, A., & Bingley, A. (2004). ‘Cultivating health’: Therapeutic landscapes and older people in
northern England. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 1781–1793. doi: 10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00397-6
Morone, N. E., Greco, C. M., & Weiner, D. K. (2008). Mindfulness meditation for the treatment of chronic low
back pain in older adults: A randomized controlled pilot study. PAIN, 134(3), 310-319. doi:
10.1016/j.pain.2007.04.038
Mueller, P. J. (2007). Exercise training and sympathetic nervous system activity: Evidence for physical activity
dependent neural plasticity. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 34(4), 377-384.
doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2007.04590.x
Munro, J. F., Nicholl, J. P., Brazier, J. E., Davey, R., & Cochrane, T. (2004). Cost effectiveness of a community
based exercise programme in over 65 year olds: cluster randomised trial. Journal of Epidemiology and
Community Health, 58(12), 1004-1010. doi: 10.1136/jech.2003.014225
Murphy, E. C. S., Carson, L., Neal, W., Baylis, C., Donley, D., & Yeater, R. (2009). Effects of an exercise
intervention using Dance Dance Revolution on endothelial function and other risk factors in overweight
children. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 4(4), 205-214. doi: 10.3109/17477160902846187
Murphy, M. M., Begley, T., Timmins, F., Neill, F., & Sheaf, G. (2015). Spirituality and spiritual care: Missing
concepts from core undergraduate children’s nursing textbooks. International Journal of Children's
Spirituality, 20(2), 114-128. doi: 10.1080/1364436X.2015.1055458
Narvaez, D., & Gleason, T. (2013). Developmental optimization. In D. Narvaez, J. Panksepp, A. Schore & T.
Gleason (Eds.), Evolution, early experience and human development: From research to practice and
policy (pp. 307-325). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
NHS. (2014a, 22 May 2013). NHS Choices: Alcohol and Drugs During Pregnancy. Retrieved 22 January, 2014,
from http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/pages/alcohol-medicines-drugs-pregnant.
NHS. (2014b, 31 January 2013). NHS Choices: Vitamins and Nutrition in Pregnancy. Retrieved 22 January,
2014, from http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/pages/vitamins-minerals-supplements-
pregnant.
Niers, L., Stasse-Wolthuis, M., Rombouts, F. M., & Rijkers, G. T. (2007). Nutritional support for the infant's
immune system. Nutrition Reviews, 65(8), 347-360. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2007.tb00313.x
Ostir, G. V., Berges, I. M., Markides, K. S., & Ottenbacher, K. J. (2006). Hypertension in older adults and the role
of positive emotions. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68(5), 727-733. doi: 10.1097/01.psy.0000234028.93346.38
Oyserman, D., Terry, K., & Bybee, D. (2002). A possible selves intervention to enhance school involvement.
Journal of Adolescence, 25(3), 313-326. doi: 10.1006/jado.2002.0474
Page, K., & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2013). The Working for Wellness program: RCT of an employee well-being
intervention. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(3), 1007-1031. doi: 10.1007/s10902-012-9366-y
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Phillips, G., Hayes, R., Bottomley, C., Petticrew, M., Watts, P., Lock, K., . . . Renton, A. (2012). OP06 Well
London: Results of a cluster-randomised trial of a community development approach to improving health
behaviours and mental wellbeing in deprived inner-city neighbourhoods. Journal of Epidemiology and
Community Health, 66(Suppl 1), A3. doi: 10.1136/jech-2012-201753.006
Piaget, J. (1971). The theory of stages in cognitive development. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
162
Pickler, R. H., McGrath, J. M., Reyna, B. A., McCain, N., Lewis, M., Cone, S., . . . Best, A. (2010). A model of
neurodevelopmental risk and protection for preterm infants. The Journal of Perinatal & Neonatal Nursing,
24(4), 356-365. doi: 10.1097/JPN.0b013e3181fb1e70
Rani, N. J., & Rao, P. V. K. (1994). Body awareness and yoga training. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 79(3), 1103-
1106. doi: 10.2466/pms.1994.79.3.1103
Reivich, K. J., Seligman, M. E., & McBride, S. (2011). Master resilience training in the US Army. American
Psychologist, 66(1), 25-34. doi: 10.1037/a0021897
Rocchini, A. P., Katch, V., Anderson, J., Hinderliter, J., Becque, D., Martin, M., & Marks, C. (1988). Blood
pressure in obese adolescents: Effect of weight loss. Pediatrics, 82(1), 16-23.
Roxendale, G. (1985). Body awareness therapy and the body awareness scale. (PhD), Gothenburg, Sweden:
Goteborgs Universitet.
Sale, R. (2008). Mindful yoga as a vehicle for childbirth education. International Journal of Childbirth Education,
23(4), 7-8.
Schore, A. N. (2013). Bowlby's "Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness": Recent studies on the interpersonal
neurobiology of attachment and emotional development. In D. Narvaez, J. Panksepp, A. Schore & T.
Gleason (Eds.), Evolution, early experience and human development: From research to practice and
policy (pp. 99-128). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: Positive
psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293-311. doi:
10.1080/03054980902934563
Sheridan, S. M., Warnes, E. D., Cowan, R. J., Schemm, A. V., & Clarke, B. L. (2004). Family-centered positive
psychology: Focusing on strengths to build student success. Psychology in the Schools, 41(1), 7-17. doi:
10.1002/pits.10134
Simpson, G. M., & Lawrence-Webb, C. (2009). Responsibility without community resources: Informal kinship
care among low-income, African American grandmother caregivers. Journal of Black Studies, 39(6), 825-
847. doi: 10.1177/0021934707303631
Smaldone, A., Honig, J. C., & Byrne, M. W. (2007). Sleepless in America: Inadequate sleep and relationships to
health and well-being of our nation's children. Pediatrics, 119(Supplement 1), S29-S37.
Smith, E. P., Faulk, M., & Sizer, M. A. (2013). Exploring the meso-system: The roles of community, family, and
peers in adolescent delinquency and positive youth development. Youth & Society. doi:
10.1177/0044118x13491581
Smith, L. M., Case, J. L., Smith, H. M., Harwell, L. C., & Summers, J. K. (2013). Relating ecoystem services to
domains of human well-being: Foundation for a U.S. index. Ecological Indicators, 28(0), 79-90. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.02.032
Sparks, K., Cooper, C. L., Fried, Y., & Shirom, A. (2013). The effects of working hours on health: A meta-
analytic review. In C. L. Cooper (Ed.), From stress to wellbein: The theory and research on occupational
stress and wellbeing (pp. 292-314). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Spear, L. P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience &
Biobehavioral Reviews, 24(4), 417-463. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00014-2
St. Jacques, P., Dolcos, F., & Cabeza, R. (2010). Effects of aging on functional connectivity of the amygdala
during negative evaluation: A network analysis of fMRI data. Neurobiology of Aging, 31(2), 315-327. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.03.012
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
163
Steiner, N., Sidhu, T., Pop, P., Frenette, E., & Perrin, E. (2013). Yoga in an urban school for children with
emotional and behavioral disorders: A feasibility study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(6), 815-
826. doi: 10.1007/s10826-012-9636-7
Stevenson, R. B. (2007). Schooling and environmental/sustainability education: from discourses of policy and
practice to discourses of professional learning. Environmental Education Research, 13(2), 265-285. doi:
10.1080/13504620701295650
Tappe, M. K., Duda, J. L., & Ehrnwald, P. M. (1989). Perceived barriers To exercise among adolescents. Journal
of School Health, 59(4), 153-155. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.1989.tb04689.x
Tornstam, L. (2005). Gerotranscendence: A developmental theory of positive aging. New York, NY: Springer
Publishing Company.
Turner, B. S. (2001). Disability and the sociology of the body. In G. L. Albrecht, K. D. Seelman & M. Bury (Eds.),
Handbook of disability studies (pp. 252-266). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Turner, S., Eastwood, P., Cook, A., & Jenkins, S. (2011). Improvements in symptoms and quality of life following
exercise training in older adults with moderate/severe persistent asthma. Respiration, 81(4), 302-310. doi:
10.1159/000315142
Urry, H. L., Nitschke, J. B., Dolski, I., Jackson, D. C., Dalton, K. M., Mueller, C. J., . . . Davidson, R. J. (2004).
Making a life worth living: Neural correlates of well-being. Psychological Science, 15(6), 367-372. doi:
10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00686.x
Vaillant, G. (2004). Positive aging. In P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 561-
580). Hoboken, NJ: Wohn Wiley & Sons.
Vieten, C., & Astin, J. (2008). Effects of a mindfulness-based intervention during pregnancy on prenatal stress and
mood: Results of a pilot study. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 11(1), 67-74. doi: 10.1007/s00737-
008-0214-3
Wachholtz, A., Pearce, M., & Koenig, H. (2007). Exploring the relationship between spirituality, coping, and pain.
Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(4), 311-318. doi: 10.1007/s10865-007-9114-7
Weisbrod, A., & Van Hoof, G. (2012). LCA-measured environmental improvements in Pampers® diapers. The
International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 17(2), 145-153. doi: 10.1007/s11367-011-0343-1
Wells, J., Barlow, J., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2003). A systematic review of universal approaches to mental health
promotion in schools. Health Education, 103(4), 197-220. doi: 10.1108/09654280310485546
Werner, E. E. (1992). The children of Kauai: Resiliency and recovery in adolescence and adulthood. Journal of
Adolescent Health, 13(4), 262-268. doi: 10.1016/1054-139X(92)90157-7
Werner, E. E. (1993). Risk, resilience, and recovery: Perspectives from the Kauai Longitudinal Study.
Development and Psychopathology, 5, 503-515. doi: 10.1017/S095457940000612X
Wilkinson, R. G., & Pickett, K. (2010). The spirit level: Why more equal societies almost always do better.
London, UK: Allen Lane.
Wolfson, L., Whipple, R., Derby, C., Judge, J., King, M., Amerman, P., . . . Smyers, D. (1996). Balance and
strength training in older adults: Intervention gains and Tai Chi maintenance. Journal of the American
Geriatrics Society, 44(5), 498-506. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1996.tb01433.x
World Health Organization & UNICEF. (2003). Global strategy for infant and young child feeding. Geneva,
Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Wright, S. D., & Lund, D. A. (2000). Gray and green? Stewardship and sustainability in an aging society. Journal
of Aging Studies, 14(3), 229-249. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0890-4065(00)08020-8
The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 2016, 4(2), 143-164
164
Yarnal, C. M., Hutchinson, S., & Chow, H.-W. (2006). “I could probably run a marathon right now”:
Embodiment, space, and young women's leisure experience. Leisure Sciences, 28(2), 133-161. doi:
10.1080/01490400500484040
