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Revising the phylogenetic position of the extinct Mascarene Parrot Mascarinus mascarin (Linnaeus 1771) (Aves: Psittaciformes: Psittacidae)
... It lived on the island of La Réunion in the Indian Ocean. Its phylogenetic position is currently under debate, as to whether it is close to Coracopsis Wagler, 1832 (Kundu et al. 2012;Jackson et al. 2015) or close to the Psittacula eupatria clade (Podsiadlowski et al. 2017). Based on morphological and osteological traits, †Mascarinus is considered to be a close relative to the Psittacula parakeets (Hume 2007;Cheke & Hume 2008;Hume & van Grouw 2014). ...
... Furthermore, a recent genetic study on †M. mascarin placed it within the Psittacula clade (Podsiadlowski et al. 2017). A phylogenetic study on parrots revealed a close relationship between the genera Psittacula, Tanygnathus, and Psittinus (Schweizer et al. 2010). ...
The long-tailed parakeets of the genus Psittacula Cuvier, 1800 have thus far been regarded as a homogeneous and mono-phyletic group of parrots. We used nucleotide sequences of two genetic markers (mitochondrial CYTB, nuclear RAG-1) to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships of Psittacula and closely related species. We found that the Asian genus Psit-tacula is apparently paraphyletic because two genera of short-tailed parrots, Psittinus Blyth, 1842 and Tanygnathus Wagler, 1832, cluster within Psittacula, as does †Mascarinus Lesson, 1830. To create monophyletic genera, we propose recognition of the following genera: Himalayapsitta Braun, 2016 for P. himalayana, P. finschii, P. roseata, and P. cyanocephala; Nicopsitta Braun, 2016 for P. columboides and P. calthrapae; Belocercus S. Müller, 1847 for P. longicauda; Psittacula Cuvier, 1800 for P. alexandri and P. derbiana; Palaeornis Vigors, 1825 for †P. wardi and P. eupatria; and Alexandrinus Braun, 2016 for P. krameri, †P. exsul, and P. (eques) echo. Additionally, Psittacula krameri and P. alexandri are paraphyletic species, which should be split to form monophyletic species.
... We chose to use the Clements taxonomy as it had the most recent updates and thus presumably reflects recent revisions in parrot systematics. However, we followed Podsiadlowski et al. (2017) in retaining Coracopsis for the Vasa and Black Parrots C. vasa and C. niger, respectively, and we used the sequences of the extinct Mascarene Parrot Mascarinus mascarin in Podsiadlowski et al. (2017), not the contaminated sequence from Kundu et al. (2012). Synonyms and taxonomic changes were accounted for during this process (e.g. ...
... We chose to use the Clements taxonomy as it had the most recent updates and thus presumably reflects recent revisions in parrot systematics. However, we followed Podsiadlowski et al. (2017) in retaining Coracopsis for the Vasa and Black Parrots C. vasa and C. niger, respectively, and we used the sequences of the extinct Mascarene Parrot Mascarinus mascarin in Podsiadlowski et al. (2017), not the contaminated sequence from Kundu et al. (2012). Synonyms and taxonomic changes were accounted for during this process (e.g. ...
Advances in sequencing technology and phylogenetics have revolutionised avian biology by providing an evolutionary framework for studying natural groupings. In the parrots (Psittaciformes), DNA-based studies have led to a reclassification of clades, yet substantial gaps remain in the data gleaned from genetic information. Here we provide an overview of published genetic data of parrots, characterise sampling depth across the phylogeny, and evaluate support for existing systematic treatments. We inferred a concatenated tree with 307 species from a 30-gene supermatrix. We recovered well-supported relationships among recently proposed clades. Taxonomic groups were more stable towards the base of the tree and increased sampling will be required to clarify relationships at the tips, particularly below the generic level. Only a third of species have been sampled intraspecifically in population genetic or phylogeographic surveys. Intraspecific sampling has not been geographically or phylogenetically even across Psittaciformes, especially poor in the cockatoos, Southeast Asia, and parts of Australo-Papua. Threatened species are poorly sampled in the Neotropics. We highlight where effort should be focused to improve sampling based on geography and conservation status. In sum, phylogenetic relationships among the major parrot clades are robust, but relationships within and between genera and species provide opportunities for future investigations.
... We also sampled five extinct parrots, namely, Conuropsis carolinensis, Psephotellus pulcherrimus, Psittacula wardi, Psittacula exsul and Mascarinus mascarin. In the case of M. mascarin, we used the sequence generated by Podsiadlowski et al. (2017); see also Joseph et al. (2012). As outgroups, eight passerines, two falconiforms, the chicken (Gallus gallus) and the ostrich (Struthio camelus) were included. ...
Aim
Explanations of pantropical distributions are challenging for taxa that diverged during the Cenozoic, after Gondwana broke apart. The ‘boreotropics hypothesis’ suggests that pantropical birds originated in the Laurasian forests. Extant parrots (Psittaciformes) are one the most species‐rich pantropical avian clades, but their known evolutionary history does not fit a boreotropical origin. Most living parrots and the earliest diverging lineages of the Psittaciformes inhabit the remnants of Gondwana, whereas the oldest stem and crown fossils are from the remnants of Laurasia. Our study proposes a biogeographic hypothesis that focuses on the Cenozoic connections between Laurasia and Gondwana to explain extant and fossil geographical distributions.
Location
Global.
Taxon
Psittaciformes.
Methods
We generated a time tree using previously derived data from 32 molecular markers for 312 parrot species and reconstructed their biogeographic history using maximum likelihood. Two scenarios were compared: one with dispersal constrained to adjacent areas, including the connections between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, and one without this constraint.
Results
Our results indicate that the pantropical distribution of parrots was shaped by two major geological events. First, the final breakup of parts of Gondwana may have caused the first splits within crown parrots, establishing two parallel radiations: Psittacidae in the Neotropics and Psittaculidae in Australasia. Second, igneous palaeoprovinces could have connected major biogeographic realms. It seems that Atlantogea and Eurogondwana were important, as they connected South America, Africa and Europe, thus reconciling the Gondwanan crown splits and the early Laurasian fossils.
Main Conclusions
Our time tree allowed more concise biogeographic correlations between parrots and their sister group, the passerines and Earth's tectonic history. The crown lineages of Psittacopasseres appear to have originated in the Southern Hemisphere remnants of Gondwana, but stem lineages appear to have been able to disperse into the Northern Hemisphere through palaeobiogeographic provinces in the Cenozoic.
... They resolved the species' taxonomic placement and quantified how their replacement on Indian Ocean islands by the invasive Ring-necked Parakeet led to the loss of endemic phylogenetic diversity. Conversely, another study of Indian Ocean parrots [214] involving the extinct Mascarene Parrot Mascarinus mascarin was misled by technical errors, which led to generation of a false hypothesis about its taxonomic placement [215]. ...
Parrots (Psittaciformes) are a well-studied, diverse group of birds distributed mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. Today, one-third of their species face extinction, mainly due to anthropogenic threats. Emerging tools in genetics have made major contributions to understanding basic and applied aspects of parrot biology in the wild and in captivity. In this review, we show how genetic methods have transformed the study of parrots by summarising important milestones in the advances of genetics and their implementations in research on parrots. We describe how genetics helped to further knowledge in specific research fields with a wide array of examples from the literature that address the conservation significance of (1) deeper phylogeny and historical biogeography; (2) species- and genus-level systematics and taxonomy; (3) conservation genetics and genomics; (4) behavioural ecology; (5) molecular ecology and landscape genetics; and (6) museomics and historical DNA. Finally, we highlight knowledge gaps to inform future genomic research on parrots. Our review shows that the application of genetic techniques to the study of parrot biology has far-reaching implications for addressing diverse research aims in a highly threatened and charismatic clade of birds.
... Tanygnathus is non-monophyletic and is considered a synonym of Psittacula (Podsiadlowski et al., 2017), which leaves Acerodon as the only true characteristic genus of tetrapods in Wallacea. Compared to the other regions of Proches and Ramdhani (2012), the Wallacean region has the least support as a separate region, confirming the findings of King and Ebach (2017). ...
Transition zones are problematic in biogeographical classification as they represent artificial biotic areas. A review of transition zones into existing biogeographical classifications shows conflicting area taxonomies. While many authors consider transition zones as overlap zones or areas of biotic mixing, only a few have considered excluding them from biogeographical classification all together. One way of incorporating transition zones into a natural classification is by treating them as artefacts of geographically overlapping temporally disjunct biotic areas. In doing so, geographically overlapping biotic areas may occupy the same space but have different boundaries and histories. Temporally disjunct areas do form natural hierarchical classifications, as seen in the paleobiogeographical literature. A revision of each transition zone will determine whether they are artificial areas, areas within their own right or potentially geographically overlapping temporally disjunct regions.
... Tanygnathus is non-monophyletic and is considered a synonym of Psittacula (Podsiadlowski et al., 2017), which leaves Acerodon as the only true characteristic genus of tetrapods in Wallacea. Compared to the other regions of Proches and Ramdhani (2012), the Wallacean region has the least support as a separate region, confirming the findings of King and Ebach (2017). ...
Transition zones are problematic in biogeographical classification as they represent artificial biotic areas. A review of
transition zones into existing biogeographical classifications shows conflicting area taxonomies. While many authors
consider transition zones as overlap zones or areas of biotic mixing, only a few have considered excluding them from
biogeographical classification all together. One way of incorporating transition zones into a natural classification is by
treating them as artefacts of geographically overlapping temporally disjunct biotic areas. In doing so, geographically
overlapping biotic areas may occupy the same space but have different boundaries and histories. Temporally disjunct
areas do form natural hierarchical classifications, as seen in the paleobiogeographical literature. A revision of
each transition zone will determine whether they are artificial areas, areas within their own right or potentially
geographically overlapping temporally disjunct regions.
... The same study was conducted by Briolay et al., (1998) and reported the same results and found the interesting phylogenetic relationships within different 29 European cyprinids by using cyt b mitochondrial genes. The finding reported in our study also supported by Podsiadlowski et al., (2017) and stated that farm bred animals may lead to inbreeding resulting in genetic flaws while hybrids are genetically more flexible and can tolerate disease, may combat severe environmental conditions and are more fit in diverse habitats. It is also reported that mt-DNA has also been used to estimate the reproductive success and to identify the breeding pair (Arnold et al., 2017). ...
This study was designed to analyze genetic variation between Indian peafowl available at different locations by targeting the Cytochrome b gene. A total of ten birds (n=10) were selected randomly for sample collection. Five birds were selected from Government sector and five from private breeding farms. DNA was extracted, purified and measured by using Nano drop. Extracted DNA was amplified using universal primers targeting Cytochrome b gene on polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR product was run on a gel for the desired DNA bands. DNA from gel was eluted and sent for sequencing. The sequences were compared with a reference reported sequence of cyt b gene of Indian peafowl with Accession No. L08379.1to find out the genetic diversity. Indian peafowl of government sector showed more similarity ³95% rather than bird of private sector with ³90% homology with reference Accession No. More genetic variation, which is the guarantee of resistance to disease and environmental fitness among the Indian peafowl at private sector, might be due to random reproductive behavior.
Transition zones are problematic in biogeographical classification as they represent artificial areas. A review of transition zones into existing biogeographical classifications shows conflicting area taxonomies. While many authors consider transition zones as overlap zones or areas of biotic mixing, only a few have considered excluding them from biogeographical classification altogether. One way of incorporating transition zones into a natural classification is by treating them as artefacts of geographically overlapping temporally disjunct areas. In doing so, geographically overlapping areas may occupy the same space but have different boundaries and histories. Temporally disjunct areas do form natural hierarchical classifications, as seen in the paleobiogeographical literature. A revision of each transition zone will determine whether they are artificial areas, areas within their own right or potentially geographically overlapping temporally disjunct regions.
The ongoing biodiversity crisis is causing rapid species losses faster than taxonomists' capacity to describe new species. Integrative taxonomic approaches need robust taxonomic baseline data to correctly describe and conserve global species diversity, in which genetic data are one of the pillars. However, despite their broad use throughout the biological sciences, the quality of genetic data within public repositories is still not guaranteed. Here, we curated GenBank Cytochrome‐b records of Aves, a well‐known taxon undergoing continuous taxonomic changes, and provide a curated database to aid taxonomic and conservation efforts. After curation of 54 114 records, the database represents 50 280 sequences from 6867 species (63% of current bird biodiversity), with a per‐genus median of two species (50% interquartile ranges of 1–4) and three sequences (1–9). Overall, 4469 bird species have ≥ 2 sequences representing 91.7% and 97.5% of currently known families and orders, respectively. We flagged 1336 erroneous records (2.5% of Aves Cytochrome‐b records) in need of taxonomic curation (71%) or removal, 45% of which lack any voucher information preventing a proper taxonomic assignation. Compared to Amphibia, a group for which a similar analysis was recently published, Aves records have a five‐fold higher prevalence of errors caused by contamination, sequencing errors or diverging mutation pattern. We provide a species‐level taxonomic update for 839 GenBank records, including changes at the genus (76), family (21), and order (16) levels. Scientific conclusions from the manuscripts that ever used those data might be compromised. A further concern is the current availability of GenBank records previously identified as erroneous in published manuscripts, demonstrating the need for improved communication between NCBI and the community. We call for caution when utilizing GenBank records without curation of retrieved data, despite new improvements.
Several groups of birds have suffered high extinction rates, especially rails, pigeons, parrots and passerines. Some island species that disappeared in the early 19th century, e.g. Lord Howe Gallinule Porphyrio albus, Rodrigues Parakeet Psittacula exsul and Mascarene Parrot Mascarinus mascarinus, are known from only a few skins and illustrations, whereas the Huia Heteralocha acutirostris of New Zealand is known from hundreds of specimens. Furthermore, two North American species-Passenger Pigeon Ectopistes migratorius and Carolina Parakeet Conuropsis carolinensis-which became extinct in the early 20th century, are also represented by hundreds of specimens. Other supposedly extinct bird species are enigmatic. Confusion exists concerning the unique specimens of Sharpe's Rail Gallirallns sharpei and Townsend's Bunting Spiza townsendi, paintings of a parrot from the West Indies and an aberrant white Huia, as well as aberrant specimens of the Critically Endangered Kakapo Strigops habroptilus. Much has been written concerning these birds and why they became extinct, or have become extremely rare, but few data are available concerning colour aberrations in certain specimens; the literature is also riddled with incorrect terminology. This paper addresses this shortfall and describes the various colour aberrations in these extinct and endangered birds and why they have occurred.
The last 20 years have seen a resurgence in systematic studies of parrots (Aves: Psittaciformes). Principally but not solely molecular in nature, this body of work has addressed the circumscription of higher level groupings within the Psittaciformes and relationships among them. Stability has now emerged on many formerly contentious matters at these levels. Accordingly, we consider it appropriate to underpin further work on parrot biology with a freshly revised classification at the taxonomic ranks spanned by family-group nomenclature, i.e., between superfamily and tribe. In light of the body of recent work, we advocate a framework of three superfamilies among parrots (Strigopoidea, Cacatuoidea and Psittacoidea) within which Linnaean taxonomy can accommodate present phylogenetic understanding by employing groupings at the ranks of family, subfamily and tribe. Just as importantly, we have addressed numerous issues of nomenclature towards stabilising the family-group names of parrots. We erect two new subfamily names, Coracopseinae Joseph, Toon, Schirtzinger, Wright & Schodde, subfam. nov. and Psittacellinae Joseph, Toon, Schirtzinger, Wright & Schodde, subfam. nov. We stress that rankings we have applied reflect the state of understanding of parrot phylogeny and how it can be summarized in a Linnaean system; comparisons with rankings in other groups are likely not appropriate nor relevant.
Phylogenies are increasingly used in all fields of medical and biological research. Moreover, because of the next generation sequencing revolution, datasets used for conducting phylogenetic analyses grow at an unprecedented pace. RAxML (Randomized Axelerated Maximum Likelihood) is a popular program for phylogenetic analyses of large datasets under maximum likelihood. Since the last RAxML paper in 2006, it has been continuously maintained and extended to accommodate the increasingly growing input datasets and to serve the needs of the user community.
I present some of the most notable new features and extensions of RAxML, such as, a substantial extension of substitution models and supported data types, the introduction of SSE3, AVX, and AVX2 vector intrinsics, techniques for reducing the memory requirements of the code and a plethora of operations for conducting post-analyses on sets of trees. In addition, an up-to-date, 50 page user manual covering all new RAxML options is available.
The code is available under GNU GPL at https://github.com/stamatak/standard-RAxML.
Alexandros.Stamatakis@h-its.org.
The parrots (Psittacidae: Lophopsittacus, Psittacula, Necropsittacus, Mascarinus) of the Mascarenes (Mauritius, Réunion, Rodrigues) have been relatively poorly studied. Most analyses have been based on a few skins, insufficient fossil material, and unreliable contemporary accounts and illustrations, which have led to erroneous interpretations. The discovery of new fossil remains of parrots and new interpretations of contemporary descriptions and illustrations has clarified many issues. One problematic species, Lophopsittacus bensoni is here removed to the genus Psittacula. A detailed comparative analysis of fossil skeletal elements indicates that the affinities of the Mascarene parrots lie within the Psittaculini, a wide ranging tribe of parrots that occurs mainly in Southeast Asia and Australasia. The Mascarenes are remote volcanic islands and biogeographical evidence presented here suggests that parrots reached this isolated group by island-hopping from India, probably during low sea level stands.
The question of when modern birds (Neornithes) first diversified has generated much debate among avian systematists. Fossil evidence generally supports a Tertiary diversification, whereas estimates based on molecular dating favor an earlier diversification in the Cretaceous period. In this study, we used an alternate approach, the inference of historical biogeographic patterns, to test the hypothesis that the initial radiation of the Order Psittaciformes (the parrots and cockatoos) originated on the Gondwana supercontinent during the Cretaceous. We utilized broad taxonomic sampling (representatives of 69 of the 82 extant genera and 8 outgroup taxa) and multilocus molecular character sampling (3,941 bp from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genes cytochrome oxidase I and NADH dehydrogenase 2 and nuclear introns of rhodopsin intron 1, tropomyosin alpha-subunit intron 5, and transforming growth factor ss-2) to generate phylogenetic hypotheses for the Psittaciformes. Analyses of the combined character partitions using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian criteria produced well-resolved and topologically similar trees in which the New Zealand taxa Strigops and Nestor (Psittacidae) were sister to all other psittaciforms and the cockatoo clade (Cacatuidae) was sister to a clade containing all remaining parrots (Psittacidae). Within this large clade of Psittacidae, some traditionally recognized tribes and subfamilies were monophyletic (e.g., Arini, Psittacini, and Loriinae), whereas several others were polyphyletic (e.g., Cyclopsittacini, Platycercini, Psittaculini, and Psittacinae). Ancestral area reconstructions using our Bayesian phylogenetic hypothesis and current distributions of genera supported the hypothesis of an Australasian origin for the Psittaciformes. Separate analyses of the timing of parrot diversification constructed with both Bayesian relaxed-clock and penalized likelihood approaches showed better agreement between geologic and diversification events in the chronograms based on a Cretaceous dating of the basal split within parrots than the chronograms based on a Tertiary dating of this split, although these data are more equivocal. Taken together, our results support a Cretaceous origin of Psittaciformes in Gondwana after the separation of Africa and the India/Madagascar block with subsequent diversification through both vicariance and dispersal. These well-resolved molecular phylogenies will be of value for comparative studies of behavior, ecology, and life history in parrots.
This volume consist of eight main sections. Initially origins and evolutionary relationships are examined, followed by a brief section on the classification of the parrots. Next a section reviews the natural history of the parrots, briefly covering: general behaviour; distribution; habitat; movements; social behaviour; diet; breeding; and nocturnal species. Conservation status ics covered next. The main threats to parrots are then outlined and discussed: habitat loss; live bird trade; introduced species; persecution and hunting; and storms'climatic change. A brief section then looks at captive breeding. The mian body of the book is taken up with colour plates and a systematic section. The systematic section contains the following information, for each species: identification notes; voice; distribution and status (including distribution maps); ecology; description; sex/age; measurements; geographical variation; and references.
Almost 90% of global bird extinctions have occurred on islands. The loss of endemic species from island systems can dramatically alter evolutionary trajectories of insular species biodiversity, resulting in a loss of evolutionary diversity important for species adaptation to changing environments. The Western Indian Ocean islands have been the scene of evolution for a large number of endemic parrots. Since their discovery in the 16th century, many of these parrots have become extinct or have declined in numbers. Alongside the extinction of species, a number of the Indian Ocean islands have experienced colonisation by highly invasive parrots, such as the Ring-necked parakeet. Such extinctions and invasions can, on an evolutionary timescale, drive changes in species composition, genetic diversity and turnover in phylogenetic diversity, all of which can have important impacts on species potential for adaptation to changing environmental and climatic conditions. Using mtDNA cytochrome b data, we resolve the taxonomic placement of three extinct Indian Ocean parrots; the Rodrigues, Seychelles and Reunion parakeets. This case study quantifies how the extinction of these species has resulted in lost historical endemic phylogenetic diversity and reduced levels of species richness, and illustrates how it is being replaced by non-endemic invasive forms such as the Ring-necked parakeet Psittacula krameri. Finally, we use our phylogenetic framework to identify and recommend a number of phylogenetically appropriate ecological replacements for the extinct parrots. Such replacements may be introduced once invasive forms have been cleared, in order to rejuvenate ecosystem function and restore lost phylogenetic diversity.This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
The first molecular and morphological study of the insufficiently known Black-collared Lovebird Agapornis
swindernianus of West and Central Africa indicates that this species is the sister taxon of all the remaining Agapornis parrots. The systematic position of the Grey-headed Lovebird A. canus could not be convincingly resolved by the sequence analysis of the cytochrome b gene, but morphological characters support earlier assumptions that this species forms a clade with the Red-faced and the Black-winged Lovebird, A. pullarius and A. taranta. The new phylogeny of Agapornis presented here suggests that the last common ancestor of
lovebirds originated on the African continent, and that it was a more arboreal forest-dweller, probably with a preference for small fruit seeds. Thus, a preference to more open woodlands and a change to a more granivorous diet must have evolved
after the split of the lineages leading to A. swindernianus and
all the remaining lovebird species.
Aim Parrots are thought to have originated on Gondwana during the Cretaceous. The initial split within crown group parrots separated the New Zealand taxa from the remaining extant species and was considered to coincide with the separation of New Zealand from Gondwana 82–85 Ma, assuming that the diversification of parrots was mainly shaped by vicariance. However, the distribution patterns of several extant parrot groups cannot be explained without invoking transoceanic dispersal, challenging this assumption. Here, we present a temporal and spatial framework for the diversification of parrots using external avian fossils as calibration points in order to evaluate the relative importance of the influences of past climate change, plate tectonics and ecological opportunity.
Parrots are among the most recognisable and widely distributed of all bird groups occupying major parts of the tropics. The evolution of the genera that are found in and around the Indian Ocean region is particularly interesting as they show a high degree of heterogeneity in distribution and levels of speciation. Here we present a molecular phylogenetic analysis of Indian Ocean parrots, identifying the possible geological and geographical factors that influenced their evolution. We hypothesise that the Indian Ocean islands acted as stepping stones in the radiation of the Old-World parrots, and that sea-level changes may have been an important determinant of current distributions and differences in speciation. A multi-locus phylogeny showing the evolutionary relationships among genera highlights the interesting position of the monotypic Psittrichas, which shares a common ancestor with the geographically distant Coracopsis. An extensive species-level molecular phylogeny indicates a complex pattern of radiation including evidence for colonisation of Africa, Asia and the Indian Ocean islands from Australasia via multiple routes, and of island populations 'seeding' continents. Moreover, comparison of estimated divergence dates and sea-level changes points to the latter as a factor in parrot speciation. This is the first study to include the extinct parrot taxa, Mascarinus mascarinus and Psittacula wardi which, respectively, appear closely related to Coracopsis nigra and Psittacula eupatria.
Vicariance is thought to have played a major role in the evolution of modern parrots. However, as the relationships especially of the African taxa remained mostly unresolved, it has been difficult to draw firm conclusions about the roles of dispersal and vicariance. Our analyses using the broadest taxon sampling of old world parrots ever based on 3219bp of three nuclear genes revealed well-resolved and congruent phylogenetic hypotheses. Agapornis of Africa and Madagascar was found to be the sister group to Loriculus of Australasia and Indo-Malayasia and together they clustered with the Australasian Loriinae, Cyclopsittacini and Melopsittacus. Poicephalus and Psittacus from mainland Africa formed the sister group of the Neotropical Arini and Coracopsis from Madagascar and adjacent islands may be the closest relative of Psittrichas from New Guinea. These biogeographic relationships are best explained by independent colonization of the African continent via trans-oceanic dispersal from Australasia and Antarctica in the Paleogene following what may have been vicariance events in the late Cretaceous and/or early Paleogene. Our data support a taxon pulse model for the diversification of parrots whereby trans-oceanic dispersal played a more important role than previously thought and was the prerequisite for range expansion into new continents.
A PCR-based approach to sequencing complete mitochondrial genomes is described along with a set of 86 primers designed primarily for avian mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). This PCR-based approach allows an accurate determination of complete mtDNA sequences that is faster than sequencing cloned mtDNA. The primers are spaced at about 500-base intervals along both DNA strands. Many of the primers incorporate degenerate positions to accommodate variation in mtDNA sequence among avian taxa and to reduce the potential for preferential amplification of nuclear pseudogenes. Comparison with published vertebrate mtDNA sequences suggests that many of the primers will have broad taxonomic utility. In addition, these primers should make available a wider variety of mitochondrial genes for studies based on smaller data sets.
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