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Chapter Title Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES) Scale
Copyright Year 2016
Copyright Holder Springer International Publishing AG
Corresponding Author Family Name Piedmont
Particle
Given Name Ralph
Given Name L.
SuffixAU1
Division/Department Department of Pastoral Counseling
Organization/University Loyola University Maryland
Street 8890 McGaw Road, Suite 380
City Columbia
State MD
Postcode 21045
Country USA
Phone 410-716-7625
Email rpiedmont@loyola.edu
Author Family Name Toscano
Particle
Given Name Marion
Given Name E.
Suffix
Division/Department Department of Pastoral Counseling
Organization/University Loyola University Maryland
Street 8890 McGaw Road, Suite 380
City Columbia
State MD
Postcode 21045
Country USA
Phone 305-610-5046
Email metoscano@loyola.edu
1A
2Assessment of Spirituality
3and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES)
4Scale
5AU1 Ralph L. Piedmont and Marion E. Toscano
6Department of Pastoral Counseling, Loyola
7University Maryland, Columbia, MD, USA
8Synonyms
9Assessment of spirituality and religiousness;Spir-
10 itual Transcendence Scale
11 Definition
12 The Assessment of Spirituality and Religious
13 Sentiments (ASPIRES) scale is an empirically
14 derived, nondenominational, and multiculturally
15 valid measure for assessing the psychological
16 aspects of spirituality and religiosity in a manner
17 appropriate for use in clinical, research, and aca-
18 demic contexts.
19 Introduction
20 Spirituality and religion have emerged as impor-
21 tant psychological constructs over the last
22 20 years. A plethora of measures and large
23research base acknowledge the value of spiritual-
24ity for understanding people and predicting their
25behavior. However, a number of important issues
26have emerged which preempt the field from max-
27imizing its impact. First, there is no consensual
28definition of what spirituality is and is not. With-
29out such agreement it becomes difficult to create a
30cumulative body of knowledge in the area. There
31are also a number of technical issues that are in
32need of attention, including controlling for acqui-
33escent responding and the lack of normative infor-
34mation for many instruments. Additionally, items
35on many spirituality scales tend to reflect a main-
36line Protestant orientation, which severely limits
37the generalizability of these measures. Finally,
38there are no observer reports for spirituality scales.
39This reliance on self-report data makes question-
40able the relevance and importance of spirituality.
41Is spirituality something that is entirely personal
42and unique to each person or is there some com-
43mon understanding of the construct that can be
44identified by others in a person’s behavior? The
45ASPIRES was developed to tackle these problems
46head on. The underlying assumption was to con-
47ceptualize spirituality as a psychological variable,
48an intrinsic source of motivation universal to the
49human experience. Using the five-factor model of
50personality (FFM) as an organizing empirical
51scaffold, the aim was to identify spirituality as
52an objective personality-type construct with
53clearly defined conceptual boundaries. It was
54hoped that such a data-driven approach would be
#Springer International Publishing AG 2016
V. Zeigler-Hill, T.K. Shackelford (eds.), Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_87-1
55 persuasive in promoting greater definitional con-
56 sensus in the field.
57 History and Structure
58 The origins of the ASPIRES are found in the
59 Spiritual Transcendence Scale (STS) (Piedmont
60 1999,AU2 2001). The purpose of the STS was empir-
61 ically to define and measure the fundamental
62 aspects of spirituality that are universal among
63 all humans across cultures, languages, and
64 denominations. In order to accomplish this, reli-
65 gious and spiritual leaders from a variety of faith
66 traditions (including Catholicism, Judaism, Bud-
67 dhism, Hinduism, Quakerism, Baptist, and
68 Lutheranism) were assembled with the goal of
69 identifying those qualities of spirituality that
70 were common across all their faith groups. They
71 were asked to write specific survey questions that
72 captured these universal qualities. These items,
73 combined with others formulated by Piedmont,
74 were tested in order to determine if they were
75 (1) independent of personality as represented by
76 the FFM, (2) comparable to the FFM in structure
77 and predictive breadth, and (3) predictive of rele-
78 vant outcomes over the FFM domains and
79 (4) could be recovered across information sources
80 such as self-report and observer-rating forms.
81 The results of these analyses resulted in a
82 23-item scale that was comprised of three corre-
83 lated facets: prayer fulfillment, the ability to create
84 a personal space that enables one to feel a positive
85 connection to a larger transcendent reality; uni-
86 versality, the belief in a larger meaning and pur-
87 pose to life, including the understanding of an
88 inherent connection among all living creatures;
89 and connectedness, feelings of belonging and
90 responsibility to a larger reality that spans gener-
91 ations and groups. Taken together, overall spiri-
92 tual transcendence (ST) represented an innate
93 motivation to create a broad sense of ultimate
94 meaning within an eschatological context. In
95 other words, knowing that we will die, how do
96 we build meaning, depth, and coherence to the life
97 we are leading? Those high on ST are able to
98 understand their lives in a manner in which time
99 is not a factor. Those low on ST are more
100materialistically oriented and understand their
101lives in a more time-delimited manner. As for
102length, 13-item short forms for both the self-report
103and observer-rating versions were created.
104While the STS captured the spiritual motiva-
105tions of the individual, it was recognized that
106involvement in religious activities represented
107another aspect of numinous functioning not
108contained in the STS. As such, the religious sen-
109timents (RS) scales were developed to assess
110these qualities. Two scales were developed. The
111first was an 8-item religious involvement
112(RI) scale which assessed the extent individuals
113outwardly expresses their connection and com-
114mitment to their faith community and/or the god
115of their understanding. The second scale was a 4-
116item religious crisis (RC) scale which examined
117the extent to which individuals struggle with or
118have difficulties attributed to connection with
119their faith community and/or the god of their
120understanding. Items in this section gauge a per-
121son’s feelings of isolation, abandonment, and/or
122punishment.
123The current version of the ASPIRES is a
12435-item measure (not including demographics
125questions) and is comprised of two main dimen-
126sions: RS and ST, each consisting of multiple
127scales. Items on the STS are balanced to control
128for acquiescence. There are four forms: self-
129report, observer-rating, short self-report, and
130observer-rating forms. The self and observer ver-
131sions are both individually normed, controlling
132for age and gender, and validated. Scores are
133presented as T-scores having a mean of 50 and
134standard deviation of 10. This enables direct com-
135parison of T-scores between the two different ver-
136sions as well as being an obvious way to assess the
137representativeness of any sample’s levels of spir-
138ituality against United States (US) normative data.
139Scores on the ASPIRES scales are reliable
140 AU3(alphas range from 0.60 for connectedness to
1410.95 for prayer fulfillment; alphas for RI and RC
142are 0.89 and. 0.78, respectively. For the observer
143form, alphas range from 0.54 for connectedness to
1440.93 for prayer fulfillment; alphas for RI and RC
145are 0.86 and 0.81, respectively.
146Piedmont and colleagues (Piedmont 2010;
147Piedmont et al. 2009) have also demonstrated
2 Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES) Scale
148 significant cross-observer validity between the
149 self and observer ratings on all ASPIRES scales;
150 the magnitude of association being comparable
151 with those found with the FFM domains and in
152 both US and Philippine samples (cross-observer
153 correlations in US data range from 0.25 for con-
154 nectedness to 0.64 on prayer fulfillment; values
155 for RI and RC are 0.75 and 0.34, respectively).
156 The ASPIRES scales capture aspects of function-
157 ing that are not solipsistic in nature but instead
158 represent qualities of the individual that are
159 expressed in behavior and are consensually rec-
160 ognized as representing spiritual and religious
161 dynamics.
162 The ASPIRES Conceptual Model:
163 Sentiments Versus Motives
164 An important assumption of the ASPIRES is that
165 while spirituality and religiousness are both moti-
166 vational constructs, they represent distinct psy-
167 chological qualities: the former is an operant
168 motive and the latter is a sentiment. It is important
169 to note the differences between these two types of
170 constructs. The RI and RC scales represent
171 sentiment-based motivations. A sentiment reflects
172 the emotional tendencies that develop out of
173 social traditions and educational experiences
174 (Woodworth 1940). Sentiments reflect what we
175 believe to be important and what we value.
176 Because of this, sentiments can and do vary in
177 both content and expression between and even
178 within groups. What may be important for one
179 cultural group or person may not be so valued by
180 others. Sentiments may also be more amenable to
181 change.
182 Conversely, scores on the STS reflect a univer-
183 sal, genotypic quality that drives, directs, and
184 selects behavior. As an intrinsic source of motiva-
185 tion, spirituality influences the basic adaptive ori-
186 entation of individuals to their environments.
187 While the expression of motives may be
188 influenced by cultural norms, its underlying
189 strength remains stable in adulthood. Further, the
190 psychological nature of this motive is common
191 across peoples, cultures, and religions. ST is
192 hypothesized to be a genetically endowed quality
193that can be understood as a “basic building block
194to personality, motives are the source for many
195acquired sentiments”(Piedmont 2012, p. 108).
196Religiousness is hypothesized to be an outcome
197of one’s underlying spirituality drive. Thus, the
198ASPIRES model presents an empirically based
199framework for understanding spiritual and reli-
200gious functioning in very clear, testable terms
201and provides a more detailed conceptual under-
202standing of the psychological processes associ-
203ated with these two constructs (Piedmont and
204Wilkins 2013).
205There is a large, and growing, research litera-
206ture that supports the assumptions behind the
207ASPIRES scales. This empirical foundation sup-
208ports both theory development and interpretive
209insight. Piedmont et al. (2009) demonstrated that
210while spirituality and religiousness were substan-
211tially interrelated, each scale contained sufficient
212uniquely reliable variance to warrant their sepa-
213rate interpretation. Piedmont et al. (2009) showed
214that these scales appear to be mediated by differ-
215ent psychological processes. For example, spiri-
216tuality was associated with positive affect, but
217independent of negative affect. Thus, spirituality
218provides joy in life, but does not protect from
219distress. Religiousness related negatively to neg-
220ative affect but was independent of positive affect.
221Engagement in rituals and practice helps to reduce
222emotional discomfort, but does not give happi-
223ness. Future research may wish to identify the
224different psychological pathways, and their impli-
225cations for functioning, that control these
226constructs.
227Perhaps the most important empirical findings
228concern how spirituality relates to psychological
229functioning: Is it a causal input into our mental
230world or is it simply a consequence of other psy-
231chological dynamics? Piedmont et al. (2009)
232tested three competing causal models: (1) spiritu-
233ality and religiousness as correlated causal inputs
234into psychological growth/maturity, (2) psycho-
235logical growth/maturity as the causal input into
236spirituality and religiousness, and (3) spirituality
237as a causal input into both religiousness and psy-
238chological growth/maturity. The data indicated
239that model 3 best explained the data. This finding
240explains why spirituality is an important
Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES) Scale 3
241 psychological quality that needs to be addressed:
242 our capacity to create ultimate meaning directly
243 influences the quality and tenor of our mental life.
244 Recognizing the numinous as a causal input into
245 psychological functioning raises the possible
246 existence of an entirely new domain of potential
247 interventions awaiting discovery. Changing how
248 individuals make ultimate meaning may provide
249 an avenue for transforming lives.
250 Given the extensive empirical support for
251 scores on the ASPIRES as well as its well-
252 developed psychometrics, it is one of only a hand-
253 ful of spiritually oriented measures that have been
254 abstracted in Buros Mental Measurements Year-
255 book. Independent reviews of the instrument are
256 uniformly supportive of the empirical integrity of
257 the scale and recognize the psychological value of
258 scores for use with a wide array of populations
259 (Brent 2014; Schoenrade 2014).
260 Applications for Use
261 The ASPIRES represents a useful instrument for
262 clinicians and researchers in the social sciences.
263 The empirically based development of the scale to
264 capture a universal individual-difference con-
265 struct means that the items do not reflect any
266 specific theology or denominational perspective.
267 Thus, the scale is appropriate for all individuals
268 regardless of the religious status (scores on the
269 scale have been shown to be reliable and predic-
270 tively valid for atheists and agnostics). Research
271 has also demonstrated that scores on the
272 ASPIRES predict an array of relevant outcomes
273 and that these effects are nonredundant with other
274 personality scales.
275 There are seven important features of the
276 ASPIRES that make it an essential measure for
277 research and clinical work. First, the ASPIRES
278 provides an empirically sustainable definition of
279 religiousness and spirituality that has meaningful
280 predictive value for understanding an array of
281 salient psychological outcomes (e.g., well-being,
282 interpersonal style, psychological maturity, and
283 vocational interest). It also provides a conceptual
284 model for how to understand the psychological
285 qualities of these two constructs. Second, the
286ASPIRES captures spirituality as a universal psy-
287chological quality; scores on its dimensions are
288relevant for all individuals, regardless of their
289religious affiliation or belief systems. Thus, it is
290an inclusive measure appropriate for everyone.
291Third the ASPIRES has a large and expanding
292research base that supports its universal applica-
293tion as well as providing support for the underly-
294ing assumptions behind spirituality and
295religiousness. The ASPIRES has been tested and
296shown to be valid across cultures, languages (e.g.,
297Spanish, Tagalog, Czech, Polish, Chinese, Malay,
298and Korean), and faith groups (e.g., Catholics,
299Jews, Hindus, Muslims, Atheists, and Agnostics;
300Piedmont 2010). The evidence supports ST as an
301essential universal motivation (e.g., Rican and
302Janosova 2010). Fourth, research has shown that
303interpretations gained from the ASPIRES were
304non-redundant with information obtained from
305other major psychological variables (e.g., FFM).
306Thus, any model of psychological functioning
307that wishes to be comprehensive will need to
308include information about spirituality. Fifth, the
309ASPIRES has normative data which assists
310researchers both to control for age and gender
311effects and to estimate the representativeness of
312their samples. Normative data allows scores to be
313more inferential than descriptive in nature. Sixth,
314the availability of a validated, normed observer-
315rating version is unique in this field. Observer
316ratings can be compared to self-report scores to
317determine directly convergence between self and
318other ratings. This is useful in couple work as each
319participant can take the assessment for themselves
320and then rate their partner. Looking at where the
321two reports converge and deviate can provide
322valuable insight into how each partner sees the
323other, with resulting implications for relationship
324satisfaction. Also, observer ratings can provide
325evidence of spiritual levels in others when a self-
326report may not be available. Finally, scores on the
327ASPIRES have been shown to be linked with
328success in therapy (especially in the areas of sub-
329stance abuse), which is useful in setting realistic
330treatment goals and outcome expectations
331(Piedmont 2012).
4 Assessment of Spirituality and Religious Sentiments (ASPIRES) Scale
332 Conclusion
333 The ASPIRES provides an empirically robust
334 framework for understanding and evaluating spir-
335 itual and religious phenomena. By conceptualiz-
336 ing spirituality as a trait-based construct, ST fits
337 well with established psychological models, and
338 its nondenominational nature makes it appropriate
339 for assessing all types of individuals. The
340 ASPIRES is the only scale with a validated rater
341 version. Kapuscinski and Masters (2010) identi-
342 fied a number of technical strengths for the instru-
343 ment and endorsed the value of the methodologies
344 used in its construction. The ASPIRES is one of a
345 very small number of spiritual instruments that
346 have been reviewed by Buros Mental Measure-
347 ment Yearbook. The ASPIRES is an essential
348 instrument for researchers and clinicians inter-
349 ested in addressing spiritual issues in an inclusive
350 and psychologically relevant manner.
351 Cross-References
352 ▶Existential Approach to Personality
353 ▶NEO Inventories
354 ▶Personality and Mortality
355 ▶Personality Structure
356 ▶Personal Strivings
357 ▶Positive Psychology
358 ▶Religion
359 ▶Self-Transcendence
360 ▶Trust Versus Mistrust
361 References
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