Bridging The Gap Between The Past And The Present: A Reconsideration Of Mosque Architectural Elements

Abstract

Mosques are among the most important building types for any community, where Muslims gather for their prayers and social activities. Mosque architecture has developed over history and faced several dramatic changes. This raises a question regarding the reality of mosque architecture and how it should look like today. This paper discusses this issue through a historical overview and some critical observations. Firstly, the paper discusses the historical functional role of mosque basic elements. Validity of these elements within the context of modern architecture has been argued considering the contemporary inputs that have a significant impact on mosque architecture. Several cases are presented and discussed in this regard. The study concluded that there is a great symbolic and spiritual value of these elements that should be maintained. The analysis carried out of several contemporary cases revealed that there is a wide margin to revive and reintroduce these elements in the light of the modern architectural trends. In addition to their functional roles, mosque architectural elements could be used as identity elements of the Islamic city, microclimatic modifiers, and linking tools between the past and the present.

Full text

Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4[2] December 2016 | 77
JOURNAL OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
P-ISSN: 2086-2636 E-ISSN: 2356-4644
Journal Home Page: http://ejournal.uin-malang.ac.id/index.php/JIA
BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN THE PAST AND THE PRESENT: A
RECONSIDERATION OF MOSQUE ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
| Received July 31th 2016 | Accepted September 26th 2016 | Available online December 20th 2016 |
| DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.18860/jia.v4i2.3559 |
Omar S. Asfour
Islamic University of Gaza
Gaza, Palestine
oasfour@iugaza.edu.ps
ABSTRACT
Mosques are among the most important building types for any community, where
Muslims gather for their prayers and social activities. Mosque architecture has
developed over history and faced several dramatic changes. This raises a
question regarding the reality of mosque architecture and how it should look like
today. This paper discusses this issue through a historical overview and some
critical observations. Firstly, the paper discusses the historical functional role of
mosque basic elements. Validity of these elements within the context of modern
architecture has been argued considering the contemporary inputs that have a
significant impact on mosque architecture. Several cases are presented and
discussed in this regard. The study concluded that there is a great symbolic and
spiritual value of these elements that should be maintained. The analysis carried
out of several contemporary cases revealed that there is a wide margin to revive
and reintroduce these elements in the light of the modern architectur al trends.
In addition to their functional roles, mosque architectural elements co uld be used
as identity elements of the Islamic city, microclimatic modifiers, and linking tools
between the past and the present.
KEYWORDS:
Mosque; Islamic architecture; vernacularism, modernism
INTRODUCTION
Since the early times of Islamic history, Muslims
have paid a lot of care to mosque architecture. This
could be noticed in the diversity of mosque elements
and styles that have been used across the history.
Several elements have been used for centuries in the
architecture of this unique type of buildings including
prayer hall, courtyard, dome, minaret, and iwan.
However, the contemporary development of
architecture in terms of technology and theory caused
confusion among architects of what mosque
architecture should look like. The common practice of
the mere copy of these elements from the historical
examples without understanding their original and
potential roles is controversial. Understanding the
background of the emergence of these elements and
how they have developed overtime should help
designers reintroduce mosque architecture in a way
that is consistent with its social, political, and technical
contexts. This forms a real challenge to designers,
which exposes the conflict that exists today between
modernism and vernacularism in mosque design. This
paper aims to investigate this issue in order to find out
how to achieve a proper contemporary utilisation of
the constituent elements of mosque architecture. It
begins with an overview on the development of
mosque architecture. Then, it discusses mosque design
within the context of contemporary architecture to
find out the potential contemporary reconsideration of
the historical elements of mosque architecture.
RESEARCH METHODS
This main research problem is to find out how to
reconsider the constituent historical elements of
mosque architecture in a way that bridge the gap
between the past and the present of mosque
architecture. This is a valid issue since a clear
divergence could be observed between the
vernacularism and modernism schools in mosque
architecture. To bridge the gap between these two
approaches, a review on the emergence and
development of mosque architectural elements has
been carried out. This is followed by a critical
discussion of the possible opportunities of
reintroducing these elements in a modern function and
synthesis. This has been done through a descriptive
approach based on a historical analysis and an
inductive review of several real-time examples. In this
context, the current trends of mosque architecture
have been distinguished, and necessity of the historical
elements in mosque architecture has been discussed.
DEVELOPMENT OF MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE
The year 622 was the year of migration to
Medina, hijrah, in which the Prophet Mohammed
(PBUH) established his mosque. This mosque is one of
the three main mosques in Islam: al-Haram Mosque in
Makkah, Prophet’s Mosque in Medina, and al-Aqsa
Mosque in Jerusalem. Books of history explained the
Prophet’s Mosque architecture, which is called today

Bridging The Gap Between The Past And The Present Of Mosque Architecture: A Critical Overview
78 |Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016
Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi. According to Hillenbrand [1], the
original mosque was built by the Prophet (PBUH) and
his companions as a courtyard surrounded by plain
walls and attached to a covered prayer shed (Figure 1).
(a): First Construction [2]
(b): First Rebuilt [1]
Figure 1: An imagination of the Prophet’s Mosque
In general, the design of this first model was
simple and homogeneous with its urban context. As
number of Muslims increased, this mosque was
extended and developed seven years later to be a
court surrounded by arcades from all sides. As Islam
spread outside the Arabian Peninsula, number of
mosques in the city increased from one large mosque,
called al-Masjid al-Jami’ or the grand mosque, to many
and possibly hundreds of mosques. Also, mosque
design developed as a response to the new urban
contexts. Many elements have been added to mosque
design (Figure 2).
The first and most important element in mosque
architecture is the prayer hall, which is the place where
people pray in rows directed to the Qiblah, Makkah.
Prayer hall also includes a place for the Imam, who is
the leader of prayers. This place is called al-Mihraab,
niche, and it is placed in the front wall of the hall.
Inside it, there is another element called al-Minbar,
pulpit, from where the Imam delivers Muslim weekly
speech in Friday prayer. As a general rule, the design of
prayer hall should not contain anything that might
disturb the praying people, especially in the Qiblah
wall. Symmetry in prayer halls is a usual practice. This
could be along one or two axes.
Another element of mosque architecture is the
courtyard. Courtyard was used as a main element in
the first construction of the Prophet’s Mosque (Figure
1). It is a common element in almost all mosque styles.
It is usually attached to the prayer hall and surrounded
by covered arcades called riwaq from at least one side.
Mosque courtyard has several advantages. For
example, it can be used as an additional external
prayer place especially in peak times and occasions.
Also, it has an environmental advantage, where
shading, vegetation and water bodies can be used for
passive cooling purposes [3].
The twin of dome and minaret is another unique
component of mosque architecture. Historically, dome
is one of the oldest roofing forms and has been used
since the earliest times. Also, it is considered as one of
the most efficient shapes to cover large plans. In
mosque architecture, some claim that it has an
additional symbolic value of representing the vault of
the heaven. However, it also attracts architects
because of its ability to provide large internal space
without internal columns.
(a): The use of domes and pencil-like minarets in the Ottoman
mosques, Turkey [5]
(b): Interior of the prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Cordoba,
8th century, Spain [5]
(c): Abdullokhon Mosque,
16th century, Isfara,
Tajikistan: the entrance [5]
(d): Friday Mosque of
Ashtarjan, 14th century, Iran:
dome chamber iwan [5]
(e): The Spiral Minaret,
Samarra Mosque, Iraq [5]
(f): Ghoury minaret, Egypt
(by the author)
Figure 2: Historical examples of the use of mosque
architectural elements
Dome is used in different ways in mosque design.
It could be used as a main roofing element or a
complementary one. The earliest domes were smaller
than the subsequent ones. Some mosques include one
dome, while others include multiple ones. Also, variety
of dome shapes could be distinguished in mosque
architecture like spherical, elliptical, bulbous, and
onion-shaped domes. In general, this element is
common in Turkish mosques which are characterised
by the construction of multiple domes and half domes.
These domes are usually centralised over the prayer
hall, and sometimes cover the entire plan with lateral
and smaller numerous domes. In this case, roof loading
doesn’t rely solely on columns. This resulted in a high
ceiling in the interior and massive appearance of the
exterior.
Bridging The Gap Between The Past And The Present Of Mosque Architecture: A Critical Overview
78 |Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016
Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi. According to Hillenbrand [1], the
original mosque was built by the Prophet (PBUH) and
his companions as a courtyard surrounded by plain
walls and attached to a covered prayer shed (Figure 1).
(a): First Construction [2]
(b): First Rebuilt [1]
Figure 1: An imagination of the Prophet’s Mosque
In general, the design of this first model was
simple and homogeneous with its urban context. As
number of Muslims increased, this mosque was
extended and developed seven years later to be a
court surrounded by arcades from all sides. As Islam
spread outside the Arabian Peninsula, number of
mosques in the city increased from one large mosque,
called al-Masjid al-Jami’ or the grand mosque, to many
and possibly hundreds of mosques. Also, mosque
design developed as a response to the new urban
contexts. Many elements have been added to mosque
design (Figure 2).
The first and most important element in mosque
architecture is the prayer hall, which is the place where
people pray in rows directed to the Qiblah, Makkah.
Prayer hall also includes a place for the Imam, who is
the leader of prayers. This place is called al-Mihraab,
niche, and it is placed in the front wall of the hall.
Inside it, there is another element called al-Minbar,
pulpit, from where the Imam delivers Muslim weekly
speech in Friday prayer. As a general rule, the design of
prayer hall should not contain anything that might
disturb the praying people, especially in the Qiblah
wall. Symmetry in prayer halls is a usual practice. This
could be along one or two axes.
Another element of mosque architecture is the
courtyard. Courtyard was used as a main element in
the first construction of the Prophet’s Mosque (Figure
1). It is a common element in almost all mosque styles.
It is usually attached to the prayer hall and surrounded
by covered arcades called riwaq from at least one side.
Mosque courtyard has several advantages. For
example, it can be used as an additional external
prayer place especially in peak times and occasions.
Also, it has an environmental advantage, where
shading, vegetation and water bodies can be used for
passive cooling purposes [3].
The twin of dome and minaret is another unique
component of mosque architecture. Historically, dome
is one of the oldest roofing forms and has been used
since the earliest times. Also, it is considered as one of
the most efficient shapes to cover large plans. In
mosque architecture, some claim that it has an
additional symbolic value of representing the vault of
the heaven. However, it also attracts architects
because of its ability to provide large internal space
without internal columns.
(a): The use of domes and pencil-like minarets in the Ottoman
mosques, Turkey [5]
(b): Interior of the prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Cordoba,
8th century, Spain [5]
(c): Abdullokhon Mosque,
16th century, Isfara,
Tajikistan: the entrance [5]
(d): Friday Mosque of
Ashtarjan, 14th century, Iran:
dome chamber iwan [5]
(e): The Spiral Minaret,
Samarra Mosque, Iraq [5]
(f): Ghoury minaret, Egypt
(by the author)
Figure 2: Historical examples of the use of mosque
architectural elements
Dome is used in different ways in mosque design.
It could be used as a main roofing element or a
complementary one. The earliest domes were smaller
than the subsequent ones. Some mosques include one
dome, while others include multiple ones. Also, variety
of dome shapes could be distinguished in mosque
architecture like spherical, elliptical, bulbous, and
onion-shaped domes. In general, this element is
common in Turkish mosques which are characterised
by the construction of multiple domes and half domes.
These domes are usually centralised over the prayer
hall, and sometimes cover the entire plan with lateral
and smaller numerous domes. In this case, roof loading
doesn’t rely solely on columns. This resulted in a high
ceiling in the interior and massive appearance of the
exterior.
Bridging The Gap Between The Past And The Present Of Mosque Architecture: A Critical Overview
78 |Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016
Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi. According to Hillenbrand [1], the
original mosque was built by the Prophet (PBUH) and
his companions as a courtyard surrounded by plain
walls and attached to a covered prayer shed (Figure 1).
(a): First Construction [2]
(b): First Rebuilt [1]
Figure 1: An imagination of the Prophet’s Mosque
In general, the design of this first model was
simple and homogeneous with its urban context. As
number of Muslims increased, this mosque was
extended and developed seven years later to be a
court surrounded by arcades from all sides. As Islam
spread outside the Arabian Peninsula, number of
mosques in the city increased from one large mosque,
called al-Masjid al-Jami’ or the grand mosque, to many
and possibly hundreds of mosques. Also, mosque
design developed as a response to the new urban
contexts. Many elements have been added to mosque
design (Figure 2).
The first and most important element in mosque
architecture is the prayer hall, which is the place where
people pray in rows directed to the Qiblah, Makkah.
Prayer hall also includes a place for the Imam, who is
the leader of prayers. This place is called al-Mihraab,
niche, and it is placed in the front wall of the hall.
Inside it, there is another element called al-Minbar,
pulpit, from where the Imam delivers Muslim weekly
speech in Friday prayer. As a general rule, the design of
prayer hall should not contain anything that might
disturb the praying people, especially in the Qiblah
wall. Symmetry in prayer halls is a usual practice. This
could be along one or two axes.
Another element of mosque architecture is the
courtyard. Courtyard was used as a main element in
the first construction of the Prophet’s Mosque (Figure
1). It is a common element in almost all mosque styles.
It is usually attached to the prayer hall and surrounded
by covered arcades called riwaq from at least one side.
Mosque courtyard has several advantages. For
example, it can be used as an additional external
prayer place especially in peak times and occasions.
Also, it has an environmental advantage, where
shading, vegetation and water bodies can be used for
passive cooling purposes [3].
The twin of dome and minaret is another unique
component of mosque architecture. Historically, dome
is one of the oldest roofing forms and has been used
since the earliest times. Also, it is considered as one of
the most efficient shapes to cover large plans. In
mosque architecture, some claim that it has an
additional symbolic value of representing the vault of
the heaven. However, it also attracts architects
because of its ability to provide large internal space
without internal columns.
(a): The use of domes and pencil-like minarets in the Ottoman
mosques, Turkey [5]
(b): Interior of the prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Cordoba,
8th century, Spain [5]
(c): Abdullokhon Mosque,
16th century, Isfara,
Tajikistan: the entrance [5]
(d): Friday Mosque of
Ashtarjan, 14th century, Iran:
dome chamber iwan [5]
(e): The Spiral Minaret,
Samarra Mosque, Iraq [5]
(f): Ghoury minaret, Egypt
(by the author)
Figure 2: Historical examples of the use of mosque
architectural elements
Dome is used in different ways in mosque design.
It could be used as a main roofing element or a
complementary one. The earliest domes were smaller
than the subsequent ones. Some mosques include one
dome, while others include multiple ones. Also, variety
of dome shapes could be distinguished in mosque
architecture like spherical, elliptical, bulbous, and
onion-shaped domes. In general, this element is
common in Turkish mosques which are characterised
by the construction of multiple domes and half domes.
These domes are usually centralised over the prayer
hall, and sometimes cover the entire plan with lateral
and smaller numerous domes. In this case, roof loading
doesn’t rely solely on columns. This resulted in a high
ceiling in the interior and massive appearance of the
exterior.

Omar S. Asfour
Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016 | 79
Minaret is the principal vertical feature of
mosque architecture. It is the tower from which prayer
call is historically performed five times a day. This has
been replaced by sound speakers nowadays. In
addition, some claim that it has a symbolic value
represented in raising the declaration of faith. One or
more minarets are usually attached to mosque prayer
hall. Minarets in the historical models have a variety of
forms. This is clear in Cairo, which is known as the city
of a thousand minarets. One main form is the square
one, which is found in Syria, North Africa, and Spain.
Another form is the spiral one. Minarets of Ibn Tulun
mosque and the Great Mosque of Samarra are famous
examples here. Also, the pencil-like minarets are
common in Anatolia. Finally, iwan is another historical
element of mosque architecture that could be found in
Persia. Iwan is a vaulted open hall with rectangular
arched facade used as a monumental entrance [4]. In
some examples, many iwans have been used in
different sides of the mosque courtyard.
1. Hypostyle mosques:
Location
The Arabian heartland, Spain and North
Africa
Location
Sub-Saharan West Africa
Description
Hypostyle hall with flat or domed roof
attached to a courtyard
Description
Hypostyle hall using mud-brick or rammed-earth
construction
2. Mosques with central and covered interior:
Location
Anatolia
Location
Southeast Asia
Description
Central interior covered by a massive dome
Description
Central interior covered by pyramidal roof
construction
3. Mosques with iwan (vaulted hall):
4. Mosques with triple dome:
Location
Iran and central Asia
Location
The Indian subcontinent
Description
Similar to no. 1, but with iwan and dome on
the sides of a bi-axially divided courtyard
Description
Triple-domed style with a large courtyard
5. Mosques with walled complex:
Location
China
Description
Detached pavilions within a walled garden enclosure
Figure 2: Illustration of the five basic categories of mosque architectural styles [4, adapted]

Bridging The Gap Between The Past And The Present Of Mosque Architecture: A Critical Overview
80 |Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mosque architectural elements discussed above
have been used in different ways and combinations as
a common language to produce different mosque
styles. This was a result of local and regional conditions
(e.g. the effect of the climatic conditions on the use of
the courtyard). According to Frishman & Khan [4], it is
possible to classify mosque architectural styles into
five broad styles according to their geographical zone
as depicted in Figure 3. Hillenbrand [1] classified them
under three main categories: the hypostyle or Arabic
style, the Turkish or Ottoman style, and the Iranian or
Persian style. He said that the rest of styles have major
similarities with them. For example, mosque style in
the Indian subcontinent is a successful combination of
these three main styles. In these styles, the above-
discussed geometrical elements of mosque
architecture are maintained but varied in a way or
another.
This diversity in mosque elements during the
different ears of Islamic history can be related to the
dynamic concept of mosque, which is simply a place to
perform prayers. This means that the simplest form of
mosque is a defined enclosure, usually covered, with
its floor used for prayer. As an example, Figure 4
shows an open-air simple prayer area, where a stone
marker indicates Qibla, Makkah direction. Thus, the
basic functional requirements in mosque architecture
are [6, 7]:
-Providing a sufficient and pure place for prayer.
-Orientation towards Makkah.
-Reducing or eliminating internal columns that
interrupt prayer rows.
-Avoiding over decoration that interrupt prayers.
-Using plan forms that allow for longer rows,
especially the first one which has a special virtue
in Islamic traditions.
Figure 4: Mosque simple concept [2]
Other facilities may be added to accommodate
the functions of community welfare that are practiced
in mosque buildings in addition to performing prayer.
Some spaces that are commonly added to the
contemporary mosque are: female prayer hall, Quran
teaching facilities, meeting rooms, and ablution
facilities. Figure 5 shows a zoning diagram and design
example of a typical contemporary mosque showing
the above-mentioned elements.
1. Niche, Mehrab
2. Male prayer place
3. Courtyard and Riwaq
4. Female prayer place
5. Shoe racks
6. Drinking water
7. Ablution (Females)
8. Female entrance
9. Minaret
10. Library
11. Storage
12. Literal entrances
13. Imam office
14. Ablution (Males)
15. Main entrance
Figure 5: Common zoning of the contemporary mosque, showing exemplary plan and façade [8]
Today, mosque architectural elements face a
great challenge in the context of modern architecture,
which is generally characterized by simple forms in
which decoration elements are discouraged. This
challenge is more pronounced in the West, where
design of new purpose-built mosques has several
international references, depending on the vision of
Muslim minorities of mosque architecture [9]. Globally,
several trends exist in contemporary mosque design.
However, based on an inductive review of the existing
examples, the author suggests grouping them into
three main streams:
-Preserving the historical styles in terms of main
characteristics and details. This may be called
Bridging The Gap Between The Past And The Present Of Mosque Architecture: A Critical Overview
80 |Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mosque architectural elements discussed above
have been used in different ways and combinations as
a common language to produce different mosque
styles. This was a result of local and regional conditions
(e.g. the effect of the climatic conditions on the use of
the courtyard). According to Frishman & Khan [4], it is
possible to classify mosque architectural styles into
five broad styles according to their geographical zone
as depicted in Figure 3. Hillenbrand [1] classified them
under three main categories: the hypostyle or Arabic
style, the Turkish or Ottoman style, and the Iranian or
Persian style. He said that the rest of styles have major
similarities with them. For example, mosque style in
the Indian subcontinent is a successful combination of
these three main styles. In these styles, the above-
discussed geometrical elements of mosque
architecture are maintained but varied in a way or
another.
This diversity in mosque elements during the
different ears of Islamic history can be related to the
dynamic concept of mosque, which is simply a place to
perform prayers. This means that the simplest form of
mosque is a defined enclosure, usually covered, with
its floor used for prayer. As an example, Figure 4
shows an open-air simple prayer area, where a stone
marker indicates Qibla, Makkah direction. Thus, the
basic functional requirements in mosque architecture
are [6, 7]:
-Providing a sufficient and pure place for prayer.
-Orientation towards Makkah.
-Reducing or eliminating internal columns that
interrupt prayer rows.
-Avoiding over decoration that interrupt prayers.
-Using plan forms that allow for longer rows,
especially the first one which has a special virtue
in Islamic traditions.
Figure 4: Mosque simple concept [2]
Other facilities may be added to accommodate
the functions of community welfare that are practiced
in mosque buildings in addition to performing prayer.
Some spaces that are commonly added to the
contemporary mosque are: female prayer hall, Quran
teaching facilities, meeting rooms, and ablution
facilities. Figure 5 shows a zoning diagram and design
example of a typical contemporary mosque showing
the above-mentioned elements.
1. Niche, Mehrab
2. Male prayer place
3. Courtyard and Riwaq
4. Female prayer place
5. Shoe racks
6. Drinking water
7. Ablution (Females)
8. Female entrance
9. Minaret
10. Library
11. Storage
12. Literal entrances
13. Imam office
14. Ablution (Males)
15. Main entrance
Figure 5: Common zoning of the contemporary mosque, showing exemplary plan and façade [8]
Today, mosque architectural elements face a
great challenge in the context of modern architecture,
which is generally characterized by simple forms in
which decoration elements are discouraged. This
challenge is more pronounced in the West, where
design of new purpose-built mosques has several
international references, depending on the vision of
Muslim minorities of mosque architecture [9]. Globally,
several trends exist in contemporary mosque design.
However, based on an inductive review of the existing
examples, the author suggests grouping them into
three main streams:
-Preserving the historical styles in terms of main
characteristics and details. This may be called
Bridging The Gap Between The Past And The Present Of Mosque Architecture: A Critical Overview
80 |Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mosque architectural elements discussed above
have been used in different ways and combinations as
a common language to produce different mosque
styles. This was a result of local and regional conditions
(e.g. the effect of the climatic conditions on the use of
the courtyard). According to Frishman & Khan [4], it is
possible to classify mosque architectural styles into
five broad styles according to their geographical zone
as depicted in Figure 3. Hillenbrand [1] classified them
under three main categories: the hypostyle or Arabic
style, the Turkish or Ottoman style, and the Iranian or
Persian style. He said that the rest of styles have major
similarities with them. For example, mosque style in
the Indian subcontinent is a successful combination of
these three main styles. In these styles, the above-
discussed geometrical elements of mosque
architecture are maintained but varied in a way or
another.
This diversity in mosque elements during the
different ears of Islamic history can be related to the
dynamic concept of mosque, which is simply a place to
perform prayers. This means that the simplest form of
mosque is a defined enclosure, usually covered, with
its floor used for prayer. As an example, Figure 4
shows an open-air simple prayer area, where a stone
marker indicates Qibla, Makkah direction. Thus, the
basic functional requirements in mosque architecture
are [6, 7]:
-Providing a sufficient and pure place for prayer.
-Orientation towards Makkah.
-Reducing or eliminating internal columns that
interrupt prayer rows.
-Avoiding over decoration that interrupt prayers.
-Using plan forms that allow for longer rows,
especially the first one which has a special virtue
in Islamic traditions.
Figure 4: Mosque simple concept [2]
Other facilities may be added to accommodate
the functions of community welfare that are practiced
in mosque buildings in addition to performing prayer.
Some spaces that are commonly added to the
contemporary mosque are: female prayer hall, Quran
teaching facilities, meeting rooms, and ablution
facilities. Figure 5 shows a zoning diagram and design
example of a typical contemporary mosque showing
the above-mentioned elements.
1. Niche, Mehrab
2. Male prayer place
3. Courtyard and Riwaq
4. Female prayer place
5. Shoe racks
6. Drinking water
7. Ablution (Females)
8. Female entrance
9. Minaret
10. Library
11. Storage
12. Literal entrances
13. Imam office
14. Ablution (Males)
15. Main entrance
Figure 5: Common zoning of the contemporary mosque, showing exemplary plan and façade [8]
Today, mosque architectural elements face a
great challenge in the context of modern architecture,
which is generally characterized by simple forms in
which decoration elements are discouraged. This
challenge is more pronounced in the West, where
design of new purpose-built mosques has several
international references, depending on the vision of
Muslim minorities of mosque architecture [9]. Globally,
several trends exist in contemporary mosque design.
However, based on an inductive review of the existing
examples, the author suggests grouping them into
three main streams:
-Preserving the historical styles in terms of main
characteristics and details. This may be called

Omar S. Asfour
Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016 | 81
vernacularism, where architectural mosque
elements are almost copied from the historical
typological forms without significant changes.
-Delinking the contemporary mosque from these
styles. This may be called modernism, where the
door is open to use new forms possibly with an
indication of some historical elements of mosque
architecture.
-Reintroducing the historical styles but in a modern
way. This may be called postmodernism, which
presents a moderate approach. In this case,
historical elements of mosque architecture are
used in their usual order but in modified forms,
proportions, colour, texture, and materials. Figure
6 shows examples of these three trends.
Vernacularism
(a): Qal’a mosque, 1848,
Egypt [by the author].
(b): Mohammed al-Amin
Mosque, 2008, Beirut [10]
Postmodernism
(d): Selimiye Mosque ,
1574, Turkey [11]
(e): Sakirin mosque, 2009,
Turkey [12]
Modernism
(c): An approved mosque design in Copenhagen [13]
Figure 6: Three main streams are distinguished for mosque
design in the modern context of architecture
One main reason of this diversity is questioning
the necessity of some historical elements in mosque
architecture. Some argue that some of these elements,
such as domes, were not originally developed by
Muslims, therefore they should not be used in mosque
architecture. However, this is how architecture works:
to develop the work of others in an innovative way.
Moreover, Islamic architecture has developed special
building types, elements, proportions, and even
ornaments [14].
Some also argue that these elements have not
been used in the first model, the Prophet’s Mosque.
Thus, their claimed spiritual value is overestimated.
Accordingly, mosque spiritual impact should come
from its simplicity and purity that promote spirituality
in prayer while maintaining the aesthetic principles. In
this context, the spiritual role of these elements can be
considered as complementary rather than essential
[6]. In this context, dome and minaret have been
considered as optional elements of mosque design in
the modernism school [15]. However, this
underestimates the functional role of these elements
as discussed below.
One of the historical roles of the dome is to keep
rows of praying people connected by reducing
structural elements in the prayer hall. This also helps
maintaining connected vision lines between people in
the prayer hall and the pulpit while delivering the
Friday speech, Khotba. It could be argued that these
benefits are achievable using advanced structural
systems like frames or other types of space structures.
However, it has been found from an environmental
point of view that domes have a significant
environmental potential that justify their use in
buildings. This includes enhancing vertical ventilation
currents. They also help energy savings in cooling due
to the fact that they have no corners where heat is
likely to be trapped. Another benefit is saving on
building materials. Dome has approximately one-third
less surface area when compared to a box-style
building [16].
Regarding the minaret, the historical role of the
minaret is also a topic of argument between historians.
The question of this argument is whether the reason
behind minaret use in mosques was originally
performing prayer call or not. In the past, there is
always a person allocated to perform prayer call from
the minaret top. Nowadays, this is not applicable
anymore because of the use of sound speaker
systems. Therefore, it could be argued that there is no
need for this large structure just for this function.
However, circumstances of establishing the first
minarets in Islam tell that they might were intended to
have a symbolic value more than a functional one [1].
Also, the analysis of the word origin in Arabic language
gives another dimension to this argument. Minaret in
Arabic is named in one of the following most common
three words, which indicate that it has other functions
apart from prayer call:
-Manara, which means a place of light.
-Sauma'a, which means a seclusion cell, usually for
worshiping. This name is still used in North Africa.
-Mi'dhana, which means a prayer call place.
In the context of this argument, Nofal [17]
classified mosque architectural elements in different
functional groups, as shown in Figure 7. He claimed
that these elements have their preferences from the
Prophet’s mosque and the earliest mosques in Islam,
which reflects the essential fictional requirements. In
fact, the rational of this classification is a subject of
argument. For example, it includes the minaret as one
of the main elements, while it excluded the dome. This
Omar S. Asfour
Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016 | 81
vernacularism, where architectural mosque
elements are almost copied from the historical
typological forms without significant changes.
-Delinking the contemporary mosque from these
styles. This may be called modernism, where the
door is open to use new forms possibly with an
indication of some historical elements of mosque
architecture.
-Reintroducing the historical styles but in a modern
way. This may be called postmodernism, which
presents a moderate approach. In this case,
historical elements of mosque architecture are
used in their usual order but in modified forms,
proportions, colour, texture, and materials. Figure
6 shows examples of these three trends.
Vernacularism
(a): Qal’a mosque, 1848,
Egypt [by the author].
(b): Mohammed al-Amin
Mosque, 2008, Beirut [10]
Postmodernism
(d): Selimiye Mosque ,
1574, Turkey [11]
(e): Sakirin mosque, 2009,
Turkey [12]
Modernism
(c): An approved mosque design in Copenhagen [13]
Figure 6: Three main streams are distinguished for mosque
design in the modern context of architecture
One main reason of this diversity is questioning
the necessity of some historical elements in mosque
architecture. Some argue that some of these elements,
such as domes, were not originally developed by
Muslims, therefore they should not be used in mosque
architecture. However, this is how architecture works:
to develop the work of others in an innovative way.
Moreover, Islamic architecture has developed special
building types, elements, proportions, and even
ornaments [14].
Some also argue that these elements have not
been used in the first model, the Prophet’s Mosque.
Thus, their claimed spiritual value is overestimated.
Accordingly, mosque spiritual impact should come
from its simplicity and purity that promote spirituality
in prayer while maintaining the aesthetic principles. In
this context, the spiritual role of these elements can be
considered as complementary rather than essential
[6]. In this context, dome and minaret have been
considered as optional elements of mosque design in
the modernism school [15]. However, this
underestimates the functional role of these elements
as discussed below.
One of the historical roles of the dome is to keep
rows of praying people connected by reducing
structural elements in the prayer hall. This also helps
maintaining connected vision lines between people in
the prayer hall and the pulpit while delivering the
Friday speech, Khotba. It could be argued that these
benefits are achievable using advanced structural
systems like frames or other types of space structures.
However, it has been found from an environmental
point of view that domes have a significant
environmental potential that justify their use in
buildings. This includes enhancing vertical ventilation
currents. They also help energy savings in cooling due
to the fact that they have no corners where heat is
likely to be trapped. Another benefit is saving on
building materials. Dome has approximately one-third
less surface area when compared to a box-style
building [16].
Regarding the minaret, the historical role of the
minaret is also a topic of argument between historians.
The question of this argument is whether the reason
behind minaret use in mosques was originally
performing prayer call or not. In the past, there is
always a person allocated to perform prayer call from
the minaret top. Nowadays, this is not applicable
anymore because of the use of sound speaker
systems. Therefore, it could be argued that there is no
need for this large structure just for this function.
However, circumstances of establishing the first
minarets in Islam tell that they might were intended to
have a symbolic value more than a functional one [1].
Also, the analysis of the word origin in Arabic language
gives another dimension to this argument. Minaret in
Arabic is named in one of the following most common
three words, which indicate that it has other functions
apart from prayer call:
-Manara, which means a place of light.
-Sauma'a, which means a seclusion cell, usually for
worshiping. This name is still used in North Africa.
-Mi'dhana, which means a prayer call place.
In the context of this argument, Nofal [17]
classified mosque architectural elements in different
functional groups, as shown in Figure 7. He claimed
that these elements have their preferences from the
Prophet’s mosque and the earliest mosques in Islam,
which reflects the essential fictional requirements. In
fact, the rational of this classification is a subject of
argument. For example, it includes the minaret as one
of the main elements, while it excluded the dome. This
Omar S. Asfour
Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016 | 81
vernacularism, where architectural mosque
elements are almost copied from the historical
typological forms without significant changes.
-Delinking the contemporary mosque from these
styles. This may be called modernism, where the
door is open to use new forms possibly with an
indication of some historical elements of mosque
architecture.
-Reintroducing the historical styles but in a modern
way. This may be called postmodernism, which
presents a moderate approach. In this case,
historical elements of mosque architecture are
used in their usual order but in modified forms,
proportions, colour, texture, and materials. Figure
6 shows examples of these three trends.
Vernacularism
(a): Qal’a mosque, 1848,
Egypt [by the author].
(b): Mohammed al-Amin
Mosque, 2008, Beirut [10]
Postmodernism
(d): Selimiye Mosque ,
1574, Turkey [11]
(e): Sakirin mosque, 2009,
Turkey [12]
Modernism
(c): An approved mosque design in Copenhagen [13]
Figure 6: Three main streams are distinguished for mosque
design in the modern context of architecture
One main reason of this diversity is questioning
the necessity of some historical elements in mosque
architecture. Some argue that some of these elements,
such as domes, were not originally developed by
Muslims, therefore they should not be used in mosque
architecture. However, this is how architecture works:
to develop the work of others in an innovative way.
Moreover, Islamic architecture has developed special
building types, elements, proportions, and even
ornaments [14].
Some also argue that these elements have not
been used in the first model, the Prophet’s Mosque.
Thus, their claimed spiritual value is overestimated.
Accordingly, mosque spiritual impact should come
from its simplicity and purity that promote spirituality
in prayer while maintaining the aesthetic principles. In
this context, the spiritual role of these elements can be
considered as complementary rather than essential
[6]. In this context, dome and minaret have been
considered as optional elements of mosque design in
the modernism school [15]. However, this
underestimates the functional role of these elements
as discussed below.
One of the historical roles of the dome is to keep
rows of praying people connected by reducing
structural elements in the prayer hall. This also helps
maintaining connected vision lines between people in
the prayer hall and the pulpit while delivering the
Friday speech, Khotba. It could be argued that these
benefits are achievable using advanced structural
systems like frames or other types of space structures.
However, it has been found from an environmental
point of view that domes have a significant
environmental potential that justify their use in
buildings. This includes enhancing vertical ventilation
currents. They also help energy savings in cooling due
to the fact that they have no corners where heat is
likely to be trapped. Another benefit is saving on
building materials. Dome has approximately one-third
less surface area when compared to a box-style
building [16].
Regarding the minaret, the historical role of the
minaret is also a topic of argument between historians.
The question of this argument is whether the reason
behind minaret use in mosques was originally
performing prayer call or not. In the past, there is
always a person allocated to perform prayer call from
the minaret top. Nowadays, this is not applicable
anymore because of the use of sound speaker
systems. Therefore, it could be argued that there is no
need for this large structure just for this function.
However, circumstances of establishing the first
minarets in Islam tell that they might were intended to
have a symbolic value more than a functional one [1].
Also, the analysis of the word origin in Arabic language
gives another dimension to this argument. Minaret in
Arabic is named in one of the following most common
three words, which indicate that it has other functions
apart from prayer call:
-Manara, which means a place of light.
-Sauma'a, which means a seclusion cell, usually for
worshiping. This name is still used in North Africa.
-Mi'dhana, which means a prayer call place.
In the context of this argument, Nofal [17]
classified mosque architectural elements in different
functional groups, as shown in Figure 7. He claimed
that these elements have their preferences from the
Prophet’s mosque and the earliest mosques in Islam,
which reflects the essential fictional requirements. In
fact, the rational of this classification is a subject of
argument. For example, it includes the minaret as one
of the main elements, while it excluded the dome. This

Bridging The Gap Between The Past And The Present Of Mosque Architecture: A Critical Overview
82 |Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016
is despite of the fact that dome is a common
architectural element that has been used in the earliest
mosques and reached its peak in mosque of the Dome
of the Rock in Jerusalem built in the Umayyad dynasty
in the seventh century. In this century, minarets
started to be used in mosques [18], and were not
popular until the fourteenth and fifteenth century [2].
Figure 7: Mosque architectural elements [17, adapted]
In general, historical elements of mosque
architecture have achieved their validity by being in
use for centuries of the Islamic civilisation. The fact
that they have not been used in the first model didn’t
prevent their use later on as there is no particular
Islamic text in this regard. This means that historical
elements of mosques should be maintained and
enriched to provide the required symbolism. This has
to be done in an innovative way that harmonises with
the context of contemporary architecture without
being put into rigid moulds. This strikes a balance
between the need of preserving mosque identity and
the need of keeping the door open for innovation in
mosque architecture in a way that considers the local
and regional requirements.
Figure 8 shows some examples in this regard.
Some ideas depicted in the Figure are:
-The modern minaret design of al-Harithy mosque
in Jeddah, KSA.
-The modern structural system in in King Faisal
mosque in Islamabad, Pakistan. This system
allowed space enclosure similar to the dome and
possibly free of internal columns.
-The use of foldable structure to cover the
courtyard of the Central Mosque in London.
-The new proportions implemented in the design
of the dome and minaret in the famous Island
Mosque, Jeddah, KSA.
This means that designers nowadays have wide
margins to deal with mosque design in a contemporary
way without compromising its historical reference. The
author recommends that mosque architecture and its
constituent elements need to be perceived in the
contemporary context of architecture as:
-Linking tools between the past and the present:
Muslims are used to see mosque buildings in
specific styles or characters for several centuries.
This has created a spiritual link between them and
the spirit of the Islamic history and civilisation. The
current diverse trends of modern architecture
confirm the need to contextualise mosque
architecture. Considering the need to revitalise
the historical architecture of mosques, modern
architecture of Muslim societies needs to be
integrated in this regard [19].
-Identity elements of the Islamic city:
In fact, architecture is the most tangible physical
manifestation of our societies, which have the
ability to add a sense of civilization to their own
habitat [20]. This is critical considering that within
the context of globalization and contemporary
architecture, preserving city identity has become
an essential issue. The role of education,
regulations, and public awareness is essential here
[21]. Mosques are main elements in creating the
Islamic city image. Cities such as Cairo and
Istanbul are typical examples, where city skyline
and perspective are greatly dominated by this
type of building. Thus, on a city scale, the unique
style of mosques is essential in showing the
Islamic city identity and promoting the sense of
place among the inhabitants. Mosque
architecture in this regard should be perceived
not only as a technique of forming the space but
also as a chance to create a system of meanings
and expressions [22].
-Identity tools utilised to distinguish mosques
among adjacent buildings:
When somebody looks for a mosque, he/she will
try to find a building with specific characteristics
and architectural elements. This in fact shows the
advantage of mosque historical elements,
especially dome and minaret which are the two
most powerful symbols of mosque architecture
[23]. Al-Qaradawi, an Islamic scholar, mentioned
that one of the characteristics required in
mosques is the uniqueness of its architecture
among other buildings [7]. This has the advantage
of guiding people to this kind of buildings. Thus,
mosque should be designed in a way that makes
mosque identity unquestionable.
-Microclimatic modifiers:
As argued above, the traditional architectural
elements are still used in the contemporary
mosque design. One way to give their existence
more value is to use them for serving design
sustainability. Sustainability is a comprehensive
term that encompasses several good causes that
are consistent with the mission of mosques. In its
core, sustainability means preserving resources
for the future generations and providing thermal
comfort for building occupants. Considering the
latter notion, several elements have been used in
mosque architecture to response to the local
climatic needs [24, 25]. This includes the
courtyard, possibly with a fountain in the middle
to create a microclimate, domed and vaulted
Mosque Architectural Elements
Main Elements
(Main prayer hall, minaret)
Complementary Elements
(Courtyard, ablution, female zone)
Additional Elements
(Caretaker room, library)
Detailing
(Niche, pulpit)

Omar S. Asfour
Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016 | 83
roofs to enhance natural ventilation and provide
natural lighting, and the Mashrabeya to provide
privacy for the prayer hall and provide
evaporative cooling and shading. Unfortunately,
few studies have investigated the thermal and
energy performance of mosques in depth [26].
This may explain the difference between a
mosque that has a dome and the one that hasn’t.
Apart from the above-mentioned issues related to
identity, the advantages of natural ventilation,
natural lighting, and self-shading are lost in the
second one. The high-level openings placed at the
top of the main prayer hall have been found to be
effective inducing air flow in the building [27]. This
in fact explains the growing trend of
implementing the concepts of sustainability in the
contemporary ‘green mosque’ or ‘sustainable
mosque’. The role of such type of buildings in
promoting sustainability awareness in the
community and enhancing the quality of life is
substantial [28]. Contemporary mosques should
be designed in a way that minimises the usage of
energy. This is achievable using passive and active
techniques. The design should also be well-
integrated with the existing landscape, and
located within walking distance of adjacent
neighbourhoods.
(a): Medina: Qiblatain mosque
[5]
(b): Islamabad: using modern structures and
several minarets in King Faisal mosque [15]
(c): London: the use of courtyard with light
sheltering in the Central Mosque of London [15]
(d): Jeddah,: minaret of al-
Harithy mosque [15]
(e): Jeddah: the Island Mosque [5]
(f): Karachi: using concrete shell dome to cover the
whole prayer area of Defence Officers’ mosque [15]
Figure 8: Examples on different contemporary mosques
CONCLUSION
This study highlighted the concept of mosque
and its main constituent elements. It offered a brief
analysis of the historical development of these
elements. Despite the great diversity observed in
mosque architecture, designers nowadays face a
dilemma when it comes to the contemporary mosque
design. Some tend to “copy” from the historical
prototypes, while others try to “delink” their designs
from the historical models in order to introduce new
models. In fact, both tendencies have in a way or
another underestimated the importance of mosque
historical preference on one hand, and the modern
functional and aesthetic potential of its historical
elements on the other hand.
To develop a modern theory of mosque
architecture, spiritual and symbolic values of mosque
elements as well as their functional and environmental
role should be reconsidered. This means that
contemporary mosque design should be used to link
our architecture today with the spirit of the history of
Islamic architecture in order to maintain identity of the
Islamic city. The presented examples showed that this
is a possible practice in contemporary mosque design.
Referring to the historical models in order to validate
the new designs is achievable through reintroducing
mosque elements to be consistent with the modern
architectural inputs. This helps forming a common
language in mosque architecture that respects
regional diversity, on the one hand, and prevents the
loss of mosque identity on the other one.
Omar S. Asfour
Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016 | 83
roofs to enhance natural ventilation and provide
natural lighting, and the Mashrabeya to provide
privacy for the prayer hall and provide
evaporative cooling and shading. Unfortunately,
few studies have investigated the thermal and
energy performance of mosques in depth [26].
This may explain the difference between a
mosque that has a dome and the one that hasn’t.
Apart from the above-mentioned issues related to
identity, the advantages of natural ventilation,
natural lighting, and self-shading are lost in the
second one. The high-level openings placed at the
top of the main prayer hall have been found to be
effective inducing air flow in the building [27]. This
in fact explains the growing trend of
implementing the concepts of sustainability in the
contemporary ‘green mosque’ or ‘sustainable
mosque’. The role of such type of buildings in
promoting sustainability awareness in the
community and enhancing the quality of life is
substantial [28]. Contemporary mosques should
be designed in a way that minimises the usage of
energy. This is achievable using passive and active
techniques. The design should also be well-
integrated with the existing landscape, and
located within walking distance of adjacent
neighbourhoods.
(a): Medina: Qiblatain mosque
[5]
(b): Islamabad: using modern structures and
several minarets in King Faisal mosque [15]
(c): London: the use of courtyard with light
sheltering in the Central Mosque of London [15]
(d): Jeddah,: minaret of al-
Harithy mosque [15]
(e): Jeddah: the Island Mosque [5]
(f): Karachi: using concrete shell dome to cover the
whole prayer area of Defence Officers’ mosque [15]
Figure 8: Examples on different contemporary mosques
CONCLUSION
This study highlighted the concept of mosque
and its main constituent elements. It offered a brief
analysis of the historical development of these
elements. Despite the great diversity observed in
mosque architecture, designers nowadays face a
dilemma when it comes to the contemporary mosque
design. Some tend to “copy” from the historical
prototypes, while others try to “delink” their designs
from the historical models in order to introduce new
models. In fact, both tendencies have in a way or
another underestimated the importance of mosque
historical preference on one hand, and the modern
functional and aesthetic potential of its historical
elements on the other hand.
To develop a modern theory of mosque
architecture, spiritual and symbolic values of mosque
elements as well as their functional and environmental
role should be reconsidered. This means that
contemporary mosque design should be used to link
our architecture today with the spirit of the history of
Islamic architecture in order to maintain identity of the
Islamic city. The presented examples showed that this
is a possible practice in contemporary mosque design.
Referring to the historical models in order to validate
the new designs is achievable through reintroducing
mosque elements to be consistent with the modern
architectural inputs. This helps forming a common
language in mosque architecture that respects
regional diversity, on the one hand, and prevents the
loss of mosque identity on the other one.
Omar S. Asfour
Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016 | 83
roofs to enhance natural ventilation and provide
natural lighting, and the Mashrabeya to provide
privacy for the prayer hall and provide
evaporative cooling and shading. Unfortunately,
few studies have investigated the thermal and
energy performance of mosques in depth [26].
This may explain the difference between a
mosque that has a dome and the one that hasn’t.
Apart from the above-mentioned issues related to
identity, the advantages of natural ventilation,
natural lighting, and self-shading are lost in the
second one. The high-level openings placed at the
top of the main prayer hall have been found to be
effective inducing air flow in the building [27]. This
in fact explains the growing trend of
implementing the concepts of sustainability in the
contemporary ‘green mosque’ or ‘sustainable
mosque’. The role of such type of buildings in
promoting sustainability awareness in the
community and enhancing the quality of life is
substantial [28]. Contemporary mosques should
be designed in a way that minimises the usage of
energy. This is achievable using passive and active
techniques. The design should also be well-
integrated with the existing landscape, and
located within walking distance of adjacent
neighbourhoods.
(a): Medina: Qiblatain mosque
[5]
(b): Islamabad: using modern structures and
several minarets in King Faisal mosque [15]
(c): London: the use of courtyard with light
sheltering in the Central Mosque of London [15]
(d): Jeddah,: minaret of al-
Harithy mosque [15]
(e): Jeddah: the Island Mosque [5]
(f): Karachi: using concrete shell dome to cover the
whole prayer area of Defence Officers’ mosque [15]
Figure 8: Examples on different contemporary mosques
CONCLUSION
This study highlighted the concept of mosque
and its main constituent elements. It offered a brief
analysis of the historical development of these
elements. Despite the great diversity observed in
mosque architecture, designers nowadays face a
dilemma when it comes to the contemporary mosque
design. Some tend to “copy” from the historical
prototypes, while others try to “delink” their designs
from the historical models in order to introduce new
models. In fact, both tendencies have in a way or
another underestimated the importance of mosque
historical preference on one hand, and the modern
functional and aesthetic potential of its historical
elements on the other hand.
To develop a modern theory of mosque
architecture, spiritual and symbolic values of mosque
elements as well as their functional and environmental
role should be reconsidered. This means that
contemporary mosque design should be used to link
our architecture today with the spirit of the history of
Islamic architecture in order to maintain identity of the
Islamic city. The presented examples showed that this
is a possible practice in contemporary mosque design.
Referring to the historical models in order to validate
the new designs is achievable through reintroducing
mosque elements to be consistent with the modern
architectural inputs. This helps forming a common
language in mosque architecture that respects
regional diversity, on the one hand, and prevents the
loss of mosque identity on the other one.

Bridging The Gap Between The Past And The Present Of Mosque Architecture: A Critical Overview
84 |Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2) December 2016
In this context, mosque historical elements need
to be perceived in the contemporary context of
architecture as:
-Linking tools between the present and the spirit
of the Islamic history and civilisation
-Identity elements of the Islamic city
-Identity tools utilised to distinguish mosques
among adjacent buildings
-Microclimatic modifiers that emphasise the role of
mosque in promoting the concepts of
sustainability and green architecture.
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