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The analysis of data from dyads and groups
... We first examined descriptive statistics and Pearson bivariate correlations with perceived supportive behaviors during the disagreement. We then examined the role of financial worry in perceived supportive behaviors within an Actor-Partner Interdependence framework (Kashy & Kenny, 1999). In other words, we examined both actor's and partner's financial worry as a predictor in the model. ...
... Across all participants, greater financial worry correlated with perceiving the partner as less supportive during the disagreement, and with being overall less satisfied in the relationship. We next examined the role of the financial worry in perceived responsive behaviors in regressions following the Actor-Partner Interdependence framework (Kashy & Kenny, 1999). Actors perceived the partner's behavior as less responsive if they themselves were more financially worried (Actor effect), Unstandardized B = À.37, ...
... We first examined descriptive statistics and Pearson bivariate correlations with positive and negative relationship behaviors. We then examined the role of financial worry for perceptions within an Actor-Partner Interdependence framework (Kashy & Kenny, 1999). Dyads were treated as indistinguishable to allow for the inclusion of same-sex couples (i.e., every participant is both an Actor and a Partner). ...
What role do financial worries play in close relationship functioning? In this research, we examine how financial worry – negative thoughts and feelings about finances – is associated with perceived relationship behaviors. Participants recalled how their partner acted during a recent disagreement (Study 1, N = 97 couples) or recalled the frequency of positive and negative behaviors enacted by their partner during the previous week (Study 2, N = 99 couples). Feeling more worried about finances was associated with recalling less supportive behavior from one’s partner at the disagreement (Study 1) and with perceiving more negative behaviors from one’s partner in the last week (Study 2). Truth and Bias Model analyses suggest that part of this link may be attributed to biased perceptions, as the link between financial worry and perceiving more negative behaviors persisted even after controlling for participants’ own reported behaviors (i.e., accounting for similarity) and for their partner’s own reported behaviors (i.e., accounting for accurate perceptions). In sum, financial worry is linked to how partners notice and interpret a loved one’s actions within their relationship.
... Early research on crossover effects within couples found significant impacts of job stress experienced by one spouse on the other's burnout (Bakker et al., 2008;Westman & Etzion, 1995). However, the literature has not yet incorporated the role of coping nor the use of advanced methodological frameworks, such as the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 1999;Kenny 1996), into the analysis. Most studies that examine the role of coping in couples do so in the context of serious illness (Clever et al., 2020) and usually differentiate between the roles of patient and caregiver, with few considering the sex of both individuals. ...
... We developed this study within the framework of the APIM (Kashy & Kenny, 1999;Kenny et al., 2006), where actor effects are those outcomes predicted by the individual's own characteristics, whereas partner effects are those of one member of the dyad predicted by the characteristics of the other member. Because personal coping strategies are resources that contribute to individual well-being, we expected significant actor effects between personal coping (behavioral and emotional) and emotional exhaustion, directly and indirectly via WF conflict. ...
... The APIM (Kashy & Kenny, 1999;Kenny, 1996) is the framework in which tested our hypotheses. This framework is specifically designed to address the issue of interdependence in dyadic relationships, which violates the independence assumption of linear regression. ...
Objective
The objective of this study was to investigate the actor and partner effects of personal coping strategies (behavioral and emotional) on emotional exhaustion, directly and indirectly through work–family conflict, in dual‐earner couples, from a gender perspective.
Background
Previous studies support the relevance of personal coping strategies as resources that contribute to better performance in work and family roles and the well‐being of couples. However, few studies have incorporated partner effects and a gender perspective into the analysis.
Method
Using a sample of 131 dual‐earner heterosexual couples, actor–partner interdependence models were tested to analyze the impact of personal coping strategies on both couple members' emotional exhaustion.
Results
Actor effects show no gender differences, as experienced work–family conflict increases emotional exhaustion in both couple members. However, mixed results were found for the partner effect. Women's coping strategies appeared to be negatively related to men's work–family conflict, which in turn was negatively related to women's emotional exhaustion. However, the reverse pattern was not observed: men's coping strategies were not related to women's conflict, nor did women's conflict levels affect their partners' emotional exhaustion.
Conclusions
Men's and women's personal resources do not equally influence the distribution of roles within the couple or the partners' well‐being.
Implications
Although role sharing reduces women's emotional exhaustion, it is essential to promote their careers. Their career advancement is a matter of justice and a source of benefits for their families.
... The actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) is particularly useful in cross-sectional designs for analyzing dyadic data and differentiating between actor effects and partner effects. 16 Its ability to unpack dyadic effects, explore correlations, and examine mediation and moderation makes it an indispensable tool for understanding the complexities of interpersonal dynamics within a single time point. 16 In the field of cancer research, the majority of studies have utilized APIM to examine the dynamic interplay between patients and caregivers. ...
... 16 Its ability to unpack dyadic effects, explore correlations, and examine mediation and moderation makes it an indispensable tool for understanding the complexities of interpersonal dynamics within a single time point. 16 In the field of cancer research, the majority of studies have utilized APIM to examine the dynamic interplay between patients and caregivers. [17][18][19] In this study, we used APIM to measure the interdependence of LC patients and their spousal caregivers. ...
... Actor effects are defined as the effects of a person's own characteristics on his or her own outcomes, while partner effects are defined as the effects of a partner's characteristics on a person's own outcomes. 16 The objective of this study was to explore the level of SCNs among LC survivors and their spousal caregivers, as well as how they impact the dyad's QOL. To be specific, we had two working hypotheses. ...
Objective
This study aimed to explore the dyadic interrelationships between supportive care needs (SCNs) and quality of life (QOL) among lung cancer (LC) survivors and their spousal caregivers.
Methods
In this cross-sectional study, 443 dyads were recruited from three tertiary hospitals in two cities (Fuzhou and Putian) in Fujian Province, China, between May 2020 and May 2021. The study shows that participants completed a sociodemographic information sheet, the SCNs survey, and answered the Chinese version of the World Health Organization Quality of Life-BREF questionnaire by telephone. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson's correlations. This study used the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) with dyad analysis to examine the effect of LC survivors and spouses unmet SCNs on QOL.
Results
LC survivor's and spouse's QOL levels were influenced by the level of unmet SCNs (the actor effect). LC survivors unmet SCNs were significantly negatively associated with their spouse's QOL (the partner effect). There were no partner effects between the spouse's unmet SCNs and the LC survivor's QOL. The APIM model produced an acceptable model fit [χ²/df = 2.84 (147), comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.94, Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) = 0.93, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.07].
Conclusions
The level of unmet SCNs significantly affected QOL in survivor and spouse dyads. Although partner effects were weaker than actor effects, healthcare providers should develop tailored LC dyadic self- and family-management interventions to provide SCN-driven care to LC survivors and their spouses.
... In considering this question, it is also important to consider that parent-athletes/dancers relationships are dyadic and interdependent relationships (Dorsch et al., 2009;Rouquette, 2020;Snyder & Purdy, 1982). In such dyadic relationships, both the influence of the athlete/ dancer beliefs (e.g., actor effect) and the influence of the parent beliefs (e.g., partner effect) could be accounted for when modeling either the actor (e.g., dancer) or partner (e.g., parent) outcomes (Cook & Kenny, 2005;Kenny & Cook, 1999;Kenny & Kashy, 2013;Rouquette, 2020). For instance, a study among 146 competitive young athletes and one of their parents (n = 73) in the United States showed that parents' own achievement goals were related to athletes' anxiety (Kaye et al., 2015). ...
... Main analyses consisted of mediations accounting for the full paths of direct and indirect effects (Yzerbyt et al., 2018). The mediation analyses were performed with structural equation modeling accounting for nonindependence between the actor and partner effect (Brown, 2015;Kenny & Kashy, 2013). The models also controlled for dancer's age. ...
The overall aim of the present study was to understand how dancers’ perception and parents’ own perceptions of parents’ responsiveness and competence support were associated with dancers’ self-perceptions and thriving. In total, 64 dancers and 91 parents for a total of 52 matching dyads participated in the study. Dancers were aged 7–24 years, trained on average 4.17 times/weeks, and were involved in Irish dancing for an average of 9.71 years. Participants completed self-reported questionnaires assessing their perceived responsiveness, competence support, self-perceptions, and thriving. Main analyses consisted of mediations performed with structural equation modeling. Results demonstrate that dancers’ perceptions of their parents’ responsiveness and competence support are associated with their self-perceptions and thriving. Responsiveness and competence support of their second parent was more strongly associated with thriving than responsiveness and competence support of the main parent. Parents’ own perceptions of competence support were positively associated with dancers’ thriving.
... In the present study, both partners in a couple report their attitudes towards snooping and infidelity and also report on their concrete acts of hiding or snooping into the partner's finances in separate reports from each partner over three weeks following the initial survey. This design allows us to employ the Actor Partner Interdependence Model (APIM, Kashy & Kenny, 1999) examining how a person's attitudes and acts are predicted by their own and their partner's attitudes/acts. Specifically, we test whether financial snooping and infidelity attitudes and acts correlate intra-individually (e.g., a person who snoops more Participants were between 19 and 75 years old (M = 41.20 years, SD = 12.15). ...
... This method allows us to account for the potential interdependence between two partners in the same couple. In line with the Actor-Partner independence model (Kashy & Kenny, 1999), dyads were treated as indistinguishable to allow for the inclusion of same-sex couples. In other words, in this model, every participant is both an Actor and a Partner. ...
When in a relationship, a person’s financial situation may impact not only themselves but also their partner, making information about income, debt, and spending meaningful. Relationship partners may sometimes turn to clandestine means of protecting or seeking this financial information. This study examines the interplay of how partners handle financial information. In a longitudinal study of 124 couples, both partners reported on financial infidelity (hiding financial information) and financial snooping (covertly seeking financial information) at the beginning of a month and over the course of the month. Participants with worse communication skills reported both more positive financial infidelity attitudes and more positive snooping attitudes. Across the month, participants reported hiding more financial information if their partner reported snooping more (and vice versa), suggesting a mutuality of secretive financial behaviors. Participants with partners who hid more financial information and had more positive financial infidelity attitudes, as well as those who engaged in more financial snooping during the study, reported decreasing financial harmony at the end of the study. Participants who hid more financial information during the study reported less relationship satisfaction at the end of the study. In sum, this study underlines the importance of open communication about finances in relationships.
... Data were analyzed in Mplus version 8.6 (Muthén & Muthen, 2017). We used Actor-Partner Interdependence Models (APIM) within the framework of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) (Kashy & Kenny, 2000). We regressed both couple members emotional intimacy on own and partner's marital strain (step 1), partner's empathy, and the interaction between partner's empathy and own marital strain (step 2). ...
... To test the hypothesis (H1) about the association between both couple member's strain and intimacy, we used APIM within the framework of SEM (Kashy & Kenny, 2000). ...
Emotional intimacy is considered a fundamental factor contributing to the quality of marital relationships. However, marital strain can often limit intimacy. Thus, our first objective was to explore the intricate interplay between spouses' sense of intimacy and the levels of marital strain experienced by both themselves and their partners. In addition, the way partners respond to the challenges posed by marital strain can be pivotal in shaping the overall dynamics. Therefore, our second objective was to investigate whether and how the empathy exhibited by partners can protect the couple from the potential adverse effects of marital strain on emotional intimacy within the relationship. 96 midlife and older heterosexual couples reported on their sense of marital strain, emotional intimacy, and their level of empathy. We used Actor‐Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) to analyze the results. Negative associations were found between marital strain and emotional intimacy for both men and women. Men's empathy moderated the relationship between women's strain and intimacy, but women's empathy did not moderate the association between men's strain and intimacy. Assessing both spouses' strain is essential for understanding marital intimacy. Men's empathy can have a meaningful role in mitigating the experienced strain on marital outcomes.
... While individual characteristics and attitudes are important, it is also crucial to explore the influence of spousal characteristics on one's fertility preferences. The Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) in social psychology, developed by Kashy and Kenny (1999), suggested that the actions of individuals in each dyad are often not independent. Psychologists inform us that bonding and regulatory schemas enable individuals to perceive their intimate partners' motivations (i.e., "dispositions to feel and behave in certain ways that meet a need or achieve a goal of the organism"), which affect fertility preferences (Miller et al., 2004, p. 194). ...
... We adopt the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM), a well-established analytical model for examining interpersonal relationships (Campbell & Kashy, 2002;Kashy & Kenny, 1999), as our analytical framework. APIM can be analyzed with structural equation models or multilevel models. ...
This study examines the relationship between political attitudes, affective polarization, and fertility preferences among married couples in Hong Kong. Using dyadic data from a representative household survey (N = 1586 heterosexually married adults), we investigate how individuals’ attitudes toward democracy and levels of affective polarization are associated with their fertility preferences. We also explore the influence of spouses’ political attitudes and affective polarization on one's fertility preferences. We found that individuals with stronger support for democracy have lower fertility preferences. This negative association between political attitudes and fertility preferences is further amplified by one’s level of affective polarization. The findings of this study contribute to our understanding of how political factors shape fertility patterns in the context of dramatic political transitions. This study provides valuable insights into the complex dynamics between political attitudes, affective polarization, and family formation decisions in Hong Kong, which have both theoretical, policy and political implications.
... The initial work on this carried out by Robinson [13], clearly highlighting the costs of workaholism for close others, was not followed up by the deserved attention. Therefore, building on spillover-crossover theory [29] and on models of mental disorders contagion [30], and using an actor-partner interdependence approach [31,32], we focus here on dual-earner couples and investigate the potential reciprocal influences of each partner's levels of workaholism on the other partner's personal burnout, that is, the degree of physical and psychological fatigue experienced by the person [33]. Additionally, we explore whether the presence of children in the family, which increases the salience of the family role at the expense of the work role-a circumstance that may be particularly troubling for individuals with workaholic tendencies-may amplify the relationships between workaholism and personal burnout. ...
... Additionally, we explore the moderating role of the presence of children in these dynamics. To do this, we make use of the actor Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) [31,44], which is particularly useful for assessing the level of interdependence and mutual influence of different types of dyads, in which one person's feelings, cognitions, and behaviors influence the feelings, cognitions, and behaviors of the other. In its basic form, the APIM includes two independent variables and two dependent variables, the study of which can prove useful to understand the presence of 'actor effects' (i.e., how much a person's level of workaholism is related to their own levels of personal burnout) and 'partner effects' (how much a person's level of personal burnout is related to their partner's level of workaholism). ...
This study tested the workaholism–personal burnout relationship by using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model in a sample of 138 Italian dual-career couples. Specifically, in line with previous literature, the presence of actor and partner ‘effects’ was hypothesized, whereby the level of workaholism of men and women influences their own level of personal burnout (actor effect) and that of their partners (partner effect). In addition, the moderating role of the presence and number of children in the relationship between workaholism and personal burnout was also analyzed. The results confirmed a significant actor effect. In contrast, the partner effect was partially confirmed (only for the pathway from female partner workaholism to male partner personal burnout). In addition, the presence of children played a key role. First, it strengthened the positive relationship between the female partner’s workaholism and the male partner’s personal burnout. Second, it attenuated the positive relationship between a female’s workaholism and her own personal burnout. The obtained results are discussed, and based on these, considerations are provided on possible interventions to decrease the potential impact of workaholism on couples’ well-being and the implications for a sustainable work and family life.
... In addition, because relationship partners can influence one another's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (e.g., Kelley & Thibaut, 1978), it is possible that people's perception of their partner's instrumentality for their goals might also predict their partner's reports of shared reality (partner effects). We tested both actor and partner effects in this study, using actor-partner interdependence models (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 2000). Study 1 also examined the degree to which partners agreed on their level of shared reality. ...
... Data from one participant who had difficulty remaining alert throughout the lab session were excluded from analyses. Because data were collected from couple members, whose perceptions and outcomes are likely to be correlated, we used APIM (Kashy & Kenny, 2000) to test associations between perceptions of partner instrumentality and generalized shared reality. APIM analyses model the nonindependence within couples to estimate both the effect of an actor's predictor on that individual's own outcomes (i.e., actor effect) and the effect of the actor's predictor on the partner's outcomes (i.e., partner effect). ...
Why are some people more successful than others? In addition to individual factors (e.g., self-control), research has recently suggested that the quality of people’s interpersonal relationships is crucial for success. Successful people seem to recognize this, as they tend to like and draw closer to both instrumental objects and instrumental others (IOs; other people who make goal success more likely). For instance, students who are successful at their academic goals tend to like and feel close to both their study materials and study partners. Yet instrumental people have one crucially distinct feature that instrumental objects do not: a mind of their own. One key way to relate to the minds of others is by establishing a shared reality—the perception of shared attitudes and judgments about the world. Therefore, we propose that shared reality, or the sense of having “merged minds”, is an important, previously unexplored component of relationships with IOs that contributes to goal success. Specifically, the present research (N = 1,326) explored (a) whether people are especially likely to experience shared reality with IOs, and (b) whether those who do so are more likely to achieve their goals. Participants who perceived their romantic partner as more instrumental for their goals experienced more shared reality with that partner (Study 1); participants also reported greater shared reality with IOs relative to noninstrumental others (NIOs; Study 2). Those who experienced a greater sense of shared reality with IOs reported more goal success initially (Studies 2–4), 3–4 weeks later (Study 2c), and achieved higher Grade Point Averages (GPAs; Study 4). These effects held when controlling for IO liking, closeness, and epistemic trust, as well as NIO shared reality. Self-efficacy consistently mediated the effect of IO shared reality on goal success (Studies 3 and 4), indicating that IO shared reality may bolster people’s epistemic confidence in their abilities. Overall, findings suggest that experiencing a shared reality with IOs plays an important role in goal success.
... The present study used the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) [26] to test study aims. The APIM permits an estimation of both actor (the effect of one's own predictor score on one's own outcome) and partner effects (the effect of one's own predictor score on the outcome of their spouse), using structural equation modelling. ...
... Two APIM models were used to analyze the dyadic data. This method was selected as it considers the non-independence of data [26], by permitting the measurement of (a) the impact of one's own predictor score on one's own outcome (actor effects) and (b) the impact of one's own predictor score on their spouse's outcome (partner effects). Composite executive function scores and informantrated cognitive decline scores were included as the predictor variables (in both models) and financial competency and decision-making behavior as the outcome variable (separately). ...
Introduction Age-related decline in executive functioning has been found to negatively impact one's capacity to make prudent financial decisions. The broader literature also speaks to the importance of considering interrelatedness in older spouses' functioning, as these individuals typically represent one's longest and closest relationship that involves an extended history of shared experiences. Accordingly, the aim of the present study was to provide the first examination of whether older adults' financial decision making capacity is impacted not only by their own, but also by their partner's, level of cognitive functioning. Method Sixty-three heterosexual spousal dyads comprising older adults aged 60-88 participated. The contribution of executive functioning and perceptions of partner's cognitive decline on financial decision-making behavior and financial competency was assessed through two actor-partner interdependence models. Results As predicted, for both genders, one's own executive functioning was predictive of one's own financial decision-making capacity. However, of particular interest was the finding that for females (but not males) perceiving greater cognitive decline in their spouse predicted their own (greater) financial competency. Discussion/Conclusion Examining whether partner interdependence extends to the realm of financial decision-making is not only a theoretically but also practically important question. These data provide initial insights that such a relationship does exist and highlight further important avenues for future research.
... Likewise, symptoms of psychological distress experienced by one partner can readily be observed by the other, potentially contributing to their own psychological health. To fully understand how role blurring is associated with psychological distress and then relationship satisfaction, it is important to take into account the interactions that take place between both partners within a couple using dyadic designs and analyses (Kashy & Kenny, 2014). ...
Role blurring has been associated with negative outcomes , such as anxiety and stress. Paulin et al.'s study found that role blurring is linked to lower relationship satisfaction through higher psychological distress. However, this link has not been explored from a dyadic perspective, neglecting the interrelation between partners in a couple. The current study aimed to address this limitation by examining the explanatory role of psychological distress in the link between role blurring and relationship satisfaction from a dyadic perspective. The sample comprised 382 Canadian participants (191 couples) over 18 years old who answered online questionnaires through the SurveyMonkey platform. The results showed that women's life-work role blurring is negatively associated with their own and their partner's relationship satisfaction through their own more significant psychological distress. These findings underscore the importance of researchers further investigating life-work role blurring in the future from a dyadic perspective. J Marital Fam Ther. 2025;51:e12753. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jmft |
... Consistent with past research on the impact of best friends' characteristics (Sun et al., 2023), we adopted the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 1999;Kenny, 1996) in this study. APIM is a conceptual model of interpersonal relationships that accounts for the lack of independence (or the dependencies) often observed between pairs of individuals (or dyads). ...
This study applied the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) to simultaneously consider whether, and how, motivations for social withdrawal among Chinese children and adolescents (actor effects) and their best friends (partner effects) uniquely contributed to indices of socio‐emotional adjustment. Participants were 101 same‐gender best friend dyads (46 boys, M age = 12.17 years, SD = 1.39) in mainland China. Among the results, actor effects were found such that youths' own shyness and unsociability were related uniquely to the socio‐emotional adjustment outcomes. In addition, partner effects were found such that best friend's shyness and unsociability were related uniquely to youths' social preferences and depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the important role of best friends' motivations for social withdrawal in explaining variability in Chinese youths' socio‐emotional adjustment and well‐being.
... This strategy has been used to study the cumulative effect of social support on sexual risk-taking in male couples (Darbes & Lewis, 2005), as well as male couples' pronoun use in HIV prevention conversations (Cortopassi et al., 2018). Using the more recently developed actor-partner interdependence model (Kashy & Kenny, 2000;Kenny et al., 2006), researchers can test associations between a respondent's value on a given predictor and their partner's value on an outcome of interest (partner effects) in addition to testing intraindividual associations between predictors and outcomes (actor effects). As a result, collecting data from both partners has been deemed a state-of-the-art methodological approach in examining relationship processes between two people in a couple, family unit, and other dyadic compositions (Kenny et al., 2020). ...
Dyadic research among male couples is of increasing interest to researchers, as relationship factors have been implicated in a variety of physical and mental health outcomes. A small evidence base suggests samples of same-gender couples that participate in research may be biased toward those with better relationship quality. Unfortunately, this research is limited and has not examined perceptions that might determine a respondent’s willingness to recruit their partner, such as the perception that a partner would be willing to participate. This study examined whether relationship quality (i.e., satisfaction, commitment, and intimacy) was associated with perceptions of a partner’s willingness to participate in dyadic research among same-gender male couples. Partnered sexual minority men (n = 5,317) recruited from dating/social networking applications completed a brief online survey. Bivariate analyses suggested that satisfaction, commitment, and intimacy were all associated with perceptions of a partner’s willingness to participate in research, which persisted in the multivariable, multinominal regression models. Those who were younger and living with HIV, as well as those with younger partners, were more likely to perceive their partner as willing to participate. Samples in dyadic research involving male couples might overrepresent those with better relationship quality. They may also overrepresent relatively younger sexual minority men and those living with HIV. Recruitment strategies should explore ways to facilitate the recruitment of couples with lower relationship quality to facilitate the generalizability of evidence-based practice.
... The stepwise built models consisted of two latent processes that represent the change in closeness discrepancies of the male and the female partner within the couple to account for the dyadic nonindependence in the data (comparable to nesting in Actor-Partner Interdependence Models; Kenny & Kashy, 2014). The current state of the process, upon which the estimated rate of change depends, pertained to the individual's report on closeness discrepancy for a particular day. ...
Closeness regulation is a major task in romantic relationships. In previous research, the two kinds of closeness discrepancies, namely closeness frustration (i.e., experiencing less closeness than desired) and closeness surfeit (i.e., experiencing more closeness than desired), demonstrated diverging prevalence rates and different associations with relationship outcomes. Based on a set-point perspective and the intimacy process model, we investigated the day-to-day dynamics of the regulation of both kinds of closeness discrepancies. By applying continuous time structural equation models to daily diary data (N = 120 couples, t = 12 days), we compared the regulation of closeness frustration and closeness surfeit and explored associations with personal and situational conditions. Daily partner contact, a situational condition that modifies opportunities for closeness regulation, was examined alongside implicit and explicit motivational orientation as personal conditions influencing information processing and behavior. Our results indicate that the regulation of closeness surfeit is faster and less dependent on partner contact than the regulation of closeness frustration. Additionally, closeness regulation was facilitated by person–situation fit. On days with more partner contact than usual, communally oriented individuals regulated faster, and on days with less partner contact than usual, agentically oriented individuals regulated faster, regardless of the kind of closeness discrepancy. We discuss behavioral and attentional regulation as potential motivational mechanisms underlying the observed patterns of person–situation fit.
... In this study, the data were collected from husbands and wives, which are distinguishable dyad members. Secondly, Kashy and Kenny (2000) argue that both dyads of a couple are not two independent individuals rather they share something in common, referred to as non-independence. Kenny et al. (2006) suggest Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients be computed to test for non-independence of observation in the variables studied. ...
This study was to investigate the mediating role of common dyadic coping in the relationship between partners' psychological distress symptoms and sense of we-ness in a sample of 100 married couples. The Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation Model revealed that psychological distress was negatively associated with common dyadic coping for wives and husbands. Additionally, significant results were found between common dyadic coping and sense of we-ness in couples living in Türkiye. Results indicated that wives' common dyadic coping mediated the association between wives' psychological distress and sense of we-ness. Implications of the current findings for couple relationships and therapy are discussed.
... Since the dyadic data structure leads to an intra-class correlation between cases in the same couples and the dependent variable is measured on an ordinal scale, we employed random-intercept ordinal logistic regression models in our analysis. Random-intercept models have been widely applied in past studies involving dyadic data analysis because they can handle the intra-class correlation well while also considering the effects of couple-level factors (Kashy & Kenny, 1999;Kern & Stein, 2018). We employed four nested models. ...
This study examines migration intentions in a politically divided context, focusing on the interactive roles of individuals' and the spouses' affective polarization and political attitudes. Our study uses Hong Kong as a case study to elucidate migration intentions in the context of political polarization and increasing authoritarianism. We investigate how individuals facing the same political conditions exhibit varying inclinations to migrate. Our analysis is based on dyadic data from a representative household survey involving 1003 married couples. The findings reveal that spousal pro-democratic attitudes and affective polarization are associated with stronger migration intentions, with significant implications for predicting migration patterns. Moreover, the study highlights the significance of the interactive role between individuals' and the spouses' political attitudes in shaping migration intentions. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between dyadic political attitudes, affective polarization, and migration intentions in highly developed societies with advanced economies.
... Mutual influence theory posits that the other group members' cognitions, affect, and behaviors can have an impact on an individual group member's processes and outcomes in group therapy. This theory has largely been tested utilizing the APIM (Kashy & Kenny, 2000), wherein group researchers are able to statistically examine actor effects (i.e., a focal group member's behaviors, cognitions, or perceptions on their own outcome) and partner effects (i.e., the other group members' behaviors, cognitions, or perceptions on a focal group member's outcome) simultaneously. ...
... Actor-partner interdependence models (APIMs; Kashy & Kenny, 2000) allow us to consider the interdependence between mother and youth when exploring dyadic relationships. In the present study, we tested whether one's own English or Spanish proficiency predicted their own reported White or Latine orientation (i.e., actor effects) or their partner's reported White or Latine orientation (i.e., partner effects). ...
Language proficiencies have implications for how parents and children can communicate effectively and how culture and heritage can be transferred across generations. Previous research has sought to understand the relationship between parent language (mainstream, heritage) proficiencies and the ethnic‐racial orientation of their children, though prior studies have not investigated the relationship between child language proficiencies and parent ethnic‐racial orientation. This study examined the actor–partner effects of Latine mother–child dyads ( N = 175; youth mean age = 12.86 years) regarding their proficiencies in English and Spanish and their Latine and White orientations. Our results revealed that youth Spanish language proficiency was positively linked to youth White orientation, and youth English proficiency was also positively associated with youth White orientation but only in instances when youth‐reported acculturation conflict was lower or average. There were two partner effects observed, with youth English proficiency positively relating to mother's White orientation and mothers' Spanish proficiency being negatively related to youth White orientation. Regarding Latine orientation, both English and Spanish were positively related to greater Latine orientation for both mothers and their children. However, at higher levels of mother‐reported acculturation conflict, higher mother English proficiency was related to lower youth Latine orientation. Overall, language proficiencies for Latine mothers and their children contribute to the development of bicultural orientations, though varying degrees of acculturation conflict can have differential impacts on these linkages.
... At the suggestion of an anonymous reviewer, we also conducted dyadic data analysis on the composite total points value claiming variable from this study based on the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (Kashy & Kenny, 2000;West, Popp, & Kenny, 2008) with the dyad type set to distinguishable and own condition, partner condition, role, and the interaction terms of own condition by role and partner condition by role included as predictors. Two additional participants were removed from analysis because both members of the dyad reported the same role and the model would not run with them included. ...
What little prior empirical research that investigated the effects of mindfulness meditation on negotiation performance was conducted in Singapore and the UK and finds benefits. This research reports a mini meta-analysis of ten studies (N > 1100) we conducted in the US on the effect of a brief mindfulness meditation induction on negotiation outcomes and finds a small detriment in terms of value claimed. We had initially hypothesized that mindfulness meditation would help individuals obtain better objective outcomes by claiming more value for themselves due to reduced emotional interference and enhanced flexibility of thought. However, the first study we ran found a moderately strong result in the opposite direction – participants who had just meditated obtained worse objective outcomes by claiming less value than participants in the control condition who had not meditated. In terms of subjective negotiation outcomes, participants in the mindfulness condition reported marginally less satisfaction with the instrumental outcome compared to participants in the control condition. Then we ran nine more experiments and never obtained a significant effect of mindfulness on objective outcomes again. The meta-analysis of the total effect on value claiming across these ten studies was significant (p = .020), negative, and very small (aggregated d = -0.138, 95% confidence interval [-.256, -.021]). We also ran a second meta-analysis on value creation on the appropriate subset of participants and did not find a significant total effect in either direction (p = .609, aggregated d = -.076, 95% confidence interval [-.367, .215]). We discuss implications for theory and practice.
... In this sense, it is known that discrepancies between partners in certain psychosexual variables, such as sexual desire (Jodouin et al., 2021), negatively affect sexual health, as well as that dyadic adjustment is negatively associated with sexual distress and poor sexual functioning (Tavares et al., 2022;Trudel et al., 2010). In this dyadic context, the conceptual framework Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 2000;Kenny et al., 2002), was developed. It contemplates the actorpartner effects, allowing to examine not only the intrapersonal effect, that is, how certain phenomena at the individual level influence oneself (actor effect), but also at the interpersonal level, understood as the influence of the aspects of the partner on the actor (partner effect) Samios et al., 2012). ...
The subjective orgasm experience (SOE) refers to the perception, sensation and/or evaluation of orgasm from a psychological point of view, representing an important construct of sexual functioning rarely studied under a dyadic approach. This study analyzed SOE in the contexts of sexual relationships and solitary masturbation in 179 different-sex and same-sex couples. The results indicated the absence of differences in intradyadic discrepancies in SOE dimensions in both sexual contexts, varying according to the type of couple. Besides, the study also highlights the influence of some of these discrepancies of SOE in solitary masturbation on SOE discrepancies in sexual relationships among the members of male-female and female-female couples. Furthermore, the study revealed that the intensity of partners' orgasm experience during solitary masturbation influences the intensity of SOE during sexual relationships, with variations observed based on the type of couple. These findings highlight the importance of considering SOE from a dyadic approach, with the association of orgasmic experience in both sexual contexts gaining relevance, differing according to the couple type. The results also point to the clinical implications of the dyadic effects of such an individual practice as solitary masturbation on shared sexual experiences.
... We relied on the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM; Kenny et al., 2006) to analyse our data. This is an appropriate method when individuals cannot be considered as independent from one another -in other words, there is common variance shared by the couples (Kashy & Kenny, 2000). With APIM, we can explore how employee's WFC affects spouse's home detachment (this is called "partner effect"), but also how spouse's home detachment affects spouse's performance and spouse's work detachment (this is called "actor effect"). ...
Work–family conflict (WFC) is a common experience which frequently affects employees’ performance and wellbeing. But among dual-earner couples, is it possible that employees’ WFC relates to spouses’ job performance? Why does this occur and what are the associated consequences? Drawing on crossover literature and the stressor–detachment model, we explore a number of crossover and spillover effects. Specifically, we propose that employees’ WFC negatively affects spouses’ home detachment and job performance on the next day (crossover effects), which relates to spouses’ lower work detachment (spillover effects). We conducted a diary study among 145 working couples who responded to a daily survey over five consecutive working days (N = 1450 occasions). Our results from
multilevel analyses largely supported our hypotheses. Employees’
WFC predicted lower home detachment of spouses on the following day, which, in turn, negatively affected spouses’ performance and work detachment. These findings show that WFC affects spouses beyond the family domain and that detachment from family-related issues is key to performing well and disconnecting from work.
... To test Hypothesis 1, we first fit two indirect actor-partner interdependence models (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 1999;Kenny, 1996), each featuring one of the skills (i.e., self-care and conflict management) using baseline data. Models with direct paths only were tested first, and significant paths were then included in the actor-partner interdependence mediation models (APIMeM; Ledermann et al., 2011) that assessed stress as an indirect effect. ...
Considerable evidence suggests couple relationship education (CRE) programs are effective in improving couples' relationship functioning, yet few studies have examined the implications of CRE programs on indicators of physical health despite substantial research supporting links between relational and physical health. This study utilized a sample of 308 couples randomly assigned to a CRE curriculum to explore the dyadic links between conflict management and self-care skills (emphasized in CRE), stress, and sleep dysfunction concurrently. We prospectively tested whether changes in skills drove changes in sleep dysfunction or vice versa, for both self and partner. Results from a series of structural equation models indicated indirect links for men and women between conflict management and self-care skills and sleep dysfunction through lower stress level at program start. Dyadically, men's and women's better conflict management skills were associated with partners' lower stress, which was in turn associated with partners' lower sleep dysfunction. Men's better self-care skills were linked with partners' lower stress levels, which were linked with partners' lower sleep dysfunction. Tests of dyadic prospective cross-lagged effects among changes in sleep and changes in skills indicated that initial improvements in both partners' sleep predicted improvements in their own conflict management skills 1 year later. Initial improvements in women's conflict management skills predicted reduced sleep dysfunction for themselves. Additionally, for both partners, early changes in self-care predicted later reductions in sleep dysfunction. Dyadically, immediate improvements in men's self-care predicted reduced sleep dysfunction for their partner a year later. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
... Analyses were based on the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 2000). Actor effects refer to the association of the actor's independent variables with his or her own dependent variables, whereas partner effects refer to the association of the partner's independent variables with the actor's dependent variables. ...
Many migrants experience cultural transitions alongside a romantic partner, yet relatively few studies have examined the relationship context of acculturation and adjustment. The primary goal of the present study was to examine whether partners' anxious and avoidant attachment-fearing abandonment or closeness in relationships, respectively-predicted their acculturation orientations and sociocultural, psychological, and relational adjustment. A secondary goal was to examine whether being romantically involved with a host national eased the process of acculturation. Toward this end, we collected dyadic daily diary data over a 14-day period from 146 couples (N = 292), of whom at least one partner was a recent migrant to the UK. We found that when migrants were higher in avoidant attachment, they-and their partners-reported the poorest acculturative outcomes: lower mainstream British identification and heritage culture identification, and lower sociocultural, psychological, and relational adjustment. When migrants were higher in attachment anxiety, they reported poorer psychological, sociocultural, and relational adjustment; when their partners were higher in anxiety, migrants reported worse outcomes across the board. Furthermore, migrants with a British partner reported greater mainstream British identification and sociocultural adjustment compared to migrants without a British partner. A follow-up 7.5 years later found that migrants who were higher in attachment anxiety and did not have a British partner at Time 1 were more likely to have left the UK by Time 2. Based on these findings, we encourage researchers, clinicians, and policy-makers to take migrants' relationship context into account to better understand their acculturation and adjustment.
... In this study, we used an adapted version of the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) approach within the structural equation modeling framework, following the methodology proposed by Kashy and Kenny (2000). The dyadic dataset was analyzed using path analysis in Mplus version 8.7. ...
The image of an ideal woman often involves her having long, silky hair. However, the dearth of psychological research on hair limits the understanding of how women’s hair functions in romantic relationships. While some scholars have found that the appearance of women’s hair signals reproductive potential to men, whether women’s hair may affect their sexual lives remains unknown. To investigate the function of hair in romantic relationships, we tested whether women’s hair quality and length are associated with sexual frequency in marital dyads. We conducted a paid online survey involving 204 heterosexual marital dyads. The results indicated that women with long and high-quality hair experienced more frequent sexual intercourse with their spouse, as it heightened their husband’s perception of their attractiveness and, consequently, intensified their husband’s sexual desire toward them. Neither men’s hair length nor quality was associated with sexual frequency. Implications of the study are further discussed.
... APIM simultaneously estimates the actor effect (i.e., the extent to which the predictor of a person affects his or her score on the outcome variable) and partner effect (i.e., the extent to which the predictor of a person affects his or her partner's score on the outcome variable) (Fitzpatrick et al., 2016;Kenny et al., 2020). APIM also estimates the correlations between the two predictors (one from each dyad member) and the residuals of each outcome (Kashy & Kenny, 2000). ...
Robust and healthy relationships are pivotal for overall well‐being and wellness. Social support, the reduction of stigma, and the cultivation of quality time are critical elements in establishing and nurturing a healthy relationship as they bolster emotional well‐being, enhance communication, and alleviate stress. The aim of this research study was to investigate the associations between quality time, social support, and self‐stigma among couples ( N = 518 dyads) engaged in a randomized controlled relationship education intervention, whether online or face to face. Longitudinal Actor–Partner Interdependence Models (L‐APIM) were employed to investigate the dyadic correlations and the influence of the intervention's modality on the three outcomes observed at the 1‐month postintervention follow‐up. Results indicated that individuals tend to exhibit consistent perceptions of quality time, social support, self‐stigma related to help‐seeking, and threats to self‐confidence regarding help‐seeking, both at baseline and the subsequent 1‐month follow‐up. Results and implications are discussed.
... ***** Insert Table 2 around here ***** After having established MIO-AL patterns, we recoded our data set across all negotiations such that MIO-AL patterns represented a single behavioral event. To test if negotiators that engage more in active listening as a direct response to multi-issue offers acquire higher judgement accuracy concerning the other party's interests (Hypothesis 2), we used the Actor Partner Interdependence Model (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 2000;Stas et al., 2018), controlling for gender and the duration of the negotiation (see Figure 1). We assessed expected actor effects of active listening in response to multi-issue offers as predictors of individual judgement accuracy scores through structural equation modeling. ...
Active listening is a promising communication technique to positively affect interactions and communication outcomes. However, theoretical propositions regarding its direct effects on interactions have rarely been empirically investigated. In the present research, we studied the role of naturally occurring active listening in the context of videotaped and coded integrative negotiations. Lag sequential analyses of 48 negotiations with 17,120 thought units show that active listening follows offers that comprise two or more issues (i.e., multi-issue offers) above chance level. These multi-issue offer – active listening patterns in turn promoted integrative statements (e.g., further multi-issue offers) and inhibited distributive statements (e.g., single-issue offers). Moreover, multi-issue offer – active listening patterns (and neither multi-issue offers nor active listening alone) also positively related to the achieved joint economic outcomes in the negotiation. Contrary to common expectations, we did not find evidence that active listening promotes the understanding of the other party or rapport between negotiators.
... It has often been the case in LMX research that level of theory and level of analysis have not aligned (Gooty et al., 2012;Kim et al., 2020;Krasikova & LeBreton, 2012). Dealing with data from distinguishable dyad members (i.e., leader and follower), we therefore followed the recommendation of Krasikova and LeBreton to use the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 2000). Coefficients were calculated using the LISREL 8.80 software. ...
From an attachment-theoretical perspective, one would expect insecure attachment styles to have a negative impact on leader–follower relationships. However, a recent review of the literature on attachment style and leader–member exchange (LMX) yielded mixed results. Examining this discrepancy, we applied the principle of attachment-system activation, proposing that when insecurely attached leaders or followers experience more distress at work, attachment style will be a stronger predictor of LMX. Data were gathered from 192 independent leader–follower dyads and analyzed using the actor–partner interdependence model. Like in other studies, investigating the direct link between attachment style and LMX yielded mixed results. However, the link between anxious style and LMX did get stronger when including attachment-system activation in our model, highlighting the relevance of applying key principles from the original theory when studying leadership through the lens of attachment.
... U istraživanju parova jedan je od najprimjerenijih modela model međuzavisnosti aktera i partnera (engl. actor -partner interdependence model; Kashy i Kenny, 1999) koji istraživaču dopušta da procijeni učinak karakteristika pojedinca na njegov ili njezin rezultat na zavisnoj varijabli (efekt aktera), kao i na partnerov rezultat na zavisnoj varijabli (efekt partnera). ...
Prema teoriji socijalnoga učenja roditelji su prvi modeli partnerskoga odnosa te potomci iz njihove interakcije koju opažaju usvajaju različite obrasce ponašanja. Ako su ti opaženi obrasci bili neadaptivni i ako je roditeljski odnos bio obilježen mnogobrojnim sukobima i/ili razvodom, može doći do međunaraštajnoga prijenosa bračne nestabilnosti. Partnerski odnos postaje još složeniji kada uzmemo u obzir da je on rezultat interakcije dvoje ljudi koji su u njega donijeli različita iskustva i vještine. Dijadna nam metodologija omogućava da uzmemo u obzir upravo tu zavisnost partnera u odnosu i dođemo do podataka o njihovoj interakciji. Stoga je cilj ovoga rada bio ispitati ulogu konstruktivne komunikacije u vezi kao potencijalnoga medijatora između percepcije roditeljskih sukoba tijekom odrastanja i kvalitete veze u mlađoj odrasloj dobi jer je to razdoblje u kojemu je jedan od glavnih razvojnih zadataka uspostava kvalitetnoga partnerskog odnosa. Koristeći prošireni model međusobne zavisnosti aktera i partnera (APIMeM) na uzorku od 309 heteroseksualnih parova, nismo pronašli značajan izravan efekt percepcije roditeljskih sukoba na kvalitetu veze ni kod žena ni kod muškaraca. Međutim, muškarčeva konstruktivna komunikacija pokazala se kao medijator i kod muškaraca i kod žena. Konkretno, muškarčeva percepcija izraženijih roditeljskih sukoba ima negativan efekt na njegove vještine konstruktivne komunikacije, koje zatim imaju efekt na smanjen doživljaj kvalitete veze (efekt aktera), no muškarčeve vještine konstruktivne komunikacije također doprinose ženinu smanjenom doživljaju kvalitete veze (efekt partnera).
... The Mplus 8.4 software (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2019 was used to estimate the APIM in Fig. 1. The analysis permitted simultaneous estimation of actor and partner effects (Kashy & Kenny, 1999). First, an APIM between anti-Muslim hate and negative interactions was estimated to test H1. ...
Muslims in the USA experience unfair treatment and direct exposure to discriminatory acts because of their religion. Trauma stemming from discrimination can strengthen couples’ relationships as they find solace in each other, or strain relationships if couples struggle to cope with the stress. This study examined the relationship between experiencing anti-Muslim hate and couples’ interactional quality. Further, the role of open communication between partners in moderating the impact of anti-Muslim hate on couple interactions was examined. The study included a sample of 129 Muslim couples. The results indicated gender disparity whereby anti-Muslim hate was linked to negative interactions in relationships for Muslim women, but this was not true for their male partners. In addition, open communication had contracting gender effects on the relationship between anti-Muslim hate and couple interactions. Increased self-disclosure buffered the adverse effects of anti-Muslim hate by reducing the likelihood of negative interactions. Among women, increased self-disclosure exacerbated the detrimental effects of anti-Muslim hate on the couples’ relationship such that couples engaged in more negative interactions. Clinical implications are discussed.
... For the first analysis, we wanted to examine whether the shared stress condition (relative to the shared control condition) caused participants to individually report more immediate affiliative desire 1 . We used multilevel modeling, specifically the Actor Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) (Kashy & Kenny, 1999;Kenny, 1996) to account for the interdependence of our data (i.e., participants sorted into stranger dyads). This analysis was conducted in R using the "nlme" package (Pinheiro et al., 2021). ...
According to the tend-and-befriend theory, shared stressors may create situations in which the inclination to interact with another person (i.e., immediate affiliative desire) is elevated. This may create a situational context in which sustained affiliative responses towards an interaction partner are more likely to occur in the longer-term. In the present study, we randomly assigned 85 undergraduate stranger dyads (N = 170 participants; all women) to either shared stress or shared control experiences and measured immediate affiliative desire. The strangers in the dyads then interacted with one another in a discussion task, and participants’ long-term affiliative responses (liking and future intentions to affiliate) were assessed. The evidence suggested that shared stressful experiences (vs. the shared control experiences) promoted significantly more immediate affiliative desire. Furthermore, immediate affiliative desire mediated the association between shared stress and long-term affiliative responses. These findings offer insight into how shared stress may influence friendship development.
... Previous research in this domain has often neglected the dyadic perspective, but it is crucial to fully understand relationships. Therefore, we used the actor-partner interdependence mediation model (APIMeM; Ledermann et al., 2011), which assumes that relationship outcomes depend on an actor's characteristics (actor effects) as well as a partner's characteristics (partner effects) (Kashy & Kenny, 2000;Kenny et al., 2006). It might be that individuals who have insecure attachment representations with their parents may have different relationship expectations and may behave differently, and as a result their friend might form a more insecure representation to them and experience low friendship quality. ...
The current studies addressed the associations between attachment representations with parents and a single best friend, intimacy behaviors (self-disclosure and support-seeking), and friendship quality in emerging adulthood, using the actor-partner interdependence mediation model (APIMeM). Study 1 (N = 186 dyads) examined whether attachment to parents predicted friendship quality, and whether this was mediated by attachment to their best friend. More avoidance or anxiety with parents predicted lower friendship quality, which was mediated by avoidance or anxiety with their best friend. Study 2 (N = 118 dyads) examined whether self-disclosure and support-seeking mediated the link between attachment with best friend and friendship quality. Anxiety with their best friend predicted lower friendship quality, which was mediated by support-seeking. Anxiety predicted less self-disclosure and support-seeking. We found no effects of avoidance. No partner effects were found in both studies. The findings are discussed in terms of adult attachment theory.
... This is the most appropriate method when data are collected from both members of a dyad. In these cases, data cannot be treated as independent from one another (Kashy & Kenny, 2000) and individuals cannot be considered as the unit of analysis because this would result in bias in significance testing (Kashy & Snyder, 1995). Indeed, there may be a higher risk of either Type I or Type II errors. ...
Through job crafting, employees proactively change or modify their tasks, thus reducing adverse job demands or protecting resources. There is still a lack of understanding of the impact that job crafting may have on colleagues at work (crossover effect), and how this may affect their ability to disconnect from work (spillover effect). In the present daily diary study, we examine these two processes among 82 dyads of colleagues ( N = 164 employees) over five consecutive working days ( N = 820 observations). We found a number of crossover and differential spillover effects. For example, when the focal employee starts new challenging projects, their colleague reacts by reducing the number of stressful tasks. This, in turn, affects psychological detachment from work. Specifically, whereas increasing challenging demands hinders daily detachment, decreasing hindering demands facilitates it. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that the impact of job crafting goes beyond the focal employee and beyond the work domain.
... We tested this hypothesis using the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) applied to data collected as part of a clinical survey among refugees and internally displaced people living in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI). APIM is a conceptual model of dyadic data that allows researchers to test the effect of one person's own risk factors on their symptoms (actor effect) as well as the effect of one partner's risk factors on their spouse's symptoms (Gistelinck & Loeys, 2019;Kenny & Cook, 1999;Kenny & Kashy, 2014). Using this framework, we hypothesized that one partner's trauma exposure levels would significantly predict PTSD and depressive symptoms in the other partner over and above the effects of the individual's risk factors. ...
From the first war in Mesopotamia to the latest ongoing war in Ukraine, war has constantly threatened nations' economic and social fabric. During the last decade, Middle East and North African countries suffered several armed conflicts and instability, including the Arab Spring and the emergence of Daesh. As a result, millions of civilian people were displaced from their homes. The present dissertation therefore purposes to study the experiences of the people forcibly displaced from Syria and Iraq as the two populations most affected by the civil war and armed conflict. The dissertation consists of three studies. All three studies were conducted among displaced Iraqi and Syrian people living in refugee camps in the Kurdistan region of Iraq (KRI). The first study aimed to estimate the psychological consequences of Syrian refugees’ war-related experiences. The results showed that all participants (98.5%) had experienced at least one traumatic event, and 86.3 per cent had experienced three or more traumatic event types. The prevalence rates of probable post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression were about 60%. A higher number of traumatic events, female gender, older age, more extended period in camps, and growing up in cities were among the significant risk factors for more severe mental disorders. In the second study, among a large sample of displaced Syrian and Iraqi couples, the results showed that trauma-related symptoms in a partner were not only affected by their own traumatic events but also by their partner's trauma. The findings demonstrated the interdependence of trauma-related symptoms within dyads in a dual-trauma context. Next, emphasizing on the stability of psychological consequences of the civil war, the results of the third study among Syrian refugees showed no overall change in PTSD and depression symptoms over the 18-month follow-up. The participants even reported 2 new adversities and traumatic events between the two interviews, significantly predicting increasing trauma-related symptoms. To sum up, this cumulative dissertation documents that the mental health of the waraffected population from Iraq and Syria is at high risk. The war-trauma sequelae are found to burden mental health at both the individual level and in the family context. Moreover, the post-conflict environment in Iraq seems not to help in recovering from the psychopathological disorder and starting a new life. All this suggests the urgent application of a pragmatic approach to rehabilitating these affected individuals at the local and global levels.
... As a preliminary step, we performed correlations to consider bivariate associations between all variables (See Table 1). Data were prepped in Stata and then an actor-partner-interdependence-model (APIM; Kenny & Kashy, 2000) was constructed to test our hypotheses using Mplus (Version 8; Muthén, & Muthén, 1998. The actor-partner aspect of the model involved partners that were distinguishable by gender (husbands vs. wives). ...
Perceptions of power imbalance are common in relationships. We used the relational model of mindfulness to examine links between marital perceptions of power, relational and sexual well-being and to evaluate whether trait mindfulness and sexual mindfulness moderate these associations. Using a nationally representative sample (N = 1,519 couples at Wave III) of mixed-sex newlywed couples, an actor-partner-interdependence model indicated that trait mindfulness and state sexually mindful awareness buffered the link between men's and women's own perceived power imbalance and relational well-being. Sexually mindful non-judgment, however, accentuated the negative association between perceived power imbalance and sexual well-being for men. We discuss the need for therapists to consider the need to encourage mindful awareness to attenuate perceptions of power imbalances and to evaluate how sexually mindful non-judgment influences men's feelings of sexual well-being. Therapeutic implications of these findings are also discussed.
... Recently, a hybrid (combined) statistical model, which enables including both the difference score and individual perceptions in one model, was proposed (Iida et al., 2018). This model combines advantages of the Actor Partner Interdependence Model (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 1999) and Dyadic Score Model (DSM; Iida et al., 2018). Using the hybrid model, researchers are able to not only assess the extent to which a pair of exploratory variables (i.e., adolescent and parent perceptions of parental warmth) affect a pair of outcome variables (i.e., adolescent and parent affect), as with APIM, but also include a variable that characterizes a dyadic relationship, such as the discrepancy between adolescent and parent reports, as with DSM. ...
The current study aimed to evaluate how adolescents' and parents' perceptions of daily parenting-and their discrepancies-relate to daily parent and adolescent affect. Daily parental warmth and affect were assessed using electronic diaries in 150 American adolescent-parent dyads (61.3% females, Mage = 14.6, 83.3% White; 95.3% mothers, Mage = 43.4; 89.3% White) and in 80 Dutch adolescents with 79 mothers and 72 fathers (63.8% females, Mage = 15.9, 91.3% White; Mage = 49.0, 97.4% White). Results of preregistered models indicated that individuals' affect may be more important for perceptions of parenting than discrepancies between parent-adolescent reports of parenting for affect, stressing the need to be aware of this influence of affect on parenting reports in clinical and research settings.
... Interdependence theory (e.g., Kelley & Thibaut, 1978) argues that individuals in a dyad have a direct (or mutual) influence on each other and experiences of one dyad member can influence both individuals in the couple. In order to analyze dyadic data according to interdependence theory, researchers use an actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) approach where both actor and partner effects are considered on the predictors and outcomes (Kashy & Kenny, 1999;Kenny, 1996). We argue that by taking an APIM approach, we can more fully understand how couples and individuals successfully navigate this important life passage. ...
In this introduction chapter, we provide an overview on the transition to parenthood in the twenty-first century. We next present our framework for the structure and format of the book with a focus on the A, B, C’s of the transition to parenthood – namely, the affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects from his, her, and their perspectives. We also establish the general criteria for inclusion in our review of the literature over the past decade and a half (since 2005). Finally, we discuss our Baby TIME (Transitions in Marital Exchanges) Study that we will use throughout each chapter, which sampled heterosexual, cisgender low-risk couples experiencing the transition to first-time parenthood from pregnancy to 9-month postpartum.KeywordsTransition to parenthoodAffectiveBehavioralCognitiveAPIMGender roles
... Thus, there is growing interest in the use of dynamic systems methods to show temporal precedence from dyadic data. For example, actor-partner methods [41,42] or lag analysis [43] can show, for example, that if Player A in the Prisoner's Dilemma smiles, Player B tends to also smile, with a small delay. This temporal precedence suggests Player A is the leader and Player B is adapting their own behaviour in response. ...
In face-to-face interactions, parties rapidly react and adapt to each other's words, movements and expressions. Any science of face-to-face interaction must develop approaches to hypothesize and rigorously test mechanisms that explain such interdependent behaviour. Yet conventional experimental designs often sacrifice interactivity to establish experimental control. Interactive virtual and robotic agents have been offered as a way to study true interactivity while enforcing a measure of experimental control by allowing participants to interact with realistic but carefully controlled partners. But as researchers increasingly turn to machine learning to add realism to such agents, they may unintentionally distort the very interactivity they seek to illuminate, particularly when investigating the role of non-verbal signals such as emotion or active-listening behaviours. Here I discuss some of the methodological challenges that may arise when machine learning is used to model the behaviour of interaction partners. By articulating and explicitly considering these commitments, researchers can transform ‘unintentional distortions’ into valuable methodological tools that yield new insights and better contextualize existing experimental findings that rely on learning technology.
This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Face2face: advancing the science of social interaction’.
... The actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) 39,40 is commonly used to investigate dyadic relationships, paying special attention to the nonindependence and interdependence of dyadic variables. It has been widely used in research involving dyads such as couples, 41 families, 42 and small groups. ...
Objective:
Patients and caregivers in the inpatient physical rehabilitation setting are presented with life-changing medical conditions, and their meaning in life can change dramatically. Meaning in life is associated with fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms, but little is known about how they are related interdependently among patients and caregivers. In the current study, we aim to explore their dyadic relationships.
Design:
Actor-partner interdependence model through structural equation modeling for dyadic analyses.
Setting and participants:
A total of 160 pairs of patients and caregivers recruited from 6 inpatient rehabilitation hospitals in China.
Methods:
Cross-sectional surveys were conducted among pairs of rehabilitation patients and caregivers. The presence of and search for meaning were measured with the Meaning in Life Questionnaire.
Results:
In 2 separate models, we found that patients' presence of meaning was negatively associated with their own depression (β = -0.61, P < .001) and anxiety (β = -0.55, P < .001), as well as their caregivers' depression (β = -0.32, P < .001) and anxiety (β = -0.31, P < .001). However, the caregivers' presence of meaning was only negatively associated with their own depression (β = -0.25, P < .05) and anxiety (β = -0.21, P < .05). A search for meaning was not significantly associated with depression or anxiety.
Conclusions and implications:
The results indicate that the anxiety and depressive symptoms of rehabilitation inpatients and caregivers are associated with their own level of presence of meaning. Caregivers' depression and anxiety are interdependently associated with patients' presence of meaning. Clinicians should take dyadic interdependence into consideration when providing psychological services to rehabilitate patients and their caregivers. Meaning-centered interventions can be helpful for the dyads' meaning-making and mental health.
Intuitive eating, defined as relying on physiological cues to determine when, what, and how much to eat while maintaining a positive relationship with food (Tribole & Resch 1995), has gained a lot of research attention in the last two decades. The present study sought to determine how motivation for regulating eating behaviors is related to intuitive eating and well-being outcomes in dyads of mothers and their adult daughters (n = 214). Structural equation modelling revealed that controlling for dieting and desire to lose weight, both mothers’ and daughters’ autonomous motivation was positively associated with their own intuitive eating while their controlled motivation was negatively associated with intuitive eating. In turn, intuitive eating was positively associated with well-being in both mothers and daughters. Interestingly, mothers’ intuitive eating was also positively related to their daughters’ well-being. The analysis of indirect effects suggests that mothers’ motivation to regulate eating behaviors has an indirect (mediating) relationship with daughters’ well-being through mothers’ intuitive eating. The implications for women’s health and well-being are discussed.
As an essential psychological construct, financial self‐efficacy (FSE) has garnered considerable attention in the field of consumer finance and demonstrated its influence on financial outcomes. FSE has been regarded as a learned belief rather than an innate quality that can be nurtured over time. Notwithstanding the increasing significance of understanding consumers' FSE, this particular line of literature has not been examined as an independent research domain. Accordingly, this framework‐based review comprehensively represents the current state of literature on FSE by covering 64 articles published between 1999 and 2023, compiled based on the Scientific Procedures and Rationales for Systematic Literature Reviews protocol and the theory–context–characteristics–methodology framework. Based on the review findings, an integrated model of FSE is proposed, summarizing the study frameworks and constructs employed as antecedents, modifiers, and outcomes in investigating consumer's FSE. Further, the review has identified certain areas that were previously overlooked. As a result, a research agenda has been developed, consisting of 22 research questions and four research objectives, which will articulate the direction for future research. Finally, the paper concludes, signifying the contribution and practical implications for researchers, families, practitioners, and society in selecting the most effective measures for improving consumers' FSE.
The influence of social relationships on human development and behavior is receiving increased attention from psychologists, who are central contributors to the rapidly developing multidisciplinary field of relationship science. In this article, the authors selectively review some of the significant strides that have been made toward understanding the effects of relationships on development and behavior and the processes by which relationships exert their influence on these, with the purpose of highlighting important questions that remain to be answered, controversial issues that need to be resolved, and potentially profitable paths for future inquiry. The authors' thesis is that important advances in psychological knowledge will be achieved from concerted investigation of the relationship context in which most important human behaviors are developed and displayed.
Objectives:
This study aimed to review dyadic research on psychological health and health-related quality of life (HRQL) in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) and caregivers and examine the pooled partner effects and actor effects based on the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model.
Data sources:
A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted. We registered our review protocol with PROSPERO (CRD42021258482). Six databases were searched until June 2021 using the following keywords: colorectal neoplasms, caregivers, depression, anxiety, stress, and quality of life. Two reviewers independently screened 1,597 studies that included both CRC patients and family caregivers. Meta-analyses were performed of the partner and actor effects of psychological health on HRQL in CRC.
Conclusion:
Eighteen observational studies involving 2,757 patients with CRC and 2,601 caregivers were included. Regarding partner effects, the distress of patients with CRC affected their family caregivers' distress and burden. There were three types of actor effects among patients with CRC and family caregivers: 1) the social support of patients with CRC affects their level of distress; (2) the distress of patients with CRC affects their HRQL; and (3) caregivers' social support affects their level of distress. This study provides the first comprehensive overview of the dyadic relationships between psychological health and HRQL in patients with CRC and their caregivers.
Implications for nursing practice:
The development of dyadic interventions for improving psychological health is warranted to help both patients with CRC and their family caregivers live with improved HRQL and well-being.
The Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology includes the latest research and applied perspectives from leaders in the field of performance psychology, presenting sport and performance psychology from myriad perspectives. It looks at individual psychological processes in performance such as attention, imagery, superior performance intelligence, motivation, anxiety, confidence, cognition, and emotion. Articles also consider the social psychological processes in performance including leadership, teamwork, coaching, relationships, moral behavior, and gender and cultural issues. The book further examines human development issues in performance, such as the development of talent and expertise, positive youth development, the role of the family, the end of involvement transitions, and both youth and masters-level sport and physical activity programs. Finally, the text looks at interventions in sport and performance psychology and counseling of performers in distress including such important issues for all performers as: appearance- and performance-enhancing drug use, injuries, managing pain, eating and weight issues, burnout, and the role of physical activity in maintaining health. The articles collected here also cover the history of sport and performance psychology; the scope and nature of the field; ethical issues in sport and performance psychology; performance psychology in the performing arts and other non-sporting fields; perfectionism and performance; the role of the performance coach and of the sport psychologist with a coach and team; supervision; and a look ahead to the future of the field.
Background:
Sexual communication is a common target in psychological treatments for vulvodynia, and associations with sexual function and distress, as well as pain intensity, have been demonstrated. However, structured observations of the communication patterns of couples with vulvodynia are lacking, as these are needed to guide treatment efforts.
Aim:
To explore (1) the sexual communication patterns in couples with vulvodynia in terms of observed communication quality (operationalized as validating and invalidating responses), self-reported sexual assertiveness, and self-disclosure and (2) associations between sexual communication quality and pain intensity.
Methods:
In a case-control design with within- and between-group comparisons, 62 couples engaged in videotaped discussions about their sexual relationship. Trained coders assessed the discussions by rating sexual communication (validation and invalidation) according to a structured behavioral coding scheme. Group differences in sexual communication quality were examined with parametric and nonparametric tests. Dyadic associations among observed communication quality, self-rated sexual assertiveness, and self-disclosure were examined within the actor-partner interdependence model. Multiple regression was used to test the predictive value of partners' validation/invalidation on the pain intensity of the women with vulvodynia.
Outcomes:
Observed communication quality (ie, validation and invalidation), self-reported sexual assertiveness, self-disclosure, and pain intensity.
Results:
Partners of women with vulvodynia were more invalidating toward their partners than those of women without pain. There were no significant differences in validating/invalidating communication between women in the 2 groups or in validation between partners. Partners' validating communication were significantly associated with women's lower pain intensity. The sexual communication patterns differed between couples with and without vulvodynia, and the associations between validating/invalidating responses and sexual assertiveness were stronger in the vulvodynia group than in the group without pain. Results on validation/invalidation and self-disclosure were inconclusive.
Clinical implications:
The results indicate a need to direct treatment interventions toward couples' sexual communication quality (ie, levels of validation and invalidation).
Strengths and limitations:
Strengths include systematic behavioral coding and dyadic analyses. Limitations include the cross-sectional design and self-selection of participants.
Conclusion:
This study demonstrated sexual communication patterns specific to couples with vulvodynia, and we conclude that validation and invalidation are important components of the sexual communication of couples with vulvodynia as they relate to sexual assertiveness, women's self-disclosure, and pain intensity.
Background:
Medical clowning for children has been found to be effective at enhancing parents' psychological well-being during preoperative preparation, but has not been found during cancer treatment. This study aimed to examine whether and how medical clowning influenced the emotions of parents of children undergoing cancer treatment.
Methods:
In this quasi-experimental study, 96 parents of children receiving inpatient cancer treatment were recruited, from June 2018 through April 2020. A demographic questionnaire measuring characteristics of parent and dyadic child, Brief Symptom Rating Scale measuring psychological distress of the parent, and Mood Assessment Scale measuring emotional status of parent and child were administered 1 day before a clowning service. The day after the clowning service, the Mood Assessment Scale again collected emotional status for parent and child. Descriptive analysis, bivariate analysis, and structural equation modeling to fit the actor-partner, cross-lagged model were used.
Findings:
Parents experienced a low degree of psychological distress that called for emotional management. The indirect effect of medical clowning on parents' emotions through children's emotions was significant, as were the direct effect and total effect of medical clowning on parents' emotions.
Discussion:
Parents experienced psychological distress during their child's inpatient cancer treatment. Medical clowning can directly improve children's emotions and through this pathway indirectly improve their parents' emotions.
Application to practice:
There is need to monitor psychological distress and provide interventions for parents of children undergoing cancer treatment. Medical clowns should continue to serve parent-child dyads in pediatric oncology practice and become members of multidisciplinary health care teams.
Tested hypotheses regarding self-fulfilling prophecies, perceptual biases, and accuracy using longitudinal data relating 98 6th-grade math teachers' expectations to 1,731 students' performance. Consistent with the self-fulfilling prophecy hypothesis, teacher expectations predicted changes in student achievement beyond effects accounted for by previous achievement and motivation. Consistent with the perceptual bias hypothesis, teacher expectations predicted their own evaluations of students' performance more strongly than they predicted standardized test scores. Consistent with the accuracy hypothesis, path coefficients relating teacher expectations to standardized achievement tests were about 80% lower than zero-order correlations, and the path coefficients relating teacher expectations to students' grades were 45% to 65% lower than the zero-order correlations. These results support a weak constructivist perspective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Psychologists have analyzed dyadic data with a social relations model (D. A. Kenny, 1994). This article develops an analogous model for triadic data. This triadic relations model, a 3-way random-effects analysis of variance, can estimate 7 variances and 16 covariances from a round-robin of 3-person interactions. This article applies this model to perceptions of liking among 72 college-student acquaintances. These variance-components methods could also be used to study cognitive balance, social networks, social perception, and group performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a new multivariate statistical technique that includes both individual and group effects and allows for nonindependence between group members in hierarchically nested designs in small-group research. In the present statistical technique, the estimated correlation matrices for the individual and for the group can be used as input into multivariate procedures (e.g., multiple regression, factor analysis). The application of the technique is illustrated for data on crowding in university residential environments. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Assesses agreement as a function of the trait being judged, the information presented, and individual differences to spontaneously use particular trait dimensions. In Experiment 1, there was a reliable amount of agreement in rating the targets, but this was greater if the traits were related to extraversion (Factor 1 traits) than to intelligence, honesty, or conscientiousness (Factor 2 traits). In Experiment 2, Ss viewed videotapes of interviews in which the questions focused on information relevant to either Factor l or Factor 2 traits. Again there was greater agreement in ratings of Factor 1 than Factor 2 traits, but this difference was reliably reduced if Ss saw the tape that focused on Factor 2 information. Regardless of the tape viewed, Ss who frequently used Factor 2 traits gave ratings on these that were in greater agreement with those of judges as a whole. Ss judged Factor 2 traits as more difficult to clearly confirm. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews and elaborates the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance. It is argued that various modes of psychotherapy can be meaningfully differentiated in terms of the kinds of working alliances (WA) embedded in them. Moreover, the strength, rather than the kind of WA, will prove to be the major factor in change achieved through psychotherapy. Strength of alliance will be a function of the goodness of fit of the respective personalities of patient and therapist to the demands of the WA. The WA includes 3 features: agreement on goals, assignment of tasks, and the development of bonds. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Meta-accuracy, knowing how others view the self, was examined using the Social Relations Model. Fifteen groups of 4-6 acquainted individuals gave self-ratings, perceptions of other group members, and estimated others' perceptions of self (metaperceptions) on the Big Five and Interesting. Individuals also rated liking and metaperceptions of liking. Trait perceptions were consensual, and self-other agreement emerged for most traits. Affect judgments were entirely relational; individuals differentiated among targets. Trait metaperceptions were dominated by perceiver variance. Individuals differed in the impression they believed others generally held about them. Affect metaperceptions, however, were relational in nature. Correlations between perceptions and metaperceptions assessed 2 types of meta-accuracy. Generalised meta-accuracy was obtained for some trait ratings. Affect judgments revealed significant dyadic meta-accuracy.
This essay reviews the literature on participation in small groups. Studies are distinguished as concerned with (a) identifying social or psychological factors that are assumed to be responsible for distributions of speaking opportunities in groups or (b) assessing the effect of participation hierarchies on group process and outcomes. Five general classes of antecedents are identified: member, group, and task characteristics; technology; and time. Three types of participation effects are also identified: individual* and group-level effects and effects on interaction. Two general criticisms are provided: First, a theory of participation is needed that specifies the role of antecedents on participation and how such antecedents play a role in participation outcomes; second, studies of participation should consider the role of discourse in the distribution of opportunities to speak. Suggestions for future research are offered.
This study investigated intergroup perception in well-acquainted groups. Also of interest were the effects of a naturally occurring status differential on these perceptions. The study is framed within the social relations model, which provides a measure of in-group bias as well as 3 innovative measures of out-group homogeneity. Results indicated that low-status groups consistently displayed out-group favoritism. High-status groups displayed in-group bias, but only on ratings of leadership ability. The results also provided consistent evidence of out-group homogeneity. In instances when group status moderated out-group homogeneity effects, members of the high-status groups perceived their in-group as more variable than the out-group, whereas members of the tow-status groups tended to see the in-group and out-group as equally variable.
The design and analysis of data when individuals are in more than one group are discussed. In the generations design, the group members change across time in a pattern that mimics the birth and death of members in families. We present a regression-based approach to the estimation of conformity and stability parameters. In a rotation design, people interact in multiple groups and multiple sessions and each group involves a different set of partners. For two different types of rotation designs, we present a variance decomposition approach. For all designs discussed, we illustrate the analysis with results from actual studies.
This paper discusses an ANOVA design appropriate for small group research in which dependent variables are derived from individual member responses. In such instances, subjects are nested within groups and groups are nested within treatments. Conditions under which it would be appropriate to pool the subjects within groups means square with the groups mean square to form the error term for the ANOVA are discussed. Such an error term will have somewhat greater power than that based on the groups means square alone. A common practice of using the subjects within groups mean square alone as the error term is shown to be inappropriate.
The present research employed a correlational-design laboratory study to examine the initial-interaction component of a developmental model of Graen's leader-member exchange theory of leadership proposed by Dienesch and Liden (1986). The influence of ability, liking, and the three upward-influence tactics of ingratiation, assertiveness, and rationality on the quality of leader-member exchange was examined both from the perspective of group leaders and members. The 188 subjects were assigned to groups of 4 (a leader and 3 members). From the leader's perspective, liking for members and ability of members were the variables most consistently related to quality of leader-member exchange. From the member's perspective, all variables except self-assessed ability were related to quality of leader-member exchange. The differences in perspective between leaders and members are discussed.
This chapter brings together the work of Hackman and Moms, Bales, and Jaffe and Feldstein into a model that is both manageable and intricate enough to capture the subtle details of ongoing group process. It describes a conceptual model that speaks directly to questions related to the dimensions of amount and structure and discusses data from three studies that are suggestive of the importance of these two dimensions to an understanding of group process. It also presents an automated data collection system that requires no human observers. The chapter defines process in terms of talking (Shaw, 1964), including both the amount of talking and the patterns of talking among group members. The chapter considers the amount and structure of content-free measures and the way they both can be affected by factors about the task facing the group, the overall group, and the individual members. The amount of vocal activity can range from silence to everyone speaking at once. Although much of the research on brainstorming has contrasted nominal groups with real groups, group interaction can range from none at all (in nominal groups) to various levels (in various real groups).
Seven basic research questions in interpersonal perception are posed concerning issues of consensus, assimilation, reciprocity, accuracy, congruence, assumed similarity and self—other agreement. All questions can be addressed at the individual level, and three at the dyadic level. It is shown how the Social Relations Model can be used to answer the questions.
Investigated recent trends in social psychological research on groups in 2 archival studies. Study 1 identified articles on groups appearing in the
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, the
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and the
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin from 1975 to 1993. A curvilinear pattern existed based on interest index scores showing a low degree of interest in groups during the late 1970s and most of the 1980s but an increase in interest in the 1990s. In the 2nd study, the same articles were evaluated for several characteristics, including evidence of the European and social cognition approaches to studying groups. Results provide valuable information about the nature of group research and confirm that European and social cognition theoretical approaches aided the recent resurgence of interest in groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
selected aspects centering around the construct of anxious romantic attachment [insecurity, emotional dependency, and "clinging" in love relationships] are presented to demonstrate the potential yield of continued research from . . . attachment theory perspective / male college students completed the [Anxious Romantic Attachment Scale] on their "2 most typical or most representative past relationships" / in the 2nd, main investigation, older participants of both sexes were asked to complete it about their "4 most important past relationships" / by prompting participants to report on salient relationships, and taking an average across multiple completions, we believe that we are getting at something that better represents their dating or romantic relationships as a whole / this average across relationships is what we have referred to as "tendency toward anxious romantic attachments" (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The handbook of advanced multilevel analysis
- Roberts
Roberts (Eds.), The handbook of advanced multilevel analysis
(pp. 335-370). London: Taylor & Francis.
Social network analysis: Methods and applications
- S Wasserman
- K Faust
Wasserman S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social network analysis:
Methods and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.