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SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND LAW
Energy efficiency and commercial office refurbishment.
By: Sara Jane WILKINSON
A dissertation submitted in
partial fulfilment of the
degree of
MA in Social Science Research Methods
by examination and dissertation
Sheffield Hallam University 2002.
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Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of James Pinder, Dan Ellingworth, the
participants of this research project and the School of Environment & Development for
allowing me to undertake this degree as part of self managed time – many thanks.
For Ted and William.
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Contents: Page number
Chapter 1 – Introduction 1
Chapter 2 - Energy Efficiency and Refurbishment of commercial
office space xx
Chapter 3 - Energy efficiency and the barriers to implementation xx
Chapter 4 - Research design and Data Collection xx
Chapter 5 - Data Analysis – questionnaires xx
Chapter 6 - Overall Conclusions and recommendations xx
References and bibliography
Appendix A – Internet Questionnaire for survey
Appendix B – Covering email letter accompanying questionnaire
Appendix C – List of respondents for internet questionnaire
Appendix D – Codebook for data analysis.
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List of illustrations and diagrams
Table 1 -
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Abstract
This research examined the scope and type of energy efficiency measures incorporated in
commercial refurbishment projects. The case for energy efficiency is clearly linked to the
perceived need to reduce or minimise global warming and depletion of the ozone layer
through fossil fuel consumption. Buildings consume approximately 48% of all UK energy and
result in significant emissions of carbon dioxide. There are moves within the UK to increase
standards of energy efficiency in new buildings, the Building Regulations Part L, conservation
of fuel and power was amended to incorporate higher standards of energy efficiency in
February 2002 (DETR, 2001). However most construction work involves refurbishment of
existing buildings rather than new design and there is a clear rationale for examining the
existing stock.
There was also an international perspective to this research. There is a need to identify
practices in other countries, in order that we might benchmark UK practice and take best
practice on board. The researcher decided to identify practices in the United States of
America, a country which the worlds largest consumer of fossil fuels and has a reputation for
rejecting international efforts to moderate consumption. The Netherlands, on the other
hand, has the reputation as an instigator of best practice in terms of energy efficiency. Both
countries in areas where questionnaires were sent, experience similar climate patterns to the
UK and therefore comparison with UK was possible.
Using an internet questionnaire, respondents were asked to identify the type and scope of
energy efficiency improvements they typically specify when refurbishing commercial office
space. Over 400 emails with the internet questionnaire were sent to respondents in the
United Kingdom, the United States of America and the Netherlands.
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Chapter 1 – Introduction
This research sought a deeper comprehension of the reasons why energy efficiency may or
may not be incorporated in commercial office refurbishment on an international perspective.
The study established why energy efficiency is considered important, how energy efficiency
can be implemented in refurbishment and the technical risks associated with these measures.
The research examined factors which developers, clients, and Architects consider when
refurbishing office space. The research aimed to gain a deeper understanding of the types of
energy efficiency that can be made and what influences the degree of provision.
1.00 Research rationale and context.
Why the international perspective? Clearly we are living in an ever-increasing global market,
for goods and services. The United Kingdom (UK) is converging with Europe as a member of
the European Union (EU) where we are moving toward more commonality in legislation.
Equally we need to have knowledge about practices in other countries whereby we might
further develop our own practices.
The Netherlands has a good reputation for energy efficiency and the researcher hopes to find
evidence of good practice. However not all countries have such a positive attitude towards
energy efficiency, as the United States of America (USA) demonstrated when she refused to
ratify the Kyoto Agreement in 1997. In refusing to agree to quotas for carbon emissions,
which would require the USA to either reduce energy consumption or use energy more
efficiently, the USA reinforced her reputation as a profligate user of energy interested in her
own economic agenda at the expense of all else (economic writer ref). However this may not
be the case on a micro level, as previous research has identified examples of best practice in
the USA in terms of energy efficient refurbishment (Cook, 1997). Therefore this research
draws comparisons between a country with an excellent reputation for energy efficiency (the
Netherlands), a country with a poor reputation for energy efficiency (the United States of
America) and the UK.
What is meant by energy efficiency in the context of this research? The study focused on the
energy efficiency improvements which can be made to the building fabric and envelope
during refurbishment which increase heat retention. These improvements could include the
provision of, or additional insulation within the external cladding or curtain walling system, or
to the roof, or additional glazing, or a combination of the above.
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According to Mould (Roaf & Hancock, 1992. p148) the purpose of thermal improvement is to
‘restrict heat loss’. Though thermal insulation will feature strongly in this study, there appears
to be a fundamental problem concerning the provision and specification of thermal insulation
in buildings. There is “widespread ignorance about thermal insulation, how it functions, the
way in which it should be installed, and the ways in which its effects can be degraded. This
lack of understanding operates from labourer to top management” (Mould, 1992).
In the UK, Part L, Conservation of Fuel and Power, of the Building Regulations 1991, was
updated in 1995 and 2002. The ‘overwhelming proportion of [building] stock is poorly
insulated, since reasonable minimum standards of thermal insulation is only recent in the UK
regulations’ Mould (1992). The 1995 revisions altered the location for thermal insulation, the
amount of insulation required in new construction and set out a requirement that some
existing buildings be upgraded to meet minimum requirements during refurbishment. It
marked a departure from previous provisions that applied only to new construction. It
acknowledged the need to broaden the scope of the regulations, which is appropriate
because a substantial amount of current UK construction is refurbishment (Chandler, 1991).
The 2002 revisions have disappointed some (xxxx) because the original proposals made in
1999 were to implement wide reaching changes and increase ‘significantly’ the amount of
thermal insulation required to meet the regulations (DETR, 1999).
A reason for the 1995 changes to the legislation was the acknowledgement of the link
between thermal efficiency in buildings, energy conservation, carbon dioxide (CO²)
emissions, ozone depletion and perceived global warming (BRE IP 18/91). CO² emissions
from buildings in the US equal 5 billion tons, the commercial sector emits 740 million tons
(Croxton, 1994. p31). The initial reason for energy efficiency in buildings arose from the oil
crisis in the early 1970’s when western countries felt supplies could be disrupted.
The second wave of interest resulted from research which showed that human activities were
responsible for erosion of the stratospheric ozone layer (Farman, 1986). Farman’s (1986)
research showed that chemical emissions, emitted as a result of mans activities and energy
consumption, such as chloroflourocarbons (CFC’s), had worn away the stratospheric ozone in
the Antarctic. The projected results, if man made no changes to existing practices, would be
climate change leading to changing weather patterns, the raising of sea levels and the
flooding of low lying areas. Farman’s paper had considerable impact and influence politically
at a national and international level.
In the UK, the then Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, gave two speeches in 1988 which
marked a major change with regard to the environment and conservative ideology
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(McCormick, 1991). Thatcher had little interest in the environment, then, in September 1988
she outlined major changes in her position, referring to global warming, ozone depletion, acid
rain pollution and a commitment to sustainable development. At the 1989 party conference,
she stated Conservatives were ‘friends of the Earth..... its’ guardians and trustees for
generations to come’. McCormick (1991) believes that she was, partly, a victim of
circumstance, because Farmans research concluded at this time. Hitherto the government
was ‘notably obstructionist on the CFC issue’ (McCormick, 1991), however due to a successful
campaign run by Friends of the Earth, and industries relatively easy switch from CFC
propelled aerosols to butane, Thatcher supported the campaign with little cost to her
credibility and industry (McCormick, 1991.p105). Dobson (1991) notes the speech bought the
environment into the political mainstream with considerable ‘public and political impact’.
Thatchers’ conversion to ‘friend of the Earth’ and the signing of the 1987 Montreal Protocol
increased media coverage of environmental issues. Public opinion demanded action where
possible. In the late 1980’s environmental issues were on the political and social agenda.
Marketing moves by large companies promoted ‘green consumerism’ endorsed by the director
of environmental group Friends of the Earth, Jonathan Porritt, who published books on the
topic (1989).
The Confederation of British Industry (CBI) published pamphlets indicating how industry
could green itself (CBI, 1991) and in the construction industry, environmental and energy
issues received increased coverage to a wider, more receptive audience. Articles appeared in
construction, architectural and professional journals linking buildings to wider global
environmental issues.
The House Builders Federation, published a report (House Builders Federation, 1990) relating
house building to the environment followed by the Institute of Builders (Bright & Lown 1991).
The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) published in 1991, an Institutional
response to the Government 1990 environmental White Paper ‘This Common Inheritance’.
Environmental issues including energy conservation were topical, and widely covered in the
national professional press.
The RICS acknowledged the role surveyors play in relation to the environment and supported
the governments proposals. They supported ‘the encouragement of energy efficiency
measures in buildings... targeted at older property’ and that ‘owners of existing buildings
should be strongly encouraged to insulate’ (RICS, 1991). Thus the government, and the most
influential UK professional institution relating to land and property use, acknowledged the
dual importance of improving the existing stock and thermal provision.
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Further evidence lies in the development of the Building Research Establishment
Environmental Assessment Method scheme (BREEAM) for new office buildings in 1990
(BREEAM 1/90). The scheme aimed to develop a market for ‘environmentally conscious
buildings’, to set out a recognised standard, to avoid spurious claims of environmentally
friendliness, and to diminish the long term impact of buildings on the environment (BREEAM
1/90). A major element of the scheme is to reduce carbon and CFC emissions due to the link
with energy consumption and global warming and ozone depletion (BREEAM 1/90). Buildings
consume half of all UK energy consumed and there is scope for reducing CO² and CFC
emissions by conserving energy consumed in buildings (BRE IP 18/91). US statistics confirm
similar levels of energy consumption, 54%, on a percentage basis for buildings (Croxton,
1994. p27). Though CO² emissions can be reduced by introducing filters to power generation
plants, there is no reduction of energy consumption per se. Improving buildings thermally
reduces consumption, costs to the user, and reduces the nations CO² emissions to fulfil
international commitments. The Montreal Protocol of 1987 has been superceded by the Kyoto
Agreement of 1997.
What is the reason for focussing on existing buildings in this research? Less than 2% is added
annually to the UK building stock, therefore a significant amount of stock is existing, much of
which has a 60 year plus life cycle. These buildings may be refurbished and/or converted
during their lifecycle. It is important, to examine the existing stock, as the RICS (1991) noted,
and this research focuses on existing construction. Refurbishment in the UK ‘is virtually half
gross expenditure on building’ yet little research is focused on this area (Chandler
1991.p167). It follows that research into office refurbishment and energy efficiency is a
relevant topical area of study.
There is a convincing rationale for energy efficiency in existing buildings. This is embodied in
international governmental agreements, domestic legislation, and best practice advice to
building owners, developers, designers and builders. However evidence to date, is that much
improvement in energy efficiency in refurbishment is fortuitous (improvements in technology)
or imposed (required by legislation) and the minimum to satisfy the building code (Croxton,
1994) rather than intentional (Cook, 1997).
1.10 Research question
Given the scope of the research and the issues identified the research question is; How can
we remove the barriers to increased energy efficiency in commercial office refurbishment
projects?
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1.11 Aims and objectives:
This research project has three aims;
1. To gain a deeper understanding of the reasons why energy efficiency improvements may
or may not be incorporated into office refurbishment projects.
2. To gain a deeper comprehension of how much energy efficiency is incorporated in office
refurbishment projects using a case study approach to compare and contrast differences
and similarities in office refurbishment projects in the Netherlands, the United States of
America and the United Kingdom.
3. To ascertain how the barriers to energy efficiency may be altered in this market.
The research objectives are;
1. To establish the factors which clients, designers and Architects have to consider when
deciding on the level of refurbishment
2. To establish why energy efficiency is important
3. To investigate what improvements can be implemented, and the technical and health
risks associated with these measures
4. To use an internet questionnaire survey to identify current practice in terms of energy
efficiency in commercial refurbishment, to ascertain what clients, designers, energy
efficiency agencies and Architects consider the barriers to energy efficiency and how they
might be altered.
Every study has limitations, this study does not cover residential buildings though their use of
energy is significant. It used an internet questionnaire approach to assess whether the
practice identified in the literature is pursued in practice. The study focussed on alterations to
the building fabric and envelope. It did not look in detail at the changes made to building
services. The study established how far running costs of office buildings are considered. The
study establishes whether other energy efficiency measures such as energy management
systems, lighting, air conditioning and ventilation systems are considered. The DETR/EEO
note that priorities for energy efficiency are not always where one initially supposes for
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example, lighting may offer more potential for savings than heating in office buildings and
alterations to the fabric might be inappropriate in some cases (DOE/EEO 1993 p2).
This chapter has set out the context and the rationale for this research. The context being
the acceptance in the global community of the need to reduce energy consumption and the
requirement to comply with international protocols signed at Kyoto in 1997. The
acknowledged link between energy consumption and buildings and the resulting emissions of
significant amounts of carbon dioxide has been established. The rationale for an international
perspective in the project was discussed with reasons given the selection of the US and the
Netherlands for this research, as likely exemplars of poor and best practice in terms of energy
efficiency. Within the context of the research, a research question and three research aims
and four objectives were clearly identified. Finally the particular limitations of this research
were noted, that is the focus being commercial and not residential property.
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Chapter 2 – Energy Efficiency and Refurbishment of commercial office space.
Introduction
This chapter reviews literature relating to energy efficiency and refurbishment of commercial
office buildings. The economic and environmental need for thermal improvements to
buildings and the thermal improvements that can be made to existing buildings including
technical risks are stated. Through the literature review, the chapter shows how this research
fits into existing and previous research.
The literature search revealed little literature relating directly to thermal improvements and
office refurbishment. Literature on refurbishment and thermal improvement focuses largely
on residential and not commercial buildings.
2.00. Office Refurbishment
What is refurbishment, or ‘retrofit’ as it is termed in the US? According to the Oxford English
Dictionary, refurbishment is the process of ‘restoring’ and ‘redecorating’, which can range
from small scale projects consisting of redecoration only, to large scale alterations to the
building envelope and internal spatial layout. The most extreme form is to strip away the
external envelope back to the structural frame and remove the entire interior. According to
Mansfield (2001), refurbishment is actually a poorly understood term, which can incorporate
a wide range of criteria.
Refurbishment can be a ‘distress’ refurbishment which seeks to upgrade property which
would otherwise remain vacant and unlettable or, a ‘maximising’ refurbishment where the
property is lettable but refurbishing would attract even higher rents (EEO. 1986). For the
purposes of this research all levels of refurbishment are considered where alterations have
been made to the thermal qualities in the building. An advantage of refurbishment is that,
typically, it takes only half the time of redevelopment, and the client has the added bonus of
a rental income sooner (Chandler, 1991. p163).
In refurbishment there are many factors to consider and improvements to thermal qualities
will be one of many the client and design team discuss when deciding on the appropriate
level of refurbishment. According to Chandler (1991. p60), these factors are;
Table 2.1 factors affectin
g
the level of refurbishment
A physical assessment of the buildin
g
Buildin
g
use (does it meet user demands?)
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Comfort (does the buildin
g
meet current standards?)
Ease of maintenance (are spare parts available?)
Cost of maintenance (in terms of fuel, services)
Land value (is an alternative use more profitable?)
Available capital (how much does the client have to spend on the pro
j
ect?)
Suitability for refurbishment (what is the structural form of the buildin
g
?)
Source: Adapted from Chandler, 1991.
The significance of these factors varies according to time, the economic climate, and location.
Furthermore refurbishment contains potentially more technical and economic uncertainties
than new build schemes (Reyers & Mansfield, 2001, p 679). The clients desire for a short,
medium or long term scheme also affects the importance of the factors noted above.
Chandler (1991) noted the complex interaction of factors and decisions which the client and
design team make during refurbishment schemes. In terms of the building itself, the
following factors have to taken into consideration;
structural condition
fabric standards (thermal, fire and sound)
condition of components (doors and windows)
condition of roof
condition of internal services (lifts, heating installations)
security
ease of adaptability to new functions
external environmental improvements
requirements of tenants / users
financial constraints
required future life expectancy (Chandler, 1991. p64).
Initially decisions relate to the physical condition of the building internally and externally. The
decision to undertake a short, medium or long term refurbishment is also made early on
(Chandler, 1991. p64). There may be some investigation into user requirements if the client
has a tenant for the building. The second stage, is to evaluate the feasibility of the measures
that have been proposed in the first stage. For example, if the aim is to improve the building
thermally, how will this best be achieved? Will it be through overcladding, or upgrading
services, upgrading the roof? The decision will be affected by costs, and by whether the
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building can accommodate the proposed level of technology. The decision is affected by
whether the costs can be reclaimed in higher rent and/or the payback period for
improvements.
There are models and methods for calculating the implications of improvements during
refurbishment. Flanagan and Norman (1983) describe the technique, life cycle costing where
the following factors have to be considered:
total cost commitment for the work
short term running costs of remedial solution
determination of the options which produce the lowest life cycle cost
analysis of the existing running costs
the aim to reduce running costs after refurbishment (Flanagan & Norman, 1983).
Whilst the total cost implications of the design can be evaluated at the design stage,
assumptions have to be made about the future use of the building for running costs. There is
scope for error or misjudgement that may affect the financial success of a scheme in the long
term. Flanagan’s work has been developed by others, such as Pasquire and Swaffield (2002)
into the concept of Whole Life Costing whereby a cradle to grave approach informing decision
making is applied to the building. Though whether any retrospective analysis is actually
undertaken by clients after refurbishment is unlikely as Cook’s (1997) earlier study into
commercial refurbishment and energy efficiency noted.
In calculating the life cycle costs five areas need to be taken into account (Chandler
1991.p66). These are life cycle planning which establishes the estimated running costs of the
building. Secondly, full year effect costs, which identify the short term running costs of the
proposed building. The life cycle analysis considers the running costs and the performance of
operational buildings to identify the actual costs in operating a building. There follows the life
cycle analysis for the building itself. Finally there is life cycle management in which the value
of the refurbishment is evaluated in terms of long term economic viability and cost. This
appears to be a best practice scenario and the question arises as to how much life-cycle
costing occurs in practice.
There have been developments relating to life cycle costing and thermal improvements.
Gustafsson, Karlson and Sjoholm (1986) developed a life cycle costing equation in terms of
power and energy differences pre and post refurbishment, which implies that refurbishment
involves some improvement thermally. Their calculation included factors such as energy from
the climate, cost of insulation, building cost for climate shield, building cost for heating
equipment, annual running costs, life cycle period and interest rates on money borrowed.
However it is not anticipated that these tools are used in practice.
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Other methods of evaluating costs and benefits form decisions relating to refurbishment
options include value engineering which looks at function, cost and worth as criteria for
decision making (Gilleard, 1988). It is not the intention to discuss these methods further,
merely to acknowledge their existence and possible use in the decision making process.
Finally, the decision to refurbish and/or to decide on the level of refurbishment rests on the
following variable factors;
physical life left in building
need for and efficient use of space
technological construction
disruption to occupants, if any
environmental planning around the building (car parking etc.)
planning obligation on possible redevelopment
useable space gain to original floor layout
ability to meet current standards
planning / legislative constraints
time for on site works
appearance and architectural perception
cost compared to new build
capital required
source of finance
recovering of costs
profitability of scheme
social benefits
It is clear that the decision to refurbish has many components. These factors vary and each
building is evaluated on its merits, and the prevailing economic climate. The decision whether
to improve the building thermally is one of many options the client and designer face. The
importance of thermal improvements varied similarly according to time and location, to
market conditions and legislation.
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2.20 The environmental argument for thermal improvements
The environmental argument for thermal improvements is linked to CO² emissions, ozone
depletion global warming and energy consumption in buildings (BRE IP 16/94). Corcoran and
Ellis (Roaf & Hancock, 1992. p260) view the position more broadly, in that they embody
concern over energy use and the health of office staff and the impact of buildings on the
wider environment.
Butt (Roaf & Hancock, 1992. p285) cited issues relating to energy use such as; pollution,
waste, diminishing fossil fuel resources, global warming, and ozone depletion. She claims
‘designers have a key role’, and that ‘fundamental change in fuel consumption is required
away from dirty finite sources to infinite clean sources’, such as wind, wave, and solar
energy. Our energy policy ‘needs foresight and resolve’ because the ’survival of the species
may depend on it’ (Roaf & Hancock, 1992.p285).
Though CO² and CFC’s remain the main cause of environmental concern for Butt (Roaf &
Hancock, 1992) because of the greenhouse effect and ozone depletion. Further research is
needed on renewable energy sources and global warming and ozone depletion, but
complacency must not set in and legislation is required to limit CO² emissions and CFC’s. As
the Montreal Protocol, limiting CFC emissions had been signed in 1987, Butt called for further
measures. The Kyoto protocol in 1997 confirmed the need to reduce CO² emissions but
revealed a reluctance amongst nations to agree on the best method to achieve reductions.
Significantly the United States of America, the worlds biggest consumer of energy refused to
sign the protocol, arguing that her economic activity would be curtailed unacceptably by such
an agreement. Though other nations did sign to reduce emissions to 1990 levels, the
initiative was seriously undermined by the US decision.
Moss (BRE IP 16/94) claims that office buildings account for 75 PF of energy in the UK in
1991, out of a total consumption of 812PJ for the service sector as a whole. The majority of
this energy is consumed through the consumption of electricity and gas, both derived from
finite fossil fuels. The whole sector contributes 89 million tonnes of CO² emissions.
Furthermore electricity (over 50% of energy consumed in offices), ‘emits, on average
between 2 and 3 times the volume of CO² per unit of delivered energy emitted by fossil fuels,
when emissions associated with generation and transmission are included’ (Moss IP 16/94).
The contribution of office buildings to CO² emissions is significant.
The argument that energy conservation and efficiency leads to less environmental pollution
through less CO² emissions is posited by the DOE and the Energy Efficiency Office (DOE/EEO,
1993). The DOE/EEO state that ‘energy efficiency helps the building and its’ occupants to
achieve and demonstrate environmental responsibility.’ There is then, also a moral and an
ethical argument for incorporating energy efficiency in office buildings.
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2.30 Thermal improvements in office refurbishment.
This section outlines the improvements which designers can consider in office refurbishment.
It considers both the building envelope and building services, and when inclusion is
appropriate.
2.31 Building envelope
Thermal improvements can take the form of insulation in the walls, roof and floors. Insulation
can be placed internally or externally. Where the building is listed or where the client wishes
to retain the facade appearance the insulation cannot be fixed externally. Otherwise
insulation can be fixed either in a completely new cladding system or fixed in an
overcladding, where part of the original elevations are retained. It is possible where a cavity
exists for insulation to be injected into the cavity, however there are concerns over the
insulation containing formaldehyde giving off harmful gasses. Insulation can be provided on
the internal face of walls, with the disadvantage that net lettable floor space is reduced and
cold bridging can result if the detailing is poor.
Insulation can be fixed internally or externally on roofs. Externally it can be fixed above or
below the waterproof covering. Where fixed externally rainwater drainage and details around
rainwater outlets need to be considered, though disruption to occupants is minimised. Where
fixed internally, interstitial condensation and cold bridging are potential problem areas.
Floor insulation is considered worthwhile where the floor is either in direct contact with the
ground, or where the floor is exposed to the outside, below a service access for example. The
insulation can be located internally or externally.
Considerable heat loss occurs through windows, which in offices can account for a large
proportion of the elevations. Older building stock tends to have single glazed, poorly draught
proofed fenestration. Metal framed windows are worse than timber framed windows in terms
of heat loss and air leakage. The standard specification for the 2000 is double glazed units
with thermal breaks to prevent cold bridging. Low Emissivity glass can be provided which
improves thermal properties by admitting UVA rays, the light rays, but not letting UVB rays,
the heat rays, escape. Some windows are filled with gas, such as Argon, which manufacturers
claim slow the transmission of heat through the glazing cavity. The expense of triple glazing
is not considered worthwhile for the thermal benefits alone, though it may be considered
where noise pollution is a problem. When retaining existing units consideration could be given
to either secondary glazing, the wider the cavity the better the thermal insulation, or a low
cost option of draught-proofing.
Thermal improvements can occur in the design. The provision of draught lobbies, where
space permits, to entrances is a simple way of reducing heat losses.
2.32 Building Services
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A range of improvements can be made to the services within a building to improve energy
efficiency. The energy source for the building is a main consideration. Some fuels are more
expensive and generate more CO² emissions. New gas boilers are more efficient at producing
heat and per unit cost of energy is cheaper than electricity and oil. Older oil fired boilers are
likely to be inefficient. Other sources are combined heat and power (CHP) where it is
available. CHP is generated by the incineration of waste generating heat, which is then used
to heat water which is piped to the point of use.
Computerised controls or building management systems (BMS) can result in lower running
costs, by reducing heating output when external temperatures rise. Other control features
include thermostatic valves on radiators, where individuals can reduce or increase
temperatures. Individual control over the internal environment is thought to reduce the
possibility of sick building syndrome occurring. Occupancy switches for lighting, where lights
automatically switch on and off to movement sensors, can reduce energy consumption.
In the UK 42% of all electrical energy consumed in office buildings is used in lighting (EEO.
1995). Lighting offers a good opportunity for energy conservation. Older buildings can have
inefficient light fittings, as well as inefficient poor design. New technology and design
philosophies utilise high compact flourescents which generate high lighting levels with less
energy consumption. In the US there are moves from traditional downlighting to uplighting
and reflecting off light ceiling finishes with task lighting to supplement overall levels (Syska &
Hennessy 1995)
The selection of energy efficient equipment is another consideration which needs to be
addressed by the facilities manager. There are increasing levels of equipment used in offices,
where cooling is required this can add significantly to the energy required to cool the building
(Croxton, 1994).
2.40 Thermal Improvements - technical and risk issues
There are technical risks and issues which relate to the specification of, and use of thermal
insulation and improvement to existing construction.
Poor workmanship can lead to surface condensation because of cold bridges and leakage
(Mould, Roaf & Hancock, 1992.p147-54). Mould sees poor workmanship as responsible for
poorly fixed insulation in cavity walls leading to bridging and damp patches, which lead to
uneven thermal performance across the wall. Poor workmanship is caused partly by the use
of ‘itinerant labour’ (Roaf & Hancock, 1992 p149) and is compounded where the construction
is complex (Bell & Overend, 2001 p149-159).
Lack of site supervision can cause building defects associated with thermal improvements.
The type of damage includes damage to insulation materials from following trades (Roaf &
Hancock, 1992. p148) and also from changes to the specified materials. Mould claimed that it
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followed “that supervision of work in progress to ensure that the installation of the insulation
is effective, is likely to be cursory and lacking in understanding” (Roaf & Hancock, 1992.
p148). It is important that site supervision is adequate, that training is provided if necessary,
to avoid problems with insulation, though this might add to contract costs. It is more difficult
and expensive to put right problems after refurbishment when scaffolding has been struck
and tenants are in occupation.
Inadequate attention to thermal leakage through the building envelope is a problem (BR
262/94, Mould Roaf & Hancock, 1992. p151-60). The UK Building Regulations do not include
requirements for air-tightness, therefore on paper the building might achieve a certain
standard, whilst in practice the building might fall well below this (Bell and Overend, 2001
p49-159). Mould (Roaf & Hancock, 1992. p151) claimed that air pressure and smoke tests
should be used to ensure air-tightness occurs in practice. Weak spots in construction are
mortar joints, joist ends, partial cavity fill, window jambs, heads, and cills and corner details.
Gaps around drylining and service openings and windows are areas for leakage to occur
(RICS, 1993.p8).
BRE stated that air infiltration associated with thermal insulation can lead to increased heat
loss where gaps exist in the insulation layer in pitched roof construction (BR 262/94.p8). In
wall construction increased heat loss occurs where cold air from the cavity is able to move
behind partial fill insulation or through an air permeable inner leaf to the interior via holes for
service pipes or around gaps in drylining (BR 262/94.p26-7). Windows are a risk area where
failure to make an airtight seal between the frame and the walling result in draughts and heat
loss (BR 262/94.p37). In floors heat loss is increased if cold air is able to enter the building
from the sub-floor space, if gaps in the insulation layer allow air movement above the
insulation or if the insulation is reduced in thickness (BR 262/94. p55).
Ignorance of the impact of moisture content of materials is a problem which varies
seasonally, with rainfall, windspeed and moisture generation internally (Mould, Roaf &
Hancock, 1992. p150-1). Furthermore damage occurred where insufficient heat energy is
generated to dry bricks leading to accelerated frost damage (Roaf & Hancock, 1992. P146,
BR 262/94. p21, p25).
Thermal bridging is often associated with increases in thermal insulation. Cold or thermal
bridging occurs when the envelope is upgraded, where some adjoining elements in the
construction have considerably less thermal qualities, leading to differences in temperature
where heat is lost through the envelope. There is debate about which parts of the envelope
are at risk. The Building Regulations ignore mortar joints, whereas the CIBSE guide (SR A3-9)
claims mortar joints account for between 5 and 20% of heat loss (Roaf & Hancock, 1992.
p164) and should be included in calculations. Mould (Roaf & Hancock, 1992. p164) identifies
reveals and lintels as areas where thermal bridging is likely to occur. Balconies and canopies
21
can result in cold bridges through walls, if not carefully detailed (RICS, 1993. p8). Chandler
(1991. p28) claimed that in the UK sandwich panels of concrete and a fill of insulation have
not performed well on high relatively exposed corners of buildings where excessive heat loss
takes place. The cooling of external panels acts as a heat sink and can cause excessive room
condensation with the panels acting as the cold bridge.
BRE identify thermal bridging risk areas in pitched roof construction (p9), through purlins and
spacer sections in metal roofs, through broken insulation layers in flat roof construction
particularly at wall/roof junction and where pipes penetrate the roof (p14). These problems
occur with concrete and timber construction, with warm and cold roof design, and can lead to
condensation. In wall construction risk areas occur where continuity of insulation is broken
(p25) and at junctions of separating walls and internal partitions (p29). In windows, risk
areas occur where dense part of construction interrupts the continuity of the insulating layer
causing the internal surface temperature to fall below dew point. In floor construction the risk
area for thermal bridging falls at the junction of the floor and the wall, where continuity
between insulation is broken (p45).
Surface condensation occurs as a result of poor thermal design (Mould, 1992. P147). External
walls and roof upgrading present high risk areas for surface condensation (RICS, 1993. p18).
Chandler (1991.p28) noted problems with large concrete panels and curtain walling where
internal room condensation can be a problem. The lightweight structures cool more rapidly
and the surface temperature is lower with a higher risk of condensation. This problem was
noted in the 1970’s when thermal improvements were being implemented in existing
buildings for the first time. Risk areas identified by BRE in the preceding paragraph for
thermal bridging all present the risk of condensation.
Interstitial condensation occurs where the dew point of the moist air is reached within the
materials in the construction and became evident during the 1970’s. Higher internal
temperatures during the winter period and the likelihood of closed windows results in a
higher moisture content internally which pushes the vapour through the walls, roof and floor
possibly causing interstitial condensation (Mould, 1992. p151). Interstitial condensation can
lead to deterioration of materials which remain covered up and unexposed which can be
unnoticed until failure occurs (BRE, 262/94.).
Another concern was that the performance of thermal improvements does not match the
design. Factory assembled components perform nearest to design (Roaf and Hancock, 1992.
p148-9), but problems occurred where there is a change to the specified materials. Mould
(Roaf & Hancock, 1992) claimed that the thermal conductivity test, or lambda, carried out in
the laboratory is not valid for site conditions and there is a change in performance. This has
implications for the performance of buildings and may increase contract sums (Bell &
Overend, 2001 COBRA. P149-159)
22
Another factor is the occupancy of the building, which affects thermal performance (Baker.
Roaf and Hancock, 1992. p246-7) A poorly managed energy efficient building can use more
energy than a well managed, but poor thermally designed building. A number of issues
related to use and thermal improvements, such as does the building need to be dry before
the insulation is effective (Mould, Roaf and Hancock, 1992)? Furthermore does the drying out
process lead to shrinkage and air leakage? Do the users need any special instructions
regarding occupation? Will the insulation last the life of the building?
Design issues need to be identified at the outset. Baker (Roaf & Hancock, 1992. p246-9)
observes that building design affects thermal performance and that energy use predictions
have ‘been misleading and has lead to incorrect design strategies.’ The dilemma is that, if
field studies and energy use models are misleading, how can stringent energy requirements
or performance criteria be met through design? There is a strong case for post construction
testing to assess whether performance is matching design. Mould (Roaf & Hancock, 1992.
p149) identifies insitu tests which measure ‘U’ values. He records that tests show that some
forms of construction are more likely to reveal a discrepancy between performance and
design.
The difference between delivered and primary energy leads to distortion, with an
inappropriate focus on heating (Baker, Roaf & Hancock, 1992). Space heating as accounting
for 60% of energy consumption by end use in the UK in 1991, yet electricity accounts for
33% of all energy consumed in the same period. This has lead to designs with small windows
and deep plans to minimise the surface area to volume ratio. However the focus should be to
natural ventilation and natural daylighting because artificial lighting is responsible for a large
proportion of the energy used. A building should be divided into passive and non-passive
zones for energy design (Baker Roaf & Hancock, 1992). Passive zones benefit from natural
daylighting and ventilation and solar gain, whereas non-passive zones need to be artificially
heated, ventilated and lit (Roaf and Hancock, 1992 p252-3). Corcoran and Ellis (Roaf and
Hancock, 1992 p263). concur with Baker, that evidence suggests narrow plan forms are more
energy efficient than deep plan.
The construction phase is important because though the design may be suitable, the
execution of the design is critical for the thermal success of the building. Mould (Roaf &
Hancock, 1992) believes that thermal improvements specified should be evaluated in terms of
suitability and robustness. The storage requirements and facilities on site should be reviewed.
Training or additional training for the installation of the insulation is critical. The sequencing
of trades and the possibility of damage caused by other trades should be looked at (BR
262/94.). Finally the designer should ask what expertise and experience exists on site with
the product, the construction form and technique? (Roaf and Hancock, 1992. P168).
23
Table 2.2 Summary of technical risks and issues associated with ener
g
y
improvements
technical risks issues
Poorly fixed insulation Poor workmanship
Materials dama
g
ed by follow on trades Use if itinerant labou
r
Surface condensation Lack of site supervision
Interstitial condensation Chan
g
es to materials specification
T
hermal brid
g
in
g
to floors, roofs and walls. Lack of trainin
g
T
hermal leaka
g
e throu
g
h buildin
g
envelope Inadequate requirements for air ti
g
htness in
building regulations / codes
I
g
norance of impact of materials
Occupancy
–
buildin
g
poorly mana
g
ed
Poor site stora
g
e facilities
Performance of ener
g
y efficiency
improvement does not match design
Conclusions
This chapter has demonstrated that there are various degrees of refurbishment, from minor
redecoration to major work including new plant, cladding services and fittings. Refurbishment
can occur because the building will remain unlettable otherwise, or to maximise rental income
where the building will achieve higher rents once refurbished. Once the decision to refurbish
is made, there are many variables to consider. These include the suitability of the building,
land value and capital available for the project. The payback for the scheme, as well as
whether the project is a short, medium, or long term refurbishment were also factors. The
condition of the building and components, standards required and legislation affected the
level of refurbishment. Models and methods, such as value engineering and life cycle costing,
for calculating the optimum level of refurbishment exist. Energy efficiency is only one of
many decisions made by the design team and client in a refurbishment project.
The economic argument for thermal improvements is lower running costs and up to 20% is
possible. The payback for these measures needed to be between 1 and 2 years to make them
viable. Otherwise incentives, such as tax concessions, or enforcement, such as a carbon tax
or more legislation, appeared to be the means of achieving improvements.
The environmental argument for thermal improvement revolves around reducing CO²
emissions to limit ozone depletion, and global warming. The issue of the wasteful use of finite
fossil fuels is discussed and research into renewable alternatives. Environmental benefits
include less pollution and acid rain through less emissions from fossil fuel consumption.
24
Finally there is a moral reason to improve buildings thermally to reduce the impact on, and so
protect, the environment.
Thermal improvements can be situated in the envelope, with insulation provided to the floors,
walls or roof. Improved window specifications reduce energy consumption. Building services
also reduce energy consumption and particular attention needs to be paid to lighting.
Finally it has considered the technical risks from thermal improvements which include thermal
bridging, surface and interstitial condensation, performance not matching design.
Construction issues such as poor workmanship and lack of site supervision also contributed to
failures. Inadequate attention to leakage in design and construction can cause problems,
compounded by lack of on site testing. Design issues usually include no provision for insitu
testing and can focus on inappropriate areas.
25
Chapter 3 Energy efficiency and the barriers to implementation in commercial
office property.
Introduction
This chapter illustrates the economic argument for energy efficiency in existing office
buildings and identifies the barriers which currently exist in the market. Some ideas
regarding removal of these barriers and incentives for energy efficiency are noted in the
chapter.
3.10 The economic argument for energy efficiency
An important economic argument is that energy efficiency in office buildings results in lower
running costs to the users or tenants. Mould (1992, p145-7) stated that whilst space heating
costs are reduced, many occupiers prefer higher heating temperatures rather than reduced
heating bills. This may be more applicable to residential buildings. In offices employers do not
want to raise internal air temperatures too much as employees may become lethargic and
less productive.
Corcoran and Ellis (Roaf & Hancock, 1992) identified reduced running costs and energy
consumption as benefits of energy efficiency. Although according to Butt (Roaf & Hancock,
1992, p289), the way the reductions are calculated was important and the calculation varied.
The calculation should include the financial payback period for the energy efficiency
improvement. Butt (Roaf & Hancock, 1992) suggested that a payback period of 10 years was
not viable. It was necessary to compare the energy content of the energy systems of the
building with the annual energy savings they produced. A payback of 1-2 years was what
designers should be aiming for, though Butt (Roaf & Hancock, 1992) acknowledged that this
was only likely to be achievable with incentives and enforcement measures. That is to say,
legislation and taxation, ‘to enhance the energy equation’. There are then, inherent barriers
to energy efficiency within this sector of the office market which are dealt with in detail
below.
A socially responsible, equitable tax has been suggested by Butt (Roaf & Hancock, 1992).
Who favoured a carbon tax because it included material and direct energy costs and
measured the load on the environment and is discussed below. The second measure, Butt
(Roaf & Hancock, 1992) extolled was legislation. In each country energy efficiency in
buildings are embodied in either, the Building Regulations or code, or an energy code.
26
In terms of figures, savings have been estimated at around twenty percent.
“An Energy Efficiency Office study of several thousand energy surveys showed
average potential savings of about 20% of each sites energy bill, with an average
payback period for implementing the recommended measures of 18 months.” (RICS,
1993).
The payback period calculation used above is a simple payback period that is, the time in
which net savings add up to the initial cost. Though different to Butts (Roaf & Hancock,
1992) calculation above, the payback period identified by both authors is similar. The RICS
publication categorised payback periods as short term (under 2 years), medium term (2-5
years), and finally the long term (over 5 years). The RICS (1993) posited that when the
payback period exceeds five years a more sophisticated appraisal method is appropriate
which looks at the time value of money. The RICS (1993) identified the following range of
methods utilising different calculations, which have to be applied according to varying
circumstances.
acting rate of return (ARR)
Net Present Value (NPV)
Discounted Payback (DPB)
Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
Life Cycle Costing (LCC)
The Department of Environment (DOE) now the Department for the Environment, Transports
and Regions (DETR), estimated that savings from energy efficiency measures are “highly cost
effective over the life of the building, reducing energy costs by 25% or more” (EEO/DOE, Jan
1993). This calculation looked at long term commitments to buildings, though the DOE did
not indicate what term they considered ‘the life of the building’. It is evident that such long-
term commitment might be lacking in the commercial office market. The issue of building life
is complex, obsolescence can occur for reasons of social, functional, technical, or economic
obsolescence long before there is physical obsolescence (Pinder and Wilkinson, 2000).
Chandler (1991,p14) stated “the fundamental factor affecting commercial building
refurbishment is economic. Will the costs be covered by increased rents?” Any energy
efficiency must be reclaimed in additional rental income. The market has to demand lower
running costs in commercial office buildings to encourage improvements in energy efficiency
provision during refurbishment. It follows that if energy efficiency is not demanded by the
market, the tenants, then the developers and landlords will not provide it.
The argument that energy conservation and efficiency leads to less environmental pollution
through less CO² emissions is posited by the DOE and the Energy Efficiency Office (DOE/EEO,
27
1993). The DOE/EEO state that ‘energy efficiency helps the building and its’ occupants to
achieve and demonstrate environmental responsibility.’ There is then, also a moral and an
ethical argument for incorporating energy efficiency in office buildings.
The case for energy efficiency in buildings is clear, resulting in lower running costs, lower
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions, and improved capital asset values. Barriers and
opportunities to increasing energy efficiency in commercial office sector were evaluated.
Clearly considerable potential for energy efficiency exists within the stock of existing office
buildings. The range of measures that can be incorporated into existing office buildings are
extensive and result in lower running costs, however previous research has identified that
few office refurbishment (or retrofitting) projects target energy efficiency specifically (Cook,
1997). Energy efficiency is often a fortuitous occurrence, rather a result of technological
innovation and improvement, where outdated fittings are replaced. Energy efficiency is rarely
a requirement of the brief from the developers or clients perspective, nor the Architects.
In the residential rented market, although the potential for improving energy efficiency exists,
landlords have no incentive and are sceptical of the level of capital return on investment.
Similar perceptions may exist in the office market. Future energy efficiency policies must
highlight the potential for cost-effective energy savings in the private rented sector,
particularly for the smaller landlord.
Developers, landlords and Architects need access to the resources, products, information and
assistance to help them to make informed decisions. Policies should strengthen current
energy efficiency requirements in the office sector in the UK, by an extension of Part L of the
Building Regulations.
The office market has a different structure with speculative developments comprising a large
part of the UK market. The remainder of the market is taken up with owner / occupiers. In
the speculative office market, buildings are designed by Developers who sell the property on
to institutional investors which then lease the property to tenants. These offices can be
leased totally or partially, on a floor by floor, or even room by room basis. The terms of
commercial leases vary but typically in the UK require the tenant to pay full running costs for
the property for the duration of the lease term. With such a framework, there is little or no
incentive for speculative developers or institutional investors to incorporate energy efficiency
28
in their designs or refurbishment. Thus the very structure of the office market provides an
inherent barrier to energy efficiency improvements.
There is an argument that energy efficiency improvements have benefits for landlords,
because lower running costs result in reduced rent arrears, fewer and shorter voids, lower
maintenance costs, and increased property asset value. However, low levels of energy
efficiency in the sector suggest landlords are unaware of the benefits, or unconvinced of their
value (Goodacre, Wilkinson & Pinder, 2002).
Current information regarding energy efficiency and advice to the office sector is focused on
encouraging the uptake of measures by offering good practice design guidance, and
providing general information. But is this sufficient? Existing uptake within the sector
indicates that this strategy is ineffective. Should the materials be developed, or targeted
differently? Should awareness levels amongst tenants be raised, so that this group are
encouraged to demand energy efficient office property?
In terms of energy efficiency retrofitting, there are landlord/tenant conflicts (Goodacre,
Wilkinson & Pinder, 2001). Landlords do not pay energy bills and have no incentive to invest
in energy efficiency. If demand for office accommodation is high, there is little incentive to
improve property as landlords would not necessarily attract higher rental income by spending
on energy efficiency.
Tenants do not to invest in energy efficiency because with short-term leases it is impossible
to recoup the cost of any improvements. Tenants often do not have the financial resources to
spend on measures even if they wanted too. If the level of energy efficiency in existing office
property is to be improved then policies will need to resolve these problems.
How can this be achieved? An effective energy efficiency policy for the commercial sector
should have three aims:
1. Highlight the potential for cost-effective savings.
2. Ensure that landlords accept improved technology.
3. Ensure access to resources to help landlords to make informed decisions.
The first aim suggests that strategies focus on weakening landlord/developer information and
knowledge barriers by updating and strengthening the range of information concerned with
29
energy efficiency in the commercial office sector, especially with regard to small landlords
with existing property.
Aims 2 and 3 suggest that landlords need access to the tools required to improve energy
efficiency. Thus, future policies require additional mechanisms and incentives to encourage
landlords to invest in energy efficiency measures.
With much commercial office property typically found in older properties, improving Part L of
the Building Regulations does not solve the problem unless it includes existing offices.
Changes to the Building Regulations can increase standards of energy efficiency, but
additional measures are needed to stop these becoming
de facto
maximum standards.
Previous research has concluded that regulation does become a
de facto
maximum standard
(Cook, 1997). Furthermore few designers ever design in excess of the building code or
regulation minimum (Cook, 1997).
Another potential incentive to remove the barriers, or to weaken them, is to zero rate VAT on
energy efficiency products and services to increase their cost-effectiveness and reduce
payback periods (Goodacre, Wilkinson & Pinder, 2002). Another option is to provide tax
rebates to all landlords or orgnisations who implement energy efficiency measures that go
beyond the Building Regulations. These are examples of economic measures that would
moderate the existing market in favour of implementing energy efficiency.
A major policy obstacle is the reduction in prices; from 1990 to 1998 annual average prices
for gas fell. Although lower energy prices reflect increases in supply efficiency, lower fuel
prices affect the success of energy efficiency policies. Falling prices reduce the economic
advantage of investment in energy efficiency by reducing marginal benefits. Evidence shows
falling energy prices are sending stronger signals than awareness campaigns and may
overwhelm efforts to promote energy efficiency (Wilkinson & Goodacre, 2001).
Finally, an argument for removing or weakening the market barriers to energy efficiency is
that policies need to raise the profile of energy efficiency upgrading from its current low
status image to one in which it is seen as a capital investment. Furthermore, policies need to
provide opportunities for landlords to recoup some of the expenditure needed to improve
levels of energy efficiency in this sector.
30
Conclusions
This chapter has established that, whilst an economic argument for energy efficiency exists
because it results in lower running costs for the building user, few developers / landlords and
institutional investors appear to be convinced of this argument. The market currently provides
offcie buildings which meet the minimum standards as set out in national building codes or
regulations. Whilst payback calculations from simple to complex exist to set out the
economics involved, previous studies established that few designers apply these calculations
in the real world. Some commentators and researchers have suggested intervention in the
market is required to ensure energy efficiency is incorporated into building refurbishment and
that this could be achieved through legislation and taxation. A carbon tax has been
suggested as a means of penalising those buildings which result in excessive maounts of
carbon dioxide emissions. The very structure of the existing commercial office market
constitutes an inherent barrier to energy efficiency because owners do not pay running costs
and there is no incentive to make buildings more efficient. Finally the characteristics for an
energy policy for commercial buildings was outlined.
31
Chapter 4 – Research design and methodologies
Introduction
This chapter sets out the nature of the research and the way in which the research design
evolved. The advantages of the data collection techniques adopted are discussed along with
their respective limitations. The way in which the research data collection techniques enable
the researcher to meet the research aims and objectives are identified. The research
population and the sampling techniques are discussed. Furthermore questions of reliability
and validity of the research design are addressed in the chapter.
As previously stated this research project had three aims;
1. To gain a deeper understanding of the reasons why energy efficiency improvements may
or may not be incorporated into office refurbishment projects.
2. To gain a deeper comprehension of how much energy efficiency is incorporated in office
refurbishment projects using an internet questionnaire to compare and contrast
differences and similarities in office refurbishment projects in the Netherlands, the United
States of America and the United Kingdom.
3. To ascertain how the barriers to energy efficiency may be altered in this market.
The nature of this research
The research methodology was designed to ensure the research aims were met. Clearly, from
the outline of the nature of the research problem and the research question identified in
Chapter One, this research project embodies the characteristics associated with qualitative
research (Silverman, 2000 p 8). The main features of qualitative research are a preference
for qualitative data with the analysis of words and images rather than numbers, featuring
observation rather than experiment, and unstructured rather than structured interviews. This
type of research has a preference for meaning rather than behaviour, a rejection of natural
science as a model and, finally, a preference for inductive, hypothesis generating research
(Silverman 2000, p8).
This research project involved the analysis of words. The research examined the research
population’s current practice regarding energy efficiency and commercial refurbishment. The
research population’s perceptions of the barriers to energy efficiency and the reasons why
they exist and why they may be not overcome were also examined. Finally given the
32
preference for a research question, the researcher is following an inductive hypothesis
generating approach rather than a deductive hypothesis testing paradigm.
The rationale for the international dimension to the research has been discussed in chapter
one above. Research aim 1 was to gain a deeper understanding of the reasons what energy
efficiency improvements may or may not be incorporated into office refurbishment projects
and why this might occur. A questionnaire survey was the best method of identifying current
practice over a wide spectrum of practitioners. Research aim 2 was to undertake a
comparison of current practice to identify similarities and differences in approach to
refurbishment and the introduction of energy efficient measures. This research is exploratory
research to identify what practitioners do with regard to energy efficiency when commercial
property is refurbished, and this aim was best achieved through a questionnaire survey
approach to canvass as much opinion as possible. The final aim was to establish is to
ascertain from the practitioners’ perspective what the barriers to energy efficiency are in this
market. This data was analysed using SPSS software. Each research objective and data
collection technique is illustrated in table 1 below.
Table 1 – research objectives and data collection techniques proposed.
Research ob
j
ective Data Collection Technique
1.
T
o establish the factors which clients,
designers and Architects have to consider
when deciding on the level of refurbishment
Desk top study / literature review and internet
questionnaire
2.
T
o establish why energy efficiency is
important
Desk top study / literature review and internet
questionnaire
3.
T
o investigate what improvements can be
implemented, and the technical and health
risks associated with these measures
Desk top study / l
i
terature review and internet
questionnaire
4.
T
o ascertain what clients, designers and
Architects consider the barriers to energy
efficiency and how they might be altered.
Email based questionnaire survey to clients,
designers and architects
Research objective 4 was to ascertain what designers, Architects, Project Managers, Services
Engineers, Quantity Surveyors, Building Surveyors and practitioners considered as the
barriers to energy efficiency and how they might be altered. Clearly previously research
(Cook, 1997) has shown that although some energy efficient improvements are introduced in
office refurbishment, these measures can be accidental or fortuitous, they may result from
33
increased legislative standards or from clients instructions or Architects / designers
recommendations. Furthermore, rarely do the energy efficiency improvement measures go as
far as they could do. Other research (Wilkinson et Al, 2001) has identified some potential
barriers in this market. The internet questionnaire was based on this and other research
discussed in the literature review.
This part of the research aimed to canvass as much opinion as possible from the parties most
closely involved in the decision making. When a researcher wants to gather a large number
of views, a questionnaire is the most cost effective and expedient means of gathering data
(Marsh, 1982. Robson, 1993). Using an internet questionnaire (IQ) had a number of
advantages (Coomber, 1997). However the researcher acknowledges that this application of
a traditional technique to IT is a relatively new phenomenon and that the internet
questionnaire is to some extent still in its infancy (Reaney, Pinder and Watts, 2001).
A significant advantage is the ability to transfer data from the questionnaire directly into data
analysis software (Houston and Fiore, 1998 p117), in this case the Statistics Package for
Social Scientists (SPSS). The IQ technique is also very cost effective, and enables to the
researcher to sample larger research populations. The researcher is able to design the
questionnaire in a way that the respondent is unable to make errors by selecting more
answers than desired (Houston and Fiore, 1988. P117). Finally IQs result in less errors during
the transcription and coding process because responses are pre-coded (Zhang, 1999).
The perceived drawbacks with IQs are bias in the sample from self selection in respondents
who choose to answer the questionnaire and low response rates (Houston and Fiore, 1988.
Zhang, 1999). However the bias issues should be dealt with individually in the analysis
(Houston and Fiore, 1988) and the questionnaire was designed to elicit basic information
about the knowledge, experience and attitudes of the respondents in order to place the
sample somewhat. Low response rates affect all questionnaire surveys and in this case,
professionals were targeted via their companies and emailed directly with a http url
(http://www.shu.ac.uk/schools/sed/teaching/jp/questoinnaire/questionnaire.htm) to click on
to access the questionnaire. IQs have become increasingly popular in fields of health and
medical research and it was considered appropriate to trial the technique with this project.
The advantages of IQs for international research are clear, and include relative ease of
contact and cost effectiveness of data collection.
The protocols for questionnaire design were followed, for example, the questionnaire design
was short, to encourage a response. The questionnaire design started by asking fairly easy to
answer, factual questions again encouraging respondents to think the questionnaire would be
34
quick and simple to complete. The second part of the questionnaire developed earlier
questions and required respondents to think more before making a response. The
questionnaire was designed to enable coding of the data for data analysis. The questionnaire
comprised a mix of open and closed questions. In some cases respondents were given a
number of answers to chose from, to encourage completion. In other instances respondents
were asked to rank in importance perceived barriers to energy efficiency, so that the
researcher could learn which were seen as the most difficult to overcome.
Criticisms of questionnaires are that one cannot be totally sure the respondent is the person
identified on the questionnaire (Bell, 1993). The respondents expertise and knowledge
claimed might be inaccurate and the responses could be dishonest (Moser and Kalton, 1971).
The researcher was aware of these potential problems and tried to take this into account
when designing the questionnaire itself and secondly, when targeting individuals to
participate in the research.
The questionnaire was designed on Dreamweaver software available at the University. The
questionnaire had been piloted in a paper version to a researcher and a chartered Building
Surveyor to identify an areas of confusion, terms that might be mis-interpreted and so on,
according to best practice (Moser & Kalton, 1971). Various amendments were made prior to
inputting the questionnaire on Dreamweaver. The researcher had various options for question
format, including radio buttons whereby a respondent is able to click on a button which
records the answer they desire. Another option is to use drop down menus, whereby the
respondent clicks on the drop down menu and a list of options appears from which the
respondent then selects a choice. For open questions, it is possible to use text boxes which
respondent type in a response. The final questionnaire design used a variety of the options
noted above, partly because the researcher wanted to gain different types of data and partly,
to make the questionnaire more interesting to complete.
Rationale of the research questionnaire
The questionnaire was designed in 5 sections, each dealing with a separate aspect of
commercial refurbishment and energy efficiency. A copy of the questionnaire is provided in
Appendix C. Section A was structured to elicit basic factual information about the respondent,
such as professional experience, educational attainment and whether energy efficiency was
an issue which interested them personally. There was a question to ascertain where the
respondent worked which was necessary for international comparison. The intention here
was to be able to profile the sample as a whole and correlate whether education, professional
experience or personal interest had any effect on the degree and amount of energy efficiency
35
they might promote in their refurbishment projects. The questions were easy, factual and
eased the respondent into the questionnaire.
In section B the questions became more complex and were focussed on practice relating to
typical refurbishment projects the respondents were familiar with. A brief scenario set the
scene as to the type of project the researcher wanted to focus on i.e. building type and size.
The questions asked how much experience the individual had with refurbishment and then
posed questions to ascertain whether the best practice approaches identified in the literature
regarding payback and post occupancy evaluation was followed through in practice. By
keeping the questions general, it was intended that respondents would be able to give an
overview of typical practice. This section related to research aim number 1.
Section C provided a deeper focus on the energy efficiency aspect of commercial
refurbishment projects. Respondents were asked to rank the importance of energy efficiency
and then to identify the typical type of improvement undertaken. Again the responses could
be referenced back to the literature review which had identified where energy improvement
was likely to occur. Finally this section contained questions asking whether respondents ever
designed energy improvements beyond legislation minima. This section related to research
aim number 1.
The penultimate section, Section D, examined the importance of energy efficiency compared
to other factors considered during commercial refurbishment projects. The literature had
identified that energy was only one of many factors considered during commercial
refurbishment and the researcher wanted to ascertain how energy efficiency compared with
these other factors. This section related to research aim number 1.
The final section was designed to ascertain the factors which influenced energy efficiency
improvements according to the sample. Respondents were asked to rank energy along with
other factors identified in the literature review. Finally respondents were given a number of
statements which related to barriers and incentives in the market relating to energy efficiency
to ascertain what the sample felt about the different ways of increasing the amount of energy
efficiency in commercial refurbishment. This section related to research aim number 1 and 3.
The research sample
There are a number of issues relating to the international aspect of the research, and clearly
language is one of them. The researcher has conducted research in the Netherlands
previously and has not found the language a problem as many Dutch people speak good
36
English, obviously the researcher will ensure all participants speak English. Secondly, there is
the issue of access. The researcher has conducted research in the Netherlands and has some
contacts which will be used to generate some of the sample. Furthermore the use of web
directories of relevant property professionals, such as Architects in the Netherlands
(http://www.archiworld.it/archieuro/archieugb/dbnether.html) were used to generate a
sample. A complete list of all web sites used to generate the research population is contained
in Appendix D.
As a property professional with over 20 years experience, the researcher was aware of a
large number of organisations employing property professionals who would be able to
respond to the questionnaire. This knowledge was used to generate the research population
and a list is provided in Appendix D. Many property professionals work on commercial
refurbishment projects from Architects, Building Surveyors, Property Agents, Developers,
Building Services Engineers and the like. Accordingly the researcher was content to accept
responses from a wide range of professionals. Furthermore it may have enabled a
comparative analysis of professions and energy efficiency to take place. The researcher over-
sampled in order to achieve a reasonable number of responses to make the research valid
and reliable.
The researcher arranged for web space to be made available at Sheffield Hallam University.
The questionnaire was loaded onto the webspace and piloted to a number of academics and
practitioners. Their feedback related to the ability to complete the questionnaire to their
satisfaction. As a result a few amendments were made as errors had been made during the
inputting of the information and some of the questions were altered slightly to make the
responses more appropriate.
A covering letter was prepared, a copy of which is provided in Appendix X, and this was
emailed to potential respondents. The researcher used a number of contacts firstly in order to
generate responses. These contacts were asked to forward the email with the website
hyperlink to generate further responses. The researcher sent out 400 emails with the
internet questionnaire and hyperlink and 35 were returned complete. Therefore a response
rate of x% was achieved for this research.
Using the Americian Instiitute of Architects (AIA) website, the researcher identified practices
specialising in office refurbishment in the cities of Boston, New York and Washington DC.
These cities were selected because they experience similar climatic conditions to the UK and
are spread over three different states/metropolitan areas; Massachusetts, New York and the
District of Columbia. All three areas have different building codes and enforce their own
37
standards. All three are sited on the Eastern Seaboard. The practices contacted ranged from
individuals to large multi-disciplinary practices. Named individuals were emailed rather than
central information addresses to get as high a response rate as possible. In total xx US
practices/individuals were contacted. Clearly given the low response rate, the practice of
emailing named individuals did not have a notably positive effect.
A similar exercise was followed for the Netherlands and the Dutch Institute of Architects
(NEA) website was used to identify practices; ranging from small, to medium and large were
approached to participate in the research. Practices and individuals in major Dutch cities
were approached, and included Rotterdam, Amsterdam, the Hague. Where possible
individuals were contacted directly rather than a blanket email to a central destination to
encourage a response. In total xx Dutch practices/individuals were contacted. Clearly given
the low response rate, the practice of emailing named individuals did not have a notably
positive effect.
In the UK the researcher used a combination of techniques. The Royal Institutions of British
Architects (RIBA) website was used to identify practices and individuals across a range of
major cities including Leeds, London, Bristol, Manchester and Sheffield. Furthermore the
Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) website provided membership details of
Surveying practices across the UK and the researcher selected those involved in commercial
refurbishment projects. Finally because of the researchers previous professional work
experience in this field the researcher was able to use UK contacts to participate in the
research. Xx emails to were sent in total to UK respondents, and xx% of the responses were
British. This was the best response rate among the three countries. Although all responses
were anonymous in the interests of getting honest responses, clearly the personal contact
has a direct influence on responses rate and this point should be noted for future researchers
using internet based methodologies.
Respondents were given a period of two weeks in which to respond to the internet
questionnaire. After two weeks responses were disappointingly low and the researcher
considered sending reminders out to the sample. However it was felt that respondents who
had not responded were unlikely to respond to a reminder and the data was likely to be more
reliable from respondents who were willing participants in the research. The survey data was
downloaded from the website. The responses were pre-coded before the questionnaire was
loaded onto the website, so that the data could be exported directly into the Statistical
Packages for Social Scientists (SPSS) for analysis. The pre-coded data could be viewed at all
stages by the researcher on http://www.shu.ac.uk/schools/sed/teaching/jp/questionnaire/
surveydata.txt. A copy of the codebook is provided in Appendix D. It was then possible for
38
the researcher to run the data through various types of analysis described in the following
chapter.
Conclusions
This chapter has identified the research as qualitative, sharing the characteristics set out by
Silverman (2000). The research sought to gain an understanding of meaning rather than
behaviour and involved the analysis of words. In order answer the research question an
inductive hypothesis generating approach was followed rather than a deductive hypothesis
testing paradigm.
Research objectives 1, 2 and 3 were partially achieved via a desk top study of the current
literature and fulfilled via empirical data collection using an internet questionnaire. Objective
4, to ascertain barriers was met via the internet questionnaire.
The rationale for the internet questionnaire was discussed with the advantages of economical
distribution to large numbers of respondents. A significant advantage was the ability to
transfer the data directly from the questionnaire into SPSS, therefore by-passing the data
inputting process and avoiding data inputting errors. Whilst it was acknowledged that the
technology is new, and to a degree untested, the advantages outweighed the disadvantages.
Disadvantages of bias, and low response rates were identified.
Questionnaire design followed well established protocols identified by leading academics and
researchers (Moser & Kalton 1971, Robson 1993, Naoum 1998). A detailed breakdown of the
questionnaire design discussed the reason for the questions and their relationship with the
research aims.
The research sampling technique was identified, English speaking professionals involved in
commercial refurbishment. The use of professional body membership lists was explained as
the main method of contacting individuals.
39
Chapter 6 – Data Analysis – Questionnaires
Introduction
This chapter presents and analyses the data collected via the internet questionnaire. The
chapter is presented in two parts, firstly there is a descriptive statistical analysis of the data.
The sample are described and main characteristics identified. The format for analysis is to
state the question and then to present the results before interpretation. In the second part
of the chapter more in-depth analysis is undertaken to explore relationships between the
variables.
Descriptive statistical analysis
Response rates
Response rates were disappointing as stated. 400 emails to respondents were sent and 35
responses were returned, representing a response rate of 8.75% which is lower than
traditional postal questionnaires. The research methodology chapter did acknowledge that
response rates were likely to be lower and this may be partly due to the IQ being a new
technique in data collection for research, and secondly due to ‘fatigue’ amongst respondents
who receive a considerable amount of ‘spam’ email. However it is clear that those who did
respond have an interest in the subject matter.
Section A – About you
Section A of the questionnaire was designed to illicit information about the respondents.
Question 1 asked respondents what profession they belonged to, as information would inform
the researcher about the general education and of the type influence these respondents
should have on design. The results shown that the group is comprised largely of architects
(34.3%), followed by Building Surveyors (BS’s) (25.7%) and Quantity Surveyors (QS’s)
(17.1%). The smallest group were project managers (5.7%) and building services engineers
(11.4%). Architects often lead the design team and have considerable influence over the
client’s decision, they views and attitudes are significant if energy efficiency is to feature in
refurbishment. Building Surveyors can fulfill the role of team leader in design and are
involved more in refurbishment than some architects. QS’s are also in a position of influence
especially where clients are concerned because they control the budgetting and costing
aspects. Finally with around 60% of costs expended on building services on some commercial
buildings, Building Services Engineers views are important because they influence the design
40
and efficiency and running costs of commercial buildings. Overall this is a good sample
reflecting a broad range of influential construction professionals.
The group is also very experienced with 82.9% having worked over 5 years in the
construction industry. Only 2.9% had worked less than 2 years in the industry and therefore
the views of the group should be informed on experience in the field.
When qualifications are considered the group is fairly well educated, 57.1% have first
degrees and 25.7% have a post-graduate degree, which is not surprising as it is a
requirement for chartered architects. Finally 74.3% are professionally qualified which means
they should be undertaking continuing professional development (CPD) to keep themselves
updated with current developments in their field. 60% had attended energy related CPD
within the last 5 years and therefore should have a reasonable awareness of the issue. Just
over half stated that energy efficiency had not featured as part of their educational course
which would not be surprising if the group are comprised of professionals over 37 years old,
as energy issues became important in the late 1980’s. Lastly the group was asked whether
energy efficiency was important to them personally, overwhelmingly 88.6% stated that
energy was an important topic for them. Crosstabs of country worked in and whether energy
featured in the course revealed that energy featured more in US courses than in the UK and
the Netherlands, though this may be because the US respondents were younger than the
other respondents.
The last question in Section A asked respondents which country they worked in. 11.4%
worked in the Netherlands, 20% in the United States and the largest group 68.8% worked in
the UK, the highest response rate of the three countries. A crosstab of the country worked in
and profession revealed that respondents from the Netherlands and the US were architects,
whilst the UK respondents comprised Architects, BS’s, QS’s, Building Services Engineers,
Project Managers and a design manager.
Section B – Typical office refurbishment / retrofit projects
Respondents were asked how many refurbishment projects they had worked on, to gauge
their level of expertise and knowledge about refurbishment issues in general. The data
showed that 42.9% had worked on over 11 refurbishment projects therefore making them
very experienced in this type of work. 20% had completed between 6 to 10 projects and are
said to be moderately experienced. 37.1% had worked on 5 or less projects and therefore a
significant minority could be said to be less experienced in this type of work.
41
When asked whether payback periods were calculated for refurbishments, the data was
spread over the whole range and is illustrated below in graph 1.
Graph 1 – Payback periods in refurbishment.
Xx
The data reveals that 17.1% never calculate payback periods and 25.7% were unsure
whether it occurred. The literature review demonstrated that payback was a vital tool in
estimating benefits of energy efficiency, if 42.8% of the sample never or are unsure whether
such practice occurs decisions may be based on hunches or gut feelings rather than hard
data. The result may be that less energy efficiency measures are incorporated in
refurbishment projects. However 57.1% do occasionally, mostly or always use payback as a
technique in refurbishment which is indicative of good practice and informed decision making.
The term usually aimed for in payback was more than 5 years (85.7%) and shows that
designers are looking to the longer term rather than short, or medium term for payback as
defined by RICS.
Another feature of best practice in refurbishment identified in the literature review was to
undertake post occupancy evaluation (poe) to ascertain whether designs were working as
planned. The results here showed 57.1% of the sample undertook no post occupancy
evaluation at all or were unsure whether it happened and indicates that improvements are
possible in this area. However a significant minority did undertake post occupancy evaluation
and comply with best practice, though the questionnaire format does not allow the researcher
to clarify the extent of the poe and this is a weakness of the technique.
Section C – type and degree of energy efficiency improvement in commercial
refurbishment.
This part of the questionnaire sought to ascertain what measures respondents typically took
in refurbishment projects. Firstly respondents were asked how important energy efficiency
was generally in office refurbishment. The responses were spread with 20% saying energy
efficiency was very important and 37.1% stating it was quite important, therefore over half
the sample felt the subject was important. The highest percentage 37.1% had no view either
way, viewing energy as neither important nor unimportant. Only 5.7% felt energy to be not
very important and therefore the overall results indicate that energy is on the agenda for
refurbishment.
42
The next section asked respondents to identify how often a series of efficiency measures
were typically incorporated in refurbishment. The measure undertaken most frequently was
roof insulation, not surprising because it is an economical measure and relatively easy to
undertake. Many refurbishment projects do not include work to the elevations (or walls)
because of cost. The second most frequently undertake measure is low energy lighting,
another economical measure, easily undertaken. The least frequent measures were provision
of energy management systems and energy efficient air conditioning, this result may be a
reflection on the low numbers of services engineers in the research sample, and also of the
high cost of these measures.
Generally wall insulation is provided in most projects, though the degree of provision is not
known and it may be minimal. Draught lobbies were often provided.
43
Chapter 7 – Overall conclusions and recommendations for further study.
This chapter sets out the overall conclusions that may be drawn from this research study.
The research aims and objectives are reviewed to ascertain how far they have been met.
Finally the research question is revisited to determine whether it has been answered, and in
what respects it has been answered.
The first chapter set out the context and the rationale for the research. The context being the
need to reduce energy consumption and to comply with international protocols signed at
Kyoto in 1997. The link between energy consumption and buildings and the resulting
emissions of carbon dioxide has been established (BRE, IP 18/91). The rationale for an
international perspective was discussed with reasons given the selection of the US and the
Netherlands for this research. The research question and research aims and objectives were
clearly identified. Finally the particular limitations of this research were noted, this study did
not cover residential buildings though their use of energy is significant. The study focussed
on alterations to the building fabric and envelope. It did not look in detail at the changes
made to building services.
The literature review in chapter two demonstrated that there are various degrees of
refurbishment, from minor redecoration to major work including new plant, cladding services
and fittings. Refurbishment, it was shown, might occur because the building will remain
unlettable otherwise, or to maximise rental income where the building will achieve higher
rents once refurbished. Once the decision to refurbish is made, there are many variables to
consider. These include the suitability of the building, land value and capital available for the
project. The payback for the scheme, as well as whether the project is a short, medium, or
long term refurbishment were also factors. The condition of the building and components,
standards required and legislation affected the level of refurbishment. Models and methods,
such as value engineering and life cycle costing, for calculating the optimum level of
refurbishment exist. Energy efficiency is only one of many decisions made by the design team
and client in a refurbishment project.
The economic argument for thermal improvements is lower running costs and up to 20% is
possible. The payback for these measures needed to be between 1 and 2 years to make them
viable. Otherwise incentives, such as tax concessions, or enforcement, such as a carbon tax
or more legislation, appeared to be the means of achieving improvements.
The environmental argument for thermal improvement revolves around reducing CO²
emissions to limit ozone depletion, and global warming. The issue of the wasteful use of finite
fossil fuels is discussed and research into renewable alternatives. Environmental benefits
include less pollution and acid rain through less emissions from fossil fuel consumption.
44
Finally there is a moral reason to improve buildings thermally to reduce the impact on, and so
protect, the environment.
Thermal improvements can be situated in the envelope, with insulation provided to the floors,
walls or roof. Improved window specifications reduce energy consumption. Building services
also reduce energy consumption and particular attention needs to be paid to lighting.
Finally it has considered the technical risks from thermal improvements which include thermal
bridging, surface and interstitial condensation, performance not matching design.
Construction issues such as poor workmanship and lack of site supervision also contributed to
failures. Inadequate attention to leakage in design and construction can cause problems,
compounded by lack of on site testing. Design issues usually include no provision for insitu
testing and can focus on inappropriate areas.
Chapter three, barriers to energy efficiency established that, whilst an economic argument for
energy efficiency exists because it results in lower running costs for the building user, few
developers / landlords and institutional investors appear to be convinced of this argument.
The market currently provides office buildings which meet the minimum standards as set out
in national building codes or regulations. Whilst payback calculations from simple to complex
exist to set out the economics involved, previous studies established that few designers apply
these calculations in the real world. Some commentators and researchers have suggested
intervention in the market is required to ensure energy efficiency is incorporated into building
refurbishment and that this could be achieved through legislation and taxation. A carbon tax
has been suggested as a means of penalising those buildings which result in excessive
amounts of carbon dioxide emissions. The very structure of the existing commercial office
market constitutes an inherent barrier to energy efficiency because owners do not pay
running costs and there is no incentive to make buildings more efficient. Finally the
characteristics for an energy policy for commercial buildings was outlined.
Research method conclusions
Data analysis conclusions
Research question and aims and objectives
This research project had three aims, how far have these aims been achieved?
Aim 1 was to gain a deeper understanding of the reasons why energy efficiency
improvements may or may not be incorporated into office refurbishment projects.
Aim 2 was to gain a deeper comprehension of how much energy efficiency is incorporated in
office refurbishment projects using a case study approach to compare and contrast
45
differences and similarities in office refurbishment projects in the Netherlands, the United
States of America and the United Kingdom.
Aim 3 was to ascertain how the barriers to energy efficiency may be altered in this market.
The research objectives are;
1 investigate what improvements can be implemented, and the technical and health
risks associated with these measures
2. To use an internet questionnaire survey to identify current practice in terms of
energy efficiency in commercial refurbishment, to ascertain what clients, designers, energy
efficiency agencies and Architects consider the barriers to energy efficiency and how they
might be altered.
?? number ¾??
Given the scope of the research and the issues identified the research question is; How can
we remove the barriers to increased energy efficiency in commercial office refurbishment
projects?
Further study.
Throughout the course of the research, a number of areas of further research were identified.
..
46
47
48
49
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54
Appendix A : Internet Questionnaire
55
Appendix B – Covering email for internet questionnaire.
56
Appendix C: List of practitioners contacted via email
57
Appendix D: Code book for data analysis
Section A. About you
Question 1. 1 = architect
2 = Building Surveyor
3 = Building services engineer
4 = Building services engineer
5 = Project manager
6 = Quantity Surveyor
7 = Other please describe
Question 2 1 = less than 2 years
2 = 2-5 years
3 = 5 years plus
Question 3 1 = undergraduate degree
2 = postgraduate degree
3 = professional qualification
Question 4 1 = yes
2 = no
Question 5 1 = yes
2 = no
Question 6 1 = yes
2 = no
Question 7 1 = the netherlands
2 = the united states of america
3 = the united kingdom
Section B
Question 1 1 = 5 or less
2 = 6-10
3 = 11 plus
Question 2 1 = yes always
2 = yes mostly
3 = yes occasionally
4 = not sure
5 = no never
Question 3 1 = less than 2 years
2 = 2-5 years
3 = 5 years or more
Question 4 1 = yes always
2 = yes mostly
3 = yes occasionally
4 = not sure
5 = no never
Question 4i %
Question 5 1 = yes always
2 = yes mostly
3 = yes occasionally
4 = not sure
5 = no never
Question 5i %
Section C
Question 1 1= very important
2 = quite important
3 = neither important nor unimportant
4 = not very important
5 = not at all important
58
Question 2 1 = Always
100% 2 = Often
50-99% 3 =
Sometimes
34-49%
4 = rarely 1-
29% 5 = no never
0%
Q2i – wall
insulation 1 2 3 4 5
Q2ii – roof
insulation 1 2 3 4 5
Q2iii –
draught
lobbies
1 2 3 4 5
Q2iv low e
lighting 1 2 3 4 5
Q2v energy
management
system
1 2 3 4 5
Q3vi double
glazing 1 2 3 4 5
Q3vii
movement
sensors for
lighting
1 2 3 4 5
Q2viii energy
efficient air
conditioning
1 2 3 4 5
Q2ix other
please
indicate
1 2 3 4 5
Question 3 1 = Always
100% 2 = Often
50-99% 3 =
Sometimes
34-49%
4 = rarely 1-
29% 5 = no never
0%
Q3i changes
to energy
efficiency in
design
1 2 3 4 5
Q3ii design
to code 1 2 3 4 5
Q3iii design
exceeds code 1 2 3 4 5
Q3iv client
request
energy
efficiency
1 2 3 4 5
Section D
Question 1I Finishes = 1, Finishes = 2, Finishes = 3, Finishes = 4, Finishes = 5, Finishes
= 6
Question
1ii Energy efficiency = 1, energy efficiency = 2, energy efficiency = 3, energy
efficiency = 4, energy efficiency = 5, energy efficiency = 6.
Question
1iii Spatial layout = 1, spatial layout = 2, spatial layout = 3, spatial layout = 4,
spatial layout = 5, spatial layout = 6.
Question
1iv Incorporating technology = 1, Incorporating technology = 2, Incorporating
technology = 3, Incorporating technology = 4, Incorporating technology = 5,
Incorporating technology = 6.
Question 1v Services provision = 1, Services provision = 2, Services provision = 3,
Services provision = 4, Services provision = 5, Services provision = 6,
Question
1vi External layout = 1, External layout = 2, External layout = 3, External layout
= 4, External layout = 5, External layout = 6.
59
Question 2 1 = always
2 = often
3 = sometimes
4 = rarely
5 = never
Question 3 1 = yes always
2 = yes occasionally
3 = not sure
4 = never
Question 3i %
Section E
Question
1i. Legislation = 1, Legislation = 2, Legislation = 3, Legislation = 4, Legislation
= 5,
Question
1ii. Client not interested = 1, Client not interested = 2, Client not interested = 3,
Client not interested = 4, Client not interested = 5,
Question
1iii. Location of building = 1, Location of building = 2, Location of building = 3,
Location of building = 4, Location of building = 5,
Question
1iv. Cost of improvements = 1, Cost of improvements = 2, Cost of improvements
= 3, Cost of improvements = 4, Cost of improvements = 5.
Question
1v. Other = 1, Other = 2, Other = 3, Other = 4, Other = 5
Question 2I
– carbon tax 1 = strongly agree
2 = agree
3 = neither agree nor disagree
4 = disagree
5 disagree strongly
Question 2ii
– too many
barriers to
energy
efficiency
1 = strongly agree
2 = agree
3 = neither agree nor disagree
4 = disagree
5 disagree strongly
Question 2iii
– incentives
are best
1 = strongly agree
2 = agree
3 = neither agree nor disagree
4 = disagree
5 disagree strongly
Question 2iv
– tough
legislation is
best
1 = strongly agree
2 = agree
3 = neither agree nor disagree
4 = disagree
5 disagree strongly
Question 2v
– tax
exemptions
1 = strongly agree
2 = agree
3 = neither agree nor disagree
4 = disagree
5 disagree strongly
60
