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Detecting mental health problems and suicidal motives among terrorists and mass shooters: Detecting mental health problems and suicidality
Abstract
Background:
For years, many scholars dismissed the possibility that terrorists - including suicide attackers - could be mentally ill or primarily suicidal. However, that view is gradually changing.
Aim:
Researchers continue to face significant challenges when attempting to detect mental health problems and suicidal motives among terrorists and mass shooters, because many offenders cannot easily be psychologically assessed. This article offers several specific recommendations for how researchers can better understand offenders' mental state by studying their life histories and behaviour.
Methods:
Research on detection of mental disorders and suicidal intent is reviewed and applied to specific challenges for assessing terrorists and mass shooters.
Results:
It appears that researchers can improve the accuracy of their assessments by (1) recognising the likelihood of under-diagnosis of mental disorders, (2) prioritising in-depth evaluation and analysis of mental state and (3) considering the role of social and situational factors in suicidal ideation and motivation.
Conclusion:
More accurate detection of mental health problems and suicidal motives among terrorists and mass shooters could help advance scientific understandings of these individuals and even help prevent lethal attacks. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... 3 With the exception of the perpetrators identified by their first initial and last name in Table 2 and briefly mentioned in the text (most of whom are relatively unknown), this article does not use mass shooters' names, in accordance with the "No Notoriety" campaign and Lankford and Madfis's (2018) proposal to deny offenders the attention they often seek. 4 People often do not disclose their mental illness to family, friends, teachers, coworkers, or even doctors (Lankford, 2016;Martin, 2010;Rüsch et al., 2014;Wheat et al., 2010). Therefore, we do not think observations about someone else's mental health problems and observations about their absence should cancel each other out. ...
... A fifth reason for underestimates of mental illness is because some sources rely solely on formal diagnoses. Many shooters have never been formally evaluated-and others intentionally avoid doctors or conceal their mental health problems due to shame or stigma-so there is often a large discrepancy between the proportion of perpetrators who are diagnosed and the proportion who exhibit signs or symptoms (Lankford, 2013(Lankford, , 2016. For example, the United States Secret Service found that only 17% of rampage school shooters from 1974 to 2000 had been diagnosed with a mental or behavior disorder, but 61% had a documented history of feeling extremely depressed or desperate and 78% had a history of suicidal thoughts or suicide attempts (Vossekuil et al., 2004). ...
... If these estimates are correct, there may only be a few scenarios (e.g., suicide due to terminal disease, expectations of imminent death, or severe coercion or punishment) where suicidal people typically lack a history of mental illness. Even then, these individuals may have been experiencing acute depression, anxiety, stress, or trauma that they could not cope with-which could explain why they chose to die, unlike most people in the same circumstances (Joiner et al., 2017;Lankford, 2016). ...
Prior research suggests that approximately two-thirds of public mass shooters exhibit signs of mental illness. This study analyzed whether that means there are 2 psychological types of perpetrators (some mentally ill, some mentally healthy), or whether almost all perpetrators are likely to have mental health problems. Using a database of 171 public mass shooters who attacked in the United States from 1966 to 2019, we tested for statistically significant differences between perpetrators with and without diagnoses or signs of mental illness. We also closely examined the most lethal perpetrators since 2012, and the most “mentally healthy” perpetrators according to prior coding. Correlates of mental illness were approximately equally common among perpetrators, whether they were believed to be mentally ill or not. Of the variables we examined, data availability provided the best explanation for coding of mental illness, not any trait or life experience. Further evidence suggested that even the most “mentally healthy” perpetrators could be recoded as having signs of mental illness or suicidality, or were clear outliers, or may not qualify as public mass shooters. The most lethal perpetrators exhibited signs of mental illness or suicidal intent (or both) in all cases. When people engage in concerning behaviors that suggest a mass shooting risk, their mental health should be carefully assessed alongside other warning signs. However, it is important to avoid treating people with mental illness like criminals, because social stigma reduces the likelihood that they will ask for, and receive, the psychological help they need.
... Since 2011, there has been a major increase in studies that compared suicide terrorists or lone actor terrorists with public mass shooters (Capellan, 2015;Capellan et al., 2019;Clemmow et al., 2022;Horgan et al., 2016;Lankford & Hakim, 2011, Lankford, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2018. In general, findings suggest that all three types of attackers usually (1) commit premeditated attacks, (2) kill unarmed strangers in public, and (3) attempt to justify their violence by claiming they were victimized, oppressed, or mistreated (Capellan, 2015;Capellan et al., 2019;Clemmow et al., 2022;Horgan et al., 2016;Lankford & Hakim, 2011, Lankford, 2013, 2018. ...
... Many also (4) seek revenge or retribution against whomever they blame for their suffering and (5) want to generate fame or media attention through mass violence (Lankford & Hakim, 2011, Lankford, 2013, 2014, 2018. In addition, all three types often (6) have struggled with social isolation or loneliness and (7) have mental health problems or suicidal motives (Capellan, 2015;Corner & Gill, 2015;Horgan et al., 2016;Lankford & Hakim, 2011, Lankford, 2013, 2016, 2018. For this reason, "lone wolf" terrorists have been dubbed as "loon wolves" (see De Roy van Zuijdewijn, 2015). ...
... In cases where people die by suicide and no mental health problem appeared present, it is sometimes due to missing information (Joiner et al., 2017) and sometimes because the suicidal decision was the product of social or situational forces (e.g. coercion, threat, crisis) or sudden impulse (Lankford, 2016;World Health Organization, 2023). Although family killers may sometimes lose their temper, kill their loved ones and then choose suicide to escape their crisis (Turanovic et al., 2022), public mass shooters and suicide terrorists are usually acting of their own volition and committing premeditated attacks, not impulsive ones (Lankford, 2018;Merari, 2010;Pape, 2005). ...
... Even if offenders have come in contact with a clinician who could have assessed them, they may have deliberately concealed symptoms of a mental disorder to avoid shame and stigma, protect their image or avoid being stopped from accomplishing their homicidal or suicidal goals (Lankford, 2016). Accordingly, findings from the United States Secret Service (Vossekuil et al., 2002) and Federal Bureau of Investigation (Silver et al., 2018) suggest that only a small proportion of school shooters, mass shooters and active shooters were diagnosed with a mental disorder before their attacks, but that these diagnoses represented only a fraction of all cases where a mental health problem appeared present. ...
Despite tremendous public and media interest in murder–suicide, scientific research that sheds new light on either the prevalence of mental disorders among perpetrators of mass murder–suicide or the role of mental disorders when they appear relevant has been rare. I outline several assumptions and challenges that may encumber scholarship in this area but also identify some promising avenues for future research. Greater scientific understanding of any associations between mental disorders and murder–suicide could lead to more evidence-based interventions that could help prevent these lethal attacks.
... History of perpetrator mental illness is binary coded as (0 = no history of mental illness, 1 = history of mental illness). Outside of a formal diagnosis, mental illness can be quite complicated to measure accurately, as a significant portion of criminal offenders have never been diagnosed, despite suffering from serious mental health problems (Fazel & Danesh, 2002;Lankford, 2016;Silva & Capellan, 2019a). Therefore, relying solely on formal diagnoses is likely to skew the results. ...
... Unsurprisingly, the cross tabulation, logistic regression, and negative binomial regression all found that mental illness framing was more likely when mass shooting incidents involved mentally ill perpetrators. However, studies caution against the misuse of mental health diagnoses for predicting mass violence (Fox & DeLateur, 2014), with research suggesting that mental illness is likely a single component in the pathway to violence, that is neither necessary, nor sufficient, for predictive purposes (Lankford, 2016;Metzl & MacLeish, 2015). As such, while this is an important issue worthy of discussion, news outlets should cover mental illness with caution. ...
The present study uses a media distortion analysis to examine the news media’s framing of gun access, mental illness, violent entertainment, and terrorism in New York Times coverage of mass shootings in America between 2000 and 2016. Specifically, this work examines these four frames to identify the news media’s framing of the overall mass shooting problem, changes in framing over time, mass shooting characteristics influencing coverage including each of the four frames, and potential news media distortions of the phenomenon. Findings illustrate gun access frames were the most
commonly used of the four frames and increased the most over time. Mental illness frames were slightly more common than terrorism frames, although terrorism frames increased more over time. Violent entertainment frames were the least common overall. The most significant predictors of the four frames, across three comparative analyses, include Arab descent perpetrators (terrorism), jihadist-inspired motivations (terrorism), mental illness (mental illness), school targets (gun access, mental illness, violent entertainment), and government targets (gun access, terrorism). A discussion of
findings identifies news media distortions in mass shooting framing and provides implications for scholars, media outlets, and the public.
... Some people commit suicide attacks or suicidal mass shootings primarily because of social or situational factors, such as encouragement from others, peer pressure, or coercion to attack; the desire to escape impending arrest, capture, or judicial punishment by dying beforehand; or the desire to escape some other future suffering by dying beforehand (Berko, 2007;Lankford, 2013Lankford, , 2016aLester et al., 2004;Merari, 2010;Pedahzur, 2005). This is especially important to emphasize because in such cases, the individuals who choose to die might not have any history of psychological problems, but could be instead primarily responding to these social or situational variables. ...
... This is especially important to emphasize because in such cases, the individuals who choose to die might not have any history of psychological problems, but could be instead primarily responding to these social or situational variables. If the pressures they experience are particularly intense, however, that can cause them to experience temporary mental health symptoms in their final days, such as significant depression, anxiety, or stress (Berko, 2007;Lankford, 2016a;Merari, 2010). ...
In the United States and Europe, the distinction between public mass shooters and suicide terrorists no longer seems particularly meaningful. A number of public mass shooters have considered using bombs and claimed to be sacrificing themselves for an ideological cause, and many suicide terrorists have attacked without organizational support, using firearms, for what appear to be largely personal reasons. Previous research has also documented several common factors in these offenders’ lives, including (a) suicidal motives and life indifference, (b) perceived victimization, and (c) desires for attention or fame. These factors are not always easy for observers to recognize in advance, so mental health professionals, the public, and law enforcement officials might need help from experts to more successfully identify at-risk individuals. This article reviews the evidence of each factor, provides a list of specific warning signs, and offers recommendations for future research. Ultimately, an evidence-based approach to prevention could help save both the lives of many potential victims and the lives of the would-be attackers themselves.
... By showing significant differences between the psychosocial characteristics of would-be suicide terrorists and non-suicide terrorists, they suggest that suicide in terrorism is not exclusively explained by religious belief, nor by mental illness, but "because their personality characteristics [especially a dependent-avoidant personality] made them more susceptible to external influence" (Merari et al., 2010, p. 222). Moreover, other authors criticize the oversimplification of religious theory and conclude that suicide is globally underestimated in the terrorist population because of a reporting bias due to poor access to psychiatric care (Lankford, 2016b). It seems that the subject of suicide and terrorism is, once again, a complex web composed of many factors, including religious belief, community influence, personal history and perhaps particular psychopathological traits. ...
Terrorism and mass murder are two forms of violence that have become international concerns in the twenty-first century. Despite their apparent differences, they share some similarities. This chapter aims to compare and contrast the two phenomena by examining their definitions, global impact, and the psychological profiles of terrorists and mass murderers.
This chapter presents a comparative study of the psychological profiles of terrorists and mass murderers. Two systematic literature reviews were carried out to investigate mental disorders in these two populations. It examines the role of mental disorders in both populations and discuss their potential relationship with violent behavior. The case of Anders Behring Breivik, who perpetrated the 2011 terrorist attacks in Norway, is used to illustrate the complex interplay between terrorism, mass murder, and psychiatry.
Finally, the chapter addresses the role of mental health professionals in understanding and preventing terrorism and mass murder, as well as the limitations of current research and the need for a dynamic and multidisciplinary approach to address these complex issues.
... The link between suicide and mass shootings has been reported previously (Lankford, 2014(Lankford, , 2015(Lankford, , 2016(Lankford, , 2018Lankford et al., 2021) and may be considered in the context of links between suicidal behavior and aggression. Research on homicide-suicide events has found that a life stressor is a common antecedent event (Chan, 2007;Flynn et al., 2016;Theodorou et al., 2024), and that psychiatric conditions, especially depression (Chan, 2007;Flynn et al., 2016), as well as past suicide attempts or self-harm (Chan, 2007;Flynn et al., 2016;Theodorou et al., 2024), and previous violence (Flynn et al., 2016;Theodorou et al., 2024), are relatively common. ...
Objective:
The rate of worldwide mass shootings increased almost 400% over the last 40 years. About 30% are followed by the perpetrator's fatal or nonfatal suicide attempt.
Method:
We examined the rate of fatal and nonfatal attempts among 528 mass shooters over the last 40 years and their relationship to detected mental illness to better understand this specific context of suicide. We collected information on U.S.-based, personal-cause mass murders that involved one or more firearms, from online sources.
Results:
A greater proportion of mass shooters from 2000 to 2019 took or attempted to take their own lives (40.5%) compared with those from 1980 to 1999 (23.2%, p < 0.001). More than double the proportion of perpetrators who made a fatal or nonfatal suicide attempt had a history of non-psychotic psychiatric/neurologic symptoms (38.9%), compared with perpetrators who did not make a fatal or nonfatal suicide attempt (18.1%; p < 0.001). Among mass shooters who made fatal or nonfatal suicide attempts, 77 of 175 (44%) did not have any recorded psychiatric, neurologic, or substance use condition. Of the 98 mass shooters who made fatal or non-fatal suicide attempts and had a psychiatric, substance use, or neurologic condition, 41 had depressive disorders.
Conclusion:
It is possible that a lack of information about the perpetrators' mental health or suicidal ideation led to an underestimation of their prevalence. These data suggest that suicide associated with mass shootings may represent a specific context for suicide, and approaches such as psychological autopsy can help to ascertain when psychiatric illness mediates the relationship between mass shootings and suicide.
... However, recent accounts have emphasized that such a dichotomy may be oversimplified. Mental health impairment may indeed play a role in terrorism and violent extremism and often be overlooked in lack of the opportunity of a thorough clinical assessment of perpetrators (Lankford, 2016;Misiak et al., 2019;Sanir et al., 2017;Trimbur et al., 2021). ...
... For example, one frequently considered factor is the presence (or absence) of mental illness (Dutton et al., 2013;Fox & Fridel, 2016;Gill et al., 2017;Lankford & Cowan, 2020;Metzl & MacLeish, 2015;Vossekuil et al., 2002). The spectrum of factors considered also includes criminal histories (DeLisi & Scherer, 2006;DeLisi & Walters, 2011), fameseeking behaviors (Lankford, 2016;Silva & Greene-Colozzi, 2019b), illegal drug use (Miller et al., 2020), masculinity norms (Kalish & Kimmel, 2010;Madfis, 2014;, and contagion and copycat effects (Boyd & Molyneux, 2021;Lankford & Tomek, 2018;Towers et al., 2018). Findings from these studies are commonly couched in terms of frequencies. ...
Researchers of public mass shooters are increasingly focusing on the pre-attack behaviors and experiences of these offenders. Varying in scope from consideration of individual factors to more generalized life course and threat assessment analyses, their scholarship has identified behavioral and experiential factors associated with public mass shooters. However, what is generally missing from this body of research is consideration of the order in which the offender encounters these factors, and prior related research has shown that analyzing sequences allows for insights not available from a catalogue of common characteristics. To address this shortcoming, we use a sample of offenders from 1999 to 2020 for whom the most detailed data is available and conduct a sequence analysis of their stressors, antisocial behaviors, mental health issues, and planning and preparation activities. We calculate proximity coefficients for each variable in relation to all others, capturing both local and distant connections between and among them. Our findings reveal relatively coherent phases in the lives of attackers, highlight the centrality of family problems and interest in past mass killings in the overall sequence, and provide new context to understanding the effect of mental health issues and firearms acquisition in the lives of offenders. A discussion of findings illustrates potential intervention points that may have been overlooked, as well suggestions for future research.
... This includes schizophrenia, psychotic disorders, autistic spectrum disorders and anxiety disorders, which were more prevalent compared with the general population (15,21). Suicide bombers may be more likely to have avoidant-dependent personality disorder, depressive and suicidal symptoms (22)(23)(24)(25). Problematic personality traits were found in a group of Dutch Islamist extremists, with half of them displaying behavioral problems (26). ...
Background
Public health-inspired programs for Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) have developed internationally in a relatively short period of time. Research into these programs is scarce. There is a need for information that helps drive public health interventions.
Objectives
To present data on the occurrence of psychiatric disorders, self-sufficiency problems and adverse childhood experiences (ACE) in a population suspected of violent extremism.
Methods
A cross-sectional study, with data from screening reports for 34 adult subjects included in a multi-agency case-based approach on violent extremism in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Subjects were screened in the period between December 2015 to May 2021. Screening reports, which included the Screener for Intelligence and Learning Disabilities (SCIL) and the Dutch version of the Self-sufficiency Matrix (SSM-D), were used to gather information on the main outcome measures.
Results
Major psychiatric disease categories were found to be mood and anxiety disorders and mild intellectual disability (each 29.4%), substance related disorders (35.3%), personality disorders (41.2%), and psychotic disorders (14.7%). Complex self-sufficiency problems, measured by the number of people who had self-sufficiency problems in 4+ domains and the number of people who had similar self-sufficiency problems as homeless people in Amsterdam, were found in 35.3 and 32.4% of the client sample. The most prevalent ACE were emotional neglect (47.1%), household mental illness (44.1%), and loss of a parent (38.2%), 35.3% had been exposed to 4+ ACE. An association was found between NACE and self-sufficiency problems on two domains, namely “Mental Health” (rho = 0.51, p = 0.002) and “Law and order” (rho = 0.42, p = 0.013).
Conclusions
An accumulation of social and psychiatric problems in people suspected of violent extremism underlines the importance of professionals in health and social care being actively involved in developing CVE approaches.
... Indeed, the recent rise of online radicalization (Institute for Economics and Peace, 2018) and the increasing number of attacks conducted by lone-actor terrorists make this phenomenon a timely field of research (Spaaij, 2010). Moreover, some authors have suggested that mental disorders are likely to be underdiagnosed in the terrorist population, especially when suicidal ideations are present (Lankford, 2016). Finally, the link between lone-actor terrorists and psychiatric disorders, highlighted in our review and pointed by some authors (Misiak et al., 2019;Seidenbecher et al., 2020) deserves to be further clarified. ...
Background: The risk factors for radicalization and terrorism represent a key research issue. While numerous data on the sociological, political, and criminological profiles of radicalized people and terrorists are available, knowledge about psychiatric disorders among these populations remains scarce and contradictory.
Method: We conducted a systematic review of the literature regarding psychiatric disorders among both radicalized and terrorist populations.
Results: We screened 2,856 records and included a total of 25 articles to generate a complete overview. The vast majority of studies were of poor methodological quality. We assessed three population groups: people at risk of radicalization, radicalized populations, and terrorist populations. The results showed important variations in the prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders depending on the study population and methodology. People at risk of radicalization have been reported to have depressive disorders, but contradictory findings exist. Psychiatric disorders range from 6% to 41% in the radicalized population and from 3.4% to 48.5% among terrorists. Among terrorists, psychiatric disorders are more frequent for lone-actor terrorists than for those in groups.
Conclusion: We were not able to identify a significant association between radicalization, terrorism, and psychiatric disorders in our systematic review. However, some research suggests high rates of psychiatric disorders in subgroups of radicalized people and lone-actor terrorists. Further studies using standardized psychiatric assessment methods are urgently needed.
... Several scholars have underlined the importance of examining the relationship between psychopathology and terrorism, in conjunction with personal, social and contextual circumstances. [36] With this in mind, the EDT dataset can be used to examine psychopathology as potential risk factor for engagement in terrorism, considering contextual risk factors. This could not only involve research into mental disorders, but also the diagnosis of underlying traits or symptoms that lack an specific mental disorder diagnosis. ...
The European Database of Terrorist offenders (EDT) is based on comprehensive judicial information of convicted or deceased terrorist offenders, including social, psychological and psychiatric reports. This new empirical database is the result of a European cross-border collaboration between judicial organizations and scientists within the European Union. The EDT daaset comprises developmental, individual, biographical and contextual factors, which are potentially related to engagement in violent extremism and terrorism. It supports research seeking to identify critical risk and protective factors for violent extremism and terrorism. The EDT daaset could be used to conduct studies aimed at the identification of significant personal and contextual risk and protective factors for terrorism and violent extremism, improving and validating risk assessments, as well as identifying pathways into terrorism and radicalization. Moreover, this data can assist in the design of effective policy, prevention and intervention practices regarding potential violent extremist and terrorist offenders in Europe and elsewhere. The aim of this article is twofold: firstly, it seeks to present the EDT, along with discussing its development and methodology. To this end, the inclusion criteria and coding principles are discussed, alongside quality-, privacy-and security issues associated with the gathering and processing of judicial data, together with some preliminary statistics. Secondly, it aims to discuss potentials for research based on EDT data. Accordingly, potential applications and future developments of the EDT are discussed as well as urgent needs to use and further develop this comprehensive and unique database.
... For instance, studies have examined the conceptual boundaries between different lone-actor grievance-fuelled offenders. These include comparisons of suicide terrorists with rampage, workplace, and school shooters (Lankford, 2013), suicide terrorists with mass shooters (Lankford, 2016(Lankford, , 2018Lankford & Hakim, 2011), ideologically and nonideologically motivated mass shooters (Capellan & Anisin, 2018), political and non-political murderers in Northern Ireland (Lyons & Harbinson, 1986), adolescent targeted school attacks with jihadi terrorists in Germany (Böckler et al., 2018), both far-right homicides (Gruenewald, 2011;Gruenewald & Pridemore, 2012), and European lone-actor terrorists with common homicides (Liem et al., 2018), and lone-actor terrorists with mass murderers (Capellan, 2015;Gill et al., 2014;Horgan, Gill et al., 2016). ...
Research on terrorism is increasingly empirical and a number of significant advancements have been made. One such evolution is the emergent understanding of risk factors and indicators for engagement in violent extremism. Beyond contributing to academic knowledge, this has important real-world implications. Notably, the development of terrorism risk assessment tools, as well as behavioural threat assessment in counterterrorism. This thesis makes a unique contribution to the literature in two key ways. First, there is a general consensus that no single, stable profile of a terrorist exists. Relying on profiles of static risk factors to inform judgements of risk and/or threat may therefore be problematic, particularly given the observed multi- and equi-finality. One way forward may be to identify configurations of risk factors and tie these to the theorised causal mechanisms they speak to. Second, there has been little attempt to measure the prevalence of potential risk factors for violent extremism in a general population, i.e. base rates. Establishing general population base rates will help develop more scientifically rigorous putative risk factors, increase transparency in the provision of evidence, minimise potential bias in decision-making, improve risk communication, and allow for risk assessments based on Bayesian principles. This thesis consists of four empirical chapters. First, I inductively disaggregate dynamic person-exposure patterns (PEPs) of risk factors in 125 cases of lone-actor terrorism. Further analysis articulates four configurations of individual-level susceptibilities which interact differentially with situational, and exposure factors. The PEP typology ties patterns of risk factors to theorised causal mechanisms specified by a previously designed Risk Analysis Framework (RAF). This may be more stable grounds for risk assessment however than relying on the presence or absence of single factors. However, with no knowledge of base rates, the relevance of seemingly pertinent risk factors remains unclear. However, how to develop base rates is of equal concern. Hence, second, I develop the Base Rate Survey and compare two survey questioning designs, direct questioning and the Unmatched Count Technique (UCT). Under the conditions described, direct questioning yields the most appropriate estimates. Third, I compare the base rates generated via direct questioning to those observed across a sample of lone-actor terrorists. Lone-actor terrorists demonstrated more propensity, situational, and exposure risk factors, suggesting these offenders may differ from the general population in measurable ways. Finally, moving beyond examining the prevalence rates of single factors, I collect a second sample in order to model the relations among these risk factors as a complex, dynamic system. To do so, the Base Rate Survey: UK is distributed to a representative sample of 1,500 participants from the UK. I introduce psychometric network modelling to terrorism studies which visualises the interactions among risk factors as a complex system via network graphs.
... Many people have studied the weapons used, the characteristics of the perpetrators (mostly white males), and the number of victims injured and killed. In this brief research note, we examine the geography of mass shootings in the United States (see Berkowitz et al. [1] and Lankford [2]). ...
The authors use simple bilinear regression to assess changes in the geographical movement (latitude and longitude) of mass shootings in the United States between 1982 and 2017. The path taken by the location of the ninety-five mass shootings over the 36-year period has shifted south. An analysis of differences by census region and blue/red state distinctions within each census region reveals disproportionately many mass shootings in Midwestern states between 2000 and 2008, and disproportionately many in red Southern states over the past three-plus decades.
... Suicidality is routinely listed as an indicator for a POC potentially becoming a mass attacker (Lankford, 2016(Lankford, , 2018. found evidence that almost half of active shooters had either suicidal ideation or suicidal behavior some time prior to their attack. ...
Understanding the behaviors and stressors of active shooters is critical to threat assessment teams as they evaluate persons of concern. Yet research focuses on those who commit an attack, which means little is known about how active shooters differ from other high-risk persons of concern referred for assessment. Sixty-three active shooters were matched on age and gender to high-risk persons of concern assessed by a federal law enforcement threat assessment team. Variables measuring past behavior, internal stressors, and behaviors that drew the concern of others were analyzed. Logistic regressions highlight that concerning persons’ behaviors appear more worrisome than active shooters’ behaviors. Active shooters were less likely to have someone concerned about their anger as compared to persons of concern. Conversely, active shooters were more likely to have experienced a humiliating event. Results are discussed with a focus on being operationally useful.
... Studies have examined the conceptual boundaries between different LAGFV offenders. These include comparisons of suicide terrorists with rampage, workplace and school shooters, 5 suicide terrorists with mass shooters, 6 ideologically and non-ideologically motivated mass shooters, 7 political and nonpolitical murderers in Northern Ireland, 8 adolescent targeted school attacks with jihadi terrorists in Germany, 9 both far-right homicides, 10 and European lone-actor terrorists with "common" homicides, 11 and lone-actor terrorists with mass murderers. 12 These studies consistently report similar profiles of psychological and social characteristics, providing evidence for reconceptualizing these offenders as LAGFV offenders. ...
Research suggests that lone-actor terrorists and mass murderers may be better conceptualized as lone-actor grievance-fueled violence (LAGFV) offenders, rather than as distinct types. The present study sought to examine the extent to which these offenders could (or could not) be disaggregated along dimensions relevant to the threat assessment of both. Drawing on a Risk Analysis Framework (RAF), the offending process was theorized as interactions among propensity, situation, preparatory, leakage and network indicators. We analyzed a dataset of 183 U.S. offenders, including sixty-eight lone-actor terrorists and 115 solo mass murderers. Cluster analysis identified profiles within each of the components: propensity (stable, criminal, unstable), situation (low stress, high stress (social), high stress (interpersonal), preparatory (fixated, novel aggression, equipped, clandestine, predatory, preparatory), leakage (high leakage, low leakage), and network (lone, associated, connected). Bi-variate analysis examined the extent to which the profiles classified offenders previously labeled as lone-actor terrorists or mass murderers. The results suggest that while significant differences may exist at the periphery of these dimensions, offenders previously classified as lone-actor terrorists or mass murderers occupy a noteworthy shared space. Moreover, no profile classifies a single “type” of offender exclusively. Lastly, we propose a dynamic, interactional model of LAGFV and discuss the implications of these findings for the threat assessment and management of LAGFV offenders.
... Whereas scholars have tacked the issue from a range of disciplines and vantage points, the possible causal relationship between mental health and engagement in terrorism remains unclear (e.g. Bhui & Jones, 2017;Corner & Gill, 2015;Horgan, 2008;Lankford, 2016;McGilloway, Ghosh, & Bhui, 2015;Paulussen, Nijman, & Lismont, 2017;Silke, 1998Silke, , 2003. Certainly, acts of terrorism do not on their own signify the presence of mental illness or disorder; conversely, being mentally ill obviously does not by necessity lead one to commit terrorist acts. ...
The relationship between terrorism and mental health has been a scholarly concern for decades. So far, the literature has concentrated on the relationship between terrorism and diagnosable disorders, and the prevalence of certain psychological traits among terrorist offenders. Meanwhile, the incorporation of perspectives regarding mental health in the operational space of counter-terrorism has been largely ignored. This article explores three current approaches to individual mental health in UK counter-terrorism: the use of ‘appropriate adults’ in terrorism-related cases; the ‘mental health hubs’ introduced in 2016; and counter-terrorism-related risk and vulnerability assessments. The article argues that in light of the UK’s new counter-terrorism strategy, these practices show an increasing merger between conceptualisations of vulnerabilities and risks in how UK counter-terrorism approaches mental health.
... Many people suffering mental illness do not seek help from professionals (see e.g. Lankford, 2016). There might be shooters who suffer a mental illness, yet have never been diagnosed or treated. ...
The year 2017 had the deadliest incidents of gun violence ever in U.S. history; defined in our study as incidents with 4 or more persons killed or injured: 384 shootings with 466 people killed and 1,912 injured (Gun Violence Archive, 2017. Our study focused on the role of mental illness and other possible causes of gun violence by analyzing a minimum of three media reports and online documents related to each incident in 2017. Results showed that (a) information about the shooter(s) is available in only 157 (40.9%) out of 384 cases; (b) mental illness was mentioned as a cause in only 17 (10.8%) of the cases in which information was available; (c) subclinical or mental health issues such as relational stress, revenge, job stress, substance use, and trauma were mentioned much more often than mental illness; and (d) there are different types of gun violence. Based on these findings, future research should look at the complex interaction of perpetrator, situation, and victim variables, as well as socio-demographic and psychosocial/mental health variables that may clarify the role of mental illness in the different kinds of gun violence, one of which is mass shootings. Mental illness was not a significant contributing factor in this study’s gun violence cases.
... Het omgekeerde is echter ook mogelijk. Lankford (2016) wijst er op dat onder moslims een relatief groot taboe bestaat op het bespreken van geestelijke -gezondheidsproblemen. Als dat zo is, dan komen ggz-problemen onder hen misschien vaker voor dan uit de cijfers blijkt. ...
The report describes - in Dutch - the backgrounds of jihadi's from the Netherlands (n=319). It shows that this group deviates from averages on a number of background variables (demography, adversity, criminality and mental health). Data come from Dutch police files. Theoretically it is based on insights from situational actiopn theory, life course criminology, and situational crime prevention. An English language paper will follw later this year.
... Offenders who received a formal medical diagnosis were coded as "confirmed mental illness." Unfortunately, research has demonstrated that significant portions of criminal offenders have never been diagnosed despite suffering from severe mental illnesses (25). Therefore, relying on formal medical diagnoses will ignore the full extent of the mental illness in this population. ...
This study compares the demographic, background, motivation, and pre‐event and event‐level behaviors across four types of mass public shooters: disgruntled employee, school, ideologically motivated, and rampage offenders. Using a database containing detailed information on 318 mass public shootings that occurred in the United States between 1966 and 2017, we find systematic differences in the characteristics, motivations, target selection, planning, and incident‐level behaviors among these offenders. The results show that ideologically motivated shooters to be the most patient, and methodical, and as a result the most lethal. Conversely, disgruntled employees, who are driven by revenge, tend to have little time to plan and consequently are the least lethal shooters. These, among other differences, underscore the need for prevention strategies and policies to be tailored to specific types of offenders. Furthermore, the results also highlight commonalities across offender type, suggesting that the social and psychological pathways to violence are universal across offenders.
... Offender's history of mental illness is binary coded (0 = no history of mental illness, 1 = known history of mental illness). Outside of a formal diagnosis, mental illness can be quite complicated to measure accurately, as a significant portion of criminal offenders have never been diagnosed, despite suffering from serious mental health problems (Fazel & Danesh, 2002;Lankford, 2016a). Therefore, relying solely on a formal diagnosis is likely to skew the results. ...
This study provides a comparative analysis of news media coverage across four types of mass public shootings: rampage, disgruntled employee, school, and lone-wolf terrorist. This research analyzes the agenda-setting function of the media and identifies differences in coverage and the salience of coverage, proportionality of coverage, changes in coverage over time, and factors influencing levels of coverage. Findings indicate school shootings and lone-wolf terrorist shootings receive disproportionate amounts of news media coverage. This suggests media coverage may be contributing to setting the public and policy agenda concerning the phenomenon. These findings have important implications for public perceptions of risk, conceptualizations of potential perpetrators, and the implementation of security measures.
... Outside of a formal diagnosis, identifying mental illness could be quite complicated, as significant portions of criminal offenders have never been diagnosed despite suffering from severe mental illnesses (Fazel & Danesh, 2002;Lankford, 2016a). Therefore, relying only on a formal diagnosis is likely to skew the results. ...
This study utilizes crisp-set qualitative comparative analysis to assess 306 mass shootings. We compare non-extremist and extremist mass shooters according to characteristics that capture mental health histories of offenders, their grievances, and strains. We discover that offenders who sympathized with extremism were driven by grievance against a social group and were suffering from either mental health issues or from general strain. Extremist sympathizers differ from non-extremists in the nature of their grievances and the strains they experience. These results imply there may exist different causal mechanistic activity underpinning extremist and non-extremist violence, specifically with regards to mass shootings.
... After all, the vast majority of mentally ill people are not violent and pose no threat to anyone (Metzl & MacLeish, 2013). Furthermore, although some progress has been made in mental health treatment in recent decades, many mentally ill people rarely visit a doctor who could potentially diagnose them, and even if they do, they are often not properly diagnosed (Lankford, 2016a). Overall, suicide rates in the United States have actually increased over the past 30 years (Tavernise, 2016). ...
Prior research has shown that many mass shooters have explicitly admitted they want fame and have directly reached out to media organizations to get it. These fame-seeking offenders are particularly dangerous because they kill and wound significantly more victims than other active shooters, they often compete for attention by attempting to maximize victim fatalities, and they can inspire contagion and copycat effects. However, if the media changes how they cover mass shooters, they may be able to deny many offenders the attention they seek and deter some future perpetrators from attacking. We propose that media organizations should no longer publish the names or photos of mass shooters (except during ongoing searches for escaped suspects), but report everything else about these crimes in as much detail as desired. In this article, we (1) review the consequences of media coverage of mass shooters, (2) outline our proposal, (3) show that its implementation is realistic and has precedent, (4) discuss anticipated challenges, and (5) recommend future steps for consensus building and implementation.
In 2017 a meta-analytical review (Desmarais et al., J Threat Assess Manage 4(4):180–209, 2017) demonstrated that the criminogenic needs of the Risk-Need-Responsivity model (Bonta, Andrews, The psychology of criminal conduct, 7th edn. Routledge, 2023) were applicable to terrorist offenders. In 2018, Herzog-Evans conducted an analysis of forty individuals who carried out terrorist attacks on French soil. Twenty of these individuals had executed their attacks before 2012, a year generally recognised in France as marking a significant shift towards acts of terrorism committed by individuals with notably weak ideological beliefs and knowledge. To analyse the data, Herzog-Evans employed a grid measuring Bonta and Andrews’s Central Eight (The psychology of criminal conduct, 7th edn. Routledge, 2023) and the French translation of the specialised risk assessment tool from the United Kingdom, ERG 22+. The research confirmed that after 2012, a substantial shift had occurred: terrorists were notably less motivated by ideology and more driven by identity issues. Moreover, they exhibited significantly more criminogenic needs than in the years preceding 2012. This chapter replicates (Herzog-Evans, Eur J Probat 10(1):3–27, 2018) study, focusing this time on jurisdictions in the Western world in general, examining 81 case studies. The study reveals a broader spectrum of issues. It analyses approximately 81 terrorist attackers who committed their crimes on Western world soils over the last decades. This time, the picture is more nuanced, revealing a higher prevalence of criminogenic needs and identity issues. However, in some cases, other concerns emerge, including ideological or mental health factors.
Our aim was to better understand the underlying psychiatric, psychosocial, and psychodynamic aspects of mass shootings in the United States (US). The Mother Jones database of 115 mass shootings from 1982–2019 was used to study retrospectively 55 shooters in the US. After developing a psychiatric-assessment questionnaire, psychiatric researchers gathered multiple psychosocial factors and determined diagnoses and treatment by evaluating the clinical evidence obtained by interviewing forensic psychiatrists, who had assessed the assailant, and/or by reviewing psychiatric evaluations conducted during the judicial proceedings. All 35 surviving-assailant cases were selected. Additionally, 20 cases where the assailant died at the time of the shootings were randomly selected from the remaining 80 cases. The majority of assailants (87.5%) had misdiagnosed and incorrectly treated or undiagnosed and untreated psychiatric illness. Most of the assailants also experienced profound estrangement not only from families, friends, and classmates but most importantly from themselves. Being marginalized and interpersonally shunned rendered them more vulnerable to their untreated psychiatric illness and to radicalization online, which fostered their violence. While there are complex reasons that a person is misdiagnosed or not diagnosed, there remains a vital need to decrease the stigma of mental illness to enable those with severe psychiatric illness to be more respected, less marginalized, and encouraged to receive effective psychotherapeutic and pharmacologic treatments.
Our aim was to better understand the underlying psychiatric, psychosocial, and psychodynamic aspects of mass shootings in the United States (US). The Mother Jones database of 115 mass shootings from 1982–20119 was used to study retrospectively 55 shooters in the US. After developing a psychiatric-assessment questionnaire, psychiatric researchers gathered multiple psychosocial factors and determined diagnoses and treatment by evaluating the clinical evidence obtained by interviewing forensic psychiatrists, who had assessed the assailant, and/or by reviewing psychiatric evaluations conducted during the judicial proceedings. All 35 surviving-assailant cases were selected. Additionally, 20 cases where the assailant died at the time of the shootings were randomly selected from the remaining 80 cases. The majority of assailants (87.5%) had misdiagnosed and incorrectly treated or undiagnosed and untreated psychiatric illness. Most of the assailants also experienced profound estrangement not only from families, friends, and classmates but most importantly from themselves. Being marginalized and interpersonally shunned rendered them more vulnerable to their untreated psychiatric illness and to radicalization online, which fostered their violence. While there are complex reasons that a person is misdiagnosed or not diagnosed, there remains a vital need to decrease the stigma of mental illness to enable those with severe psychiatric illness to be more respected, less marginalized, and encouraged to receive effective psychotherapeutic and pharmacologic treatments.
Our aim was to better understand the underlying psychiatric, psychosocial, and psychodynamic aspects of mass shootings in the United States (US). The Mother Jones database of 115 mass shootings from 1982–2019 was used to study retrospectively 55 shooters in the US. After developing a psychiatric-assessment questionnaire, psychiatric researchers gathered multiple psychosocial factors and determined diagnoses and treatment by evaluating the clinical evidence obtained by interviewing forensic psychiatrists, who had assessed the assailant, and/or by reviewing psychiatric evaluations conducted during the judicial proceedings. All 35 surviving-assailant cases were selected. Additionally, 20 cases where the assailant died at the time of the shootings were randomly selected from the remaining 80 cases. The majority of assailants (87.5%) had misdiagnosed and incorrectly treated or undiagnosed and untreated psychiatric illness. Most of the assailants also experienced profound estrangement not only from families, friends, and classmates but most importantly from themselves. Being marginalized and interpersonally shunned rendered them more vulnerable to their untreated psychiatric illness and to radicalization online, which fostered their violence. While there are complex reasons that a person is misdiagnosed or not diagnosed, there remains a vital need to decrease the stigma of mental illness to enable those with severe psychiatric illness to be more respected, less marginalized, and encouraged to receive effective psychotherapeutic and pharmacologic treatments.
France is still particularly exposed to the terrorist threat. Public opinion regularly makes the distinction between terrorist dangerousness and mental pathology. Since 2015, there has been a trend by public authorities to involve psychiatrists in the care of people who are radicalized or at risk of radicalization. The psychiatric community has opposed its possible use in this issue but is nevertheless interested in the issue of radicalization. In view of this current problem, which remains ill-defined and complex, we asked ourselves the following question: do terrorists and "radicalized" people have mental disorders?
Method: A systematic search was conducted in December 2017 on the Medline and Lissa databases. The exclusion criteria were: articles that were neither English nor French-speaking, articles that were off-topic, not original or not fully recoverable. Out of 705 articles collected, 16 original articles and 2 books were selected for the literature review.
Results: Psychological disorders are neither unique nor sufficient to explain radical engagement and violence. There is an absence of mental disorder among terrorists organized in groups, but a higher prevalence of disorder than the general population for lone terrorists. The more isolated terrorists are, the higher the prevalence of mental disorders increases.
Studies suffer from many limitations and further research would be required to confirm these results. Our work will continue with a complementary qualitative study with psychiatrists and professionals working with radicalized people.
This special issue includes:
"Media Coverage of Mass Killers: Content, Consequences, and Solutions" by Adam Lankford and Eric Madfis; "Visually Reporting Mass Shootings: U.S. Newspaper Photographic Coverage of Three Mass School Shootings" by Nicole Smith Dahmen; "Covering Mass Murder: An Experimental Examination of the Effect of News Focus -- Killer, Victim, or Hero -- on Reader Interest" by Jack Levin and Julie B. Wiest; "Global Online Subculture Surrounding School Shootings" by Jenni Raitanen and Atte Oksanen; "Different Types of Role Model Influence and Fame Seeking Among Mass Killers and Copycat Offenders" by Peter Langman; "Narcissism, Fame Seeking, and Mass Shootings" by Brad J. Bushman; "Reducing Media-Induced Mass Killings: Lessons From Suicide Prevention" by James N. Meindl and Jonathan W. Ivy; "Don’t Name Them, Don’t Show Them, But Report Everything Else: A Pragmatic Proposal for Denying Mass Killers the Attention They Seek and Deterring Future Offenders" by Adam Lankford and Eric Madfis
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Massenmorde analysiert, die sich in den vergangenen 43 Jahren in der Schweiz ereignet haben. Ziel der Arbeit ist die Abklärung der Auftretensrate von Massenmorden sowie eine umfassende Beschreibung der soziodemografischen, psychologischen und kriminologischen Aspekte der Taten. Dabei wird besonderes Augenmerk auf den Vergleich zwischen Tätern mit konsekutivem Suizid und ohne konsekutiven Suizid gelegt, um distinkte Risikokonstellationen abzuleiten. Hierfür wurde anhand eines literaturgeleiteten Kodierschemas eine umfangreiche Analyse von Akten der Straf- und Massnahmenbehörden durchgeführt.
Die 33 erfassten Fälle wurden anschliessend in Täter ohne konsekutiven Suizid (n = 17) und mit konsekutivem Suizid (n = 16) eingeteilt und anhand nonparametrischer Verfahren miteinander verglichen. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass sich Massenmorde in der Schweiz vorrangig an den Tätern bekannten Personen verübt werden und durch eine verzerrte Wahrnehmung von Loyalität oder einem Bedürfnis nach Rache motiviert sind. Angelehnt an das Diathese-Stress-Modell können diese als Taten von Männern betrachtet werden, die im Vorfeld der Tat gehäuft eine Persönlichkeitspathologie und suizidale Tendenzen aufweisen, welche mit unmittelbar vor der Tat auftretenden psychosozialen Konflikten interagieren. Massenmorde bei denen die Täter konsekutiven Suizid begehen lassen sich nach den Ergebnissen der Teilhypothesen mehrheitlich als Extremformen häuslicher Gewalt klassifizieren und sind durch ein geplantes und kontrolliertes Vorgehen gekennzeichnet, wobei sie vor der Tat mehr spezifische Drohungen gegenüber den künftigen Opfern äussern als Massenmörder ohne konsekutiven Suizid. Bezüglich der vermuteten Unterschiede in psychologischen Variablen und psychiatrischen Erkrankungen fanden sich keine Hinweise. Die Ergebnisse liefern Anstösse für das Bedrohungs- und Risikomanagement, wobei sich vorrangig Implikationen für die Suizidprävention ergeben. Es fanden sich in beiden Tätergruppen Hinweise auf suizidale Tendenzen bereits vor der Tat. Daher erscheint weniger eine Unterscheidung der Typen nach tatsächlich durchgeführten Suizid nahezuliegen als eine Differenzierung nach dem Grad der Organisation, im Sinne der Vorbereitung und Strukturierung der Tat.
Terrorist organizations’ use of psychology in analysing psychological issues in the everyday lives of their members and developing coping strategies has not been sufficiently investigated in the terrorism research. This qualitative study investigates Al Qaeda’s view of psychology, its analysis of psychological issues, and the utilization of coping strategies among terrorists. The study is based on 255 documents from the Bin Laden’s Bookshelf (Office of the Director of National Intelligence. [2015]. Bin Ladin’s Bookshelf. Retrieved from https://www.dni.gov/index.php/features/bin-laden-s-bookshelf) and Harmony database documents (The Combating Terrorism Center at West Point [CTC]. [2012]. Harmony program. Retrieved from https://ctc.usma.edu/programs-resources/harmony-program). The results indicate that Al Qaeda perceived psychology as a dangerous and important science. Psychological issues identified in this study include three types of suicide, depression, anxiety, security stress, diversity stress, and enforced idleness. Terrorists used both religious and secular coping strategies to overcome psychological issues. These findings can contribute to future research and counterterrorism efforts in understanding both the survivability and vulnerability of terrorists.
There has been a worldwide increase in terrorism related deaths since 2010 (Institute for Economics and Peace, 2016). Thesefigures highlight the impor-tance of researchers identifying risk factors involved in the development ofterrorist beliefs. If this is possible, effective interventions could be developedfor those who are at risk long before it is too late. Lankford (2016, this journal)argued that although direct psychological assessments of terrorists, mass shootersand other criminals are not always possible, the challenges implicit in studyingthese offenders does not negate the importance of doing so. He suggested thata great deal might be learned about them by assessing their life histories andoffending behaviour, recommending (1) recognition of the likelihood of under-diagnosis in this group, (2) prioritising the depth of analysis for individual casesand (3) considering the role of social and situational factors in suicidal motives.
The present study examines the lack of strong correlations among existing self-report measures of narcissism. A principal-components analysis of 6 MMPI narcissism scales resulted in 2 orthogonal factors, 1 implying Vulnerability–Sensitivity and the other Grandiosity–Exhibitionism. Although unrelated to each other, these 2 factors were associated with such core features of narcissism as conceit, self-indulgence, and disregard of others. Despite this common core, however, Vulnerability–Sensitivity was associated with introversion, defensiveness, anxiety, and vulnerability to life's traumas, whereas Grandiosity–Exhibitionism was related to extraversion, self-assurance, exhibitionism, and aggression. Three alternative interpretations of these results are considered, and an argument for the distinction between covert and overt narcissism is made.
Suicide and suicide behavior are major health concerns in our society today. Suicide has always been a sensitive topic, being considered taboo in many cultures and religions. Studies have shown that suicide and suicide behavior are linked to personality traits. The study aims to observe the relationship of the Five Factor Model personality traits with suicide behavior among Filipino adolescents, in order to determine the degree to which personality may correlate with suicide behavior. Participants were gathered from various universities in Metro Manila with ages ranging from 17-21. Results revealed that Neuroticism, Antagonism, Introversion, and Disinhibition (Low Conscientiousness) are correlated with suicide behavior. Moreover, forward stepwise regression indicated that Neuroticism, Antagonism, and Introversion were predictors of suicide behavior, with Neuroticism being the strongest predictor among the 5 domains. Results likewise showed that Depressivity (N3), which is a sub-factor of Neuroticism, is the strongest predictor of suicide behavior among the Five Factor Model facets.
Keywords: Suicide, suicide behavior, personality traits, adolescents
Research on the characteristics of suicide bombers is reviewed. Contrary to previous commentary, it is suggested that suicide bombers may share personality traits (such as the "authoritarian personality") that psychological profiles of suicide bombers might be feasible, and that the suicide bombers may be characterized by the risk factors that increase the probability of suicide.‐
Contagion and copycat behavior among mass killers is often discussed in the media when there are multiple attacks within a short span of time. Proximity in time, however, does not necessarily mean that one attack inspired another. This study examines the clearest cases of role modeling and fame seeking among mass killers in which the perpetrators personally acknowledged these types of influence and motivation in their own lives. Instead of simply categorizing potential copycat offenders in a “yes”/“no” binary fashion, it outlines many different types of influence, imitation, and inspiration and then provides evidence on perpetrators who represent examples of each type. Overall, findings suggest that most killers were not gaining insights into attack methodology from their role models, but rather were drawn to the prior perpetrators for a variety of personal reasons. Looking ahead, because of the frequency of mass killers citing previous perpetrators as role models or sources of inspiration, it is critical that media outlets give careful consideration to how they cover such incidents.
Prior research has shown that many mass shooters have explicitly admitted they want fame and have directly reached out to media organizations to get it. These fame-seeking offenders are particularly dangerous because they kill and wound significantly more victims than other active shooters, they often compete for attention by attempting to maximize victim fatalities, and they can inspire contagion and copycat effects. However, if the media changes how they cover mass shooters, they may be able to deny many offenders the attention they seek and deter some future perpetrators from attacking. We propose that media organizations should no longer publish the names or photos of mass shooters (except during ongoing searches for escaped suspects), but report everything else about these crimes in as much detail as desired. In this article, we (1) review the consequences of media coverage of mass shooters, (2) outline our proposal, (3) show that its implementation is realistic and has precedent, (4) discuss anticipated challenges, and (5) recommend future steps for consensus building and implementation.
Background
The university entrance exam or Konkoor is a determining event for the Iranian adolescents and their families. It is considered as the most important opportunity for adolescents for creating their ideal futures. Hence, regarding the importance of this exam and its accompanying pressures during the critical and stressful adolescence period, this study describes adolescents’ perspective about what make them worried about the university entrance exam.
Methods
This study is based on responses of 500 high school female students to an open-ended question completed in their class. In total 482 adolescents wrote down their answers. Using quantitative content analysis, these statements were analyzed.
Results
The findings showed that three categories including “individual” category (87.90%) with three subcategories; Konkoor’s outcome, readiness for Konkoor, self-blame, and “family” category (7.12%) with three subcategories; consequences of failure, family expectations, family conflicts, and “religious- socioeconomic” category (4.98%) with three subcategories; religion, financial status, educational policies as the main adolescents concern sources about the university entrance exam.
Conclusion
Considering the high concerns of female adolescents about the university entrance exam and the pressures that they receive from their families, society, and even themselves, modifying the educational policies, applying some measures to promote knowledge, and gaining required skills to deal with different aspects of such concerns are necessary for adolescents and their parents.
Purpose
Mental health disorders are a pressing issue among adolescents around the world, including in India. A better understanding of the factors related to poor mental health will allow for more effective and targeted interventions for Indian adolescents.
Methods
The Indian Adolescent Health Questionnaire (IAHQ), a validated questionnaire designed specifically for use in schools, was administered to approximately 1500 secondary students in three private urban Indian schools in 2012. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) module assessed mental health. Linear regression was used to predict SDQ scores. The biopsychosocial framework was used as an organizing framework to understand how each explanatory variable in the final model might impact the SDQ score.
Results
One thousand four hundred and eight students returned IAHQ surveys (93.9% response rate); 1102 students completed questions for inclusion in the regression model (78.3% inclusion rate). Statistically significant (p < 0.05) independent variables associated with SDQ scores were gender, level of overall health, negative peer pressure, insults from peers, kindness of peers, feeling safe at home, at school, or with friends, and grades.
Discussion
Schools have a role to play in improving adolescent mental health. Many of the significant variables in our study can be addressed in the school environment through school-wide, long-term programs utilizing teachers and lay counselors. The IAHQ and SDQ can be used by schools to identify factors that contribute to poor mental health among students and then develop targeted programs to support improved mental health.
This document provides evidence to support the idea that school shooters have been influenced by previous perpetrators.
The Terrorist Radicalization Assessment Protocol (TRAP-18) comprises 8 proximal warning behaviors and 10 distal characteristics, and is a rationally derived investigative template for risk of individual terrorism. It is coded on a sample of 22 individuals who carried out acts of terrorism in Europe between 1980 and 2015. Seven of these individuals formed autonomous cells. Mean interrater reliability was 0.895, and ranged from good to excellent across all variables. Content validity was suggested wherein a majority of individuals who acted alone were positive on 72% of the variables, and a majority of individuals who acted in autonomous cells were positive on 72% of the variables. There was no significant difference between any of the variables when the terrorists who acted alone were compared with those in autonomous cells, other than a more frequent history of criminal violence among the latter. Specificity was not tested because there was no nonterrorist comparison group. The TRAP-18 appears to have promise as an investigative template and supports the recommendations of Monahan (2012) for the further development of a structured professional judgment instrument for individual terrorism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
The case of the Frankfurt Airport attack in 2011 in which a 21-year-old man shot several U.S. soldiers, murdering 2 U.S. airmen and severely wounding 2 others, is assessed with the Terrorist Radicalization Assessment Protocol (TRAP-18). The study is based on an extensive qualitative analysis of investigation and court files focusing on the complex interconnection among offender personality, specific opportunity structures, and social contexts. The role of distal psychological factors and proximal warning behaviors in the run up to the deed are discussed. Although in this case the proximal behaviors of fixation on a cause and identification as a “soldier” for the cause developed over years, we observed only a very brief and accelerated pathway toward the violent act. This represents an important change in the demands placed upon threat assessors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
Popular media has become increasingly flooded with material concerning fame and celebrities. Although the fascination with fame is not a new phenomenon, the emergence of YouTube.com and reality television has led to the perception that fame is something that seemingly anyone can achieve. Researchers have examined the characteristics that are associated with the desire for fame and have found that narcissism is one of the most consistent predictors of fame interest. The goal of the present study was to extend previous research by examining how the additional two Dark Triad personality traits (i.e., psychopathy and Machiavellianism; Paulhus and Williams 2002) and another conceptualization of narcissism (i.e., grandiose and vulnerable forms of pathological narcissism) relate to aspects of fame interest among 569 undergraduate students. Facets of psychopathy and narcissism were associated with multiple aspects of fame interest, whereas Machiavellianism was negatively associated with desiring fame for altruistic purposes only. Discussion focuses on possible explanations for the associations that the Dark Triad personality traits had with the six dimensions of fame interest.
A motivational analysis of suicidal terrorism is outlined, anchored in the notion of significance quest. It is suggested that heterogeneous factors identified as personal causes of suicidal terrorism (e.g. trauma, humiliation, social exclusion), the various ideological reasons assumed to justify it (e.g. liberation from foreign occupation, defense of one's nation or religion), and the social pressures brought upon candidates for suicidal terrorism may be profitably subsumed within an integrative framework that explains diverse instances of suicidal terrorism as attempts at significance restoration, significance gain, and prevention of significance loss. Research and policy implications of the present analysis are considered.
The main aims of this two-wave prospective study were to (1) present different theoretical mechanisms for relationships between bullying and personality characteristics, (2) determine forward and reverse long-term associations between victimization from bullying and personality traits included in the five-factor model and (3) establish whether these personality traits contribute to the variance in bullying, beyond work environment factors in the form of role conflict and role ambiguity. The prospective sample comprised 3066 Norwegian employees. The time lag between the two measurement points was two years. Neuroticism significantly predicted subsequent bullying in analyses of direct associations between personality traits and victimization. When adjusting for role conflict and role ambiguity, conscientiousness emerged as the only significant predictor of later victimization from bullying. In tests of reverse associations, victimization from bullying at baseline was significantly related to agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness at follow-up. Taken together, the study findings indicate that personality traits may function as both predictors and outcomes of workplace bullying.
Nach den USA ist Deutschland weltweit das Land mit den meisten Fällen von zielgerichteten schweren Gewalttaten an Schulen. Mit Erfurt und Winnenden geschahen die beiden Fälle von schulischen Amokläufen mit der größten Anzahl von Todesopfern überhaupt jeweils in Deutschland. Der traurigen Relevanz dieser Ereignisse stand bislang eine man-gelnde wissenschaftliche Untersuchung der deutschen Fälle gegenüber. Die vorliegende Studie strebt an, dieses Manko zu beheben. Als erste ihrer Art wurden Gerichtsakten und Urteile von zielgerichteten schweren Gewalttaten an Schulen ausgewertet. Dabei konnte der Amoklauf von Winnenden wegen der zeitlichen Nähe nicht mehr berücksichtigt wer-den. Es zeigte sich in den Ergebnissen ein erstaunlich homo-genes Bild solcher Taten – sowohl von der Tatvorlaufsphase als auch von der Psychologie der Täter her. Hieraus ergeben sich klare Implikationen für präventive Ansätze.
In academic settings, emotions can arise in a variety of contexts and have adverse and interfering effects on learning and performance, especially those of negative valence. Thus, the investigation of their personal antecedents and different strategies implemented by students in order to regulate them, are important topics of research. The aim of this study was to examine the unique contribution of Big Five personality traits (as distal personal antecedents of emotions), cognitive control and value appraisals (as their proximal antecedents) and students' tendencies to reappraise or suppress their emotions (as most important emotion regulation strategies) for experiencing academic emotions of unhappiness, anger, anxiety and humiliation. The sample consisted of 500 high school students who completed the self-report questionnaire during their regular scheduled classes. The series of multiple hierarchical regression analyses showed that all groups of predictors have made significant and independent contribution to the explanation of all analysed emotions.
In this article we explore to what extent behavioral problems and disorders can be found in a sample of radical Islamists that are known to the police in the Netherlands as actual or potential 'jihadists'. Our aims are, first, to assess whether the consensus in terrorism studies that terrorists are 'surprisingly normal' is justified when it comes to these subjects; second, we try to establish whether behavioral histories offer clues to the police on how to approach them. Personal details of 140 subjects, who are considered to have traveled from the Netherlands to Syria, or on whom police had information that they might be preparing to do so, were entered in police databases. Preliminary results indicate that individuals with histories of behavioral problems and disorders are overrepresented. The results are at odds with the consensus view on terrorists alleged 'normality'. A focus on individual psychology could complement existing social-psychological approaches to radicalization. It may also assist in broadening awareness among policy makers and law enforcement officials that disengagement efforts need to be tailored to the individual, and that mental health specialists might have to play a role here.
A typology of 8 warning behaviors for targeted violence— dynamic and superordinate patterns which may indicate accelerating risk of violence—were tested in a small sample of German school shooters (n 9) and students of concern (n 31) to see if any warning behaviors would be significantly different between the groups. Five warning behaviors were found to occur with significantly greater frequency in the school shooters and discriminate between the samples: pathway, fixation, identification, novel aggression, and last resort. All effect sizes were large (.50). The findings are discussed in the context of school-shooting data from Germany and the United States and their implications for threat assessment.
Significance
This study compares the accuracy of personality judgment—a ubiquitous and important social-cognitive activity—between computer models and humans. Using several criteria, we show that computers’ judgments of people’s personalities based on their digital footprints are more accurate and valid than judgments made by their close others or acquaintances (friends, family, spouse, colleagues, etc.). Our findings highlight that people’s personalities can be predicted automatically and without involving human social-cognitive skills.
Language use is a psychologically rich, stable individual difference with well-established correlations to personality. We describe a method for assessing personality using an open-vocabulary analysis of language from social media. We compiled the written language from 66,732 Facebook users and their questionnaire-based self-reported Big Five personality traits, and then we built a predictive model of personality based on their language. We used this model to predict the 5 personality factors in a separate sample of 4,824 Facebook users, examining (a) convergence with self-reports of personality at the domain- and facet-level; (b) discriminant validity between predictions of distinct traits; (c) agreement with informant reports of personality; (d) patterns of correlations with external criteria (e.g., number of friends, political attitudes, impulsiveness); and (e) test-retest reliability over 6-month intervals. Results indicated that language-based assessments can constitute valid personality measures: they agreed with self-reports and informant reports of personality, added incremental validity over informant reports, adequately discriminated between traits, exhibited patterns of correlations with external criteria similar to those found with self-reported personality, and were stable over 6-month intervals. Analysis of predictive language can provide rich portraits of the mental life associated with traits. This approach can complement and extend traditional methods, providing researchers with an additional measure that can quickly and cheaply assess large groups of participants with minimal burden. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Individuals often avoid or delay seeking professional help for mental health problems. Stigma may be a key deterrent to help-seeking but this has not been reviewed systematically. Our systematic review addressed the overarching question: What is the impact of mental health-related stigma on help-seeking for mental health problems? Subquestions were: (a) What is the size and direction of any association between stigma and help-seeking? (b) To what extent is stigma identified as a barrier to help-seeking? (c) What processes underlie the relationship between stigma and help-seeking? (d) Are there population groups for which stigma disproportionately deters help-seeking? Method Five electronic databases were searched from 1980 to 2011 and references of reviews checked. A meta-synthesis of quantitative and qualitative studies, comprising three parallel narrative syntheses and subgroup analyses, was conducted.
The review identified 144 studies with 90��189 participants meeting inclusion criteria. The median association between stigma and help-seeking was d��=�������0.27, with internalized and treatment stigma being most often associated with reduced help-seeking. Stigma was the fourth highest ranked barrier to help-seeking, with disclosure concerns the most commonly reported stigma barrier. A detailed conceptual model was derived that describes the processes contributing to, and counteracting, the deterrent effect of stigma on help-seeking. Ethnic minorities, youth, men and those in military and health professions were disproportionately deterred by stigma.
Stigma has a small- to moderate-sized negative effect on help-seeking. Review findings can be used to help inform the design of interventions to increase help-seeking.
Suicide prevention is a public health priority, but no data on the health care individuals receive prior to death are available from large representative United States population samples.
To investigate variation in the types and timing of health services received in the year prior to suicide, and determine whether a mental health condition was diagnosed.
Longitudinal study from 2000 to 2010 within eight Mental Health Research Network health care systems serving eight states.
In all, 5,894 individuals who died by suicide, and were health plan members in the year before death.
Health system contacts in the year before death. Medical record, insurance claim, and mortality records were linked via the Virtual Data Warehouse, a federated data system at each site.
Nearly all individuals received health care in the year prior to death (83 %), but half did not have a mental health diagnosis. Only 24 % had a mental health diagnosis in the 4-week period prior to death. Medical specialty and primary care visits without a mental health diagnosis were the most common visit types. The individuals more likely to make a visit in the year prior to death (p < 0.05) tended to be women, individuals of older age (65+ years), those where the neighborhood income was over $40,000 and 25 % were college graduates, and those who died by non-violent means.
This study indicates that opportunities for suicide prevention exist in primary care and medical settings, where most individuals receive services prior to death. Efforts may target improved identification of mental illness and suicidal ideation, as a large proportion may remain undiagnosed at death.
Objective: We present a new open language analysis approach that identifies and visually summarizes the dominant naturally occurring words and phrases that most distinguished each Big Five personality trait. Method: Using millions of posts from 69,792 Facebook users, we examined the correlation of personality traits with online word usage. Our analysis method consists of feature extraction, correlational analysis, and visualization. Results: The distinguishing words and phrases were face valid and provide insight into processes that underlie the Big Five traits. Conclusion: Open-ended data driven exploration of large datasets combined with established psychological theory and measures offers new tools to further understand the human psyche.
Previous research has shown an association between certain personality characteristics and suicidality. Methodological differences including small sample sizes and missing adjustment for possible confounding factors could explain the varying results. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of the Big Five personality dimensions on suicidality in a representative population based sample of adults.
Interviews were conducted in a representative German population-based sample (n=2555) in 2011. Personality characteristics were assessed using the Big Five Inventory-10 (BFI-10) and suicide risk was assessed with the Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R). Multivariate logistic regression models were calculated adjusting for depression, anxiety, and various sociodemographic variables.
Neuroticism and openness were significantly associated with suicide risk, while extraversion and conscientiousness were found to be protective. Significant sex differences were observed. For males, extraversion and conscientiousness were protective factors. Neuroticism and openness were found to be associated with suicide risk only in females. These associations remained significant after adjusting for covariates.
The results highlight the role of personality dimensions as risk factors for suicide-related behaviors. Different personality dimensions are significantly associated with suicide-related behaviors even when adjusting for other known risk factors of suicidality.
Suicide bombers are often compared to smart bombs. From the point of view of their dispatchers, they are highly effective, inexpensive forms of weaponry, and there is no need to invest in their technological development. Suicide bombers are in fact smarter than smart bombs because they can choose their own target—and they can react to circumstances on the ground, changing their target, or their timing, in an instant, to ensure the maximum damage, destruction, and death. Of course, unlike smart bombs, suicide bombers think and feel, they have histories, stories, beliefs, desires—in short, they have an inner world. Exploring the inner world of suicide bombers has been the focus of Anat Berko's research for years. She has worked to understand the thought processes of a people who can choose to place explosives on their bodies and kill themselves, taking as many other people with them as they can.
Do male bombers really believe that death will transport them to a paradise where they will be greeted by virgins? Are they victims of unbearable pressure to commit this act of terror? What are female bombers promised in the hereafter? Is there something that links all suicide bombers? Berko also explores the world of those who drop the smart bomb—the dispatchers: who are these people who persuade others to go calmly to their horrific deaths?
The study found little to distinguish these two violent offender types in their socio-demographic profiles. Their behaviors, on the other hand, differed significantly in the degree to which they had interacted with co-conspirators, their antecedent event behaviors, and the degree to which they lacked information prior to their attack. Unlike lone terrorists, mass murderers' violence was spontaneous due to unplanned physical or emotional conflicts. Lone terrorists, on the other hand, were motivated to commit violence due to ideologically based conflicts or differences with potential target victims. Regarding threat or risk, there are a number of overlapping questions that must be considered, including what type of action is most likely, under what conditions is a particular mass violence attack likely to be perpetrated, and what interventions are likely to be effective in preventing or mitigating the perpetration of violence. Lack of predetermined intent and strategy distinguishes mass murderers and lone terrorists. The lone terrorist tends to engage in more observable behaviors and planning than the mass murderer, which presents more of an opportunity to observe and assess preparatory actions and intervene to prevent the planned violence from occurring. 3 figures and approximately 100 references
The aim of the study is to add to the body of knowledge on less researched aspects of female adolescent health in Nigeria. It specifically explored the menarche or first period narratives of 136 young women, focusing on the contents of the discussion that ensued with whom they told when they first got their period using qualitative methodology. It also explores sources of premenstrual information and how the menstrual period is managed. The sample consisted of 136 undergraduate females in Redeemer’s University, Ede, Nigeria. Almost all of the respondents (95%) received information about menstruation from mothers, female relatives and school lessons prior to menarche. The majority of the respondents first told either their mother or a female relative when they first got their period and viewed menarche as a crisis. Two salient themes emerged from the contents of the narratives; celebration and advice. The advice theme was further explored and three advice patterns were identified: being a woman, hygiene and changed dynamics in relationships with males. Data from the present study suggests that only certain aspects of the menstruation discourse have evolved. All respondents reported using sanitary towels during their menstrual period with the majority experiencing cramps regularly and (61%) using pharmalogical agents for remedy. It is envisaged that findings from the study will be useful in future health intervention programmes and research on female adolescent health in Nigeria and elsewhere.
Objective
This study aims at investigating factors affecting oral health patterns, attitudes and health risk behaviors among female university students.
Methods
An online questionnaire was distributed to female university students in Al Madinah in the western region of Saudi Arabia. Students were requested to answer questions on demographic data, oral hygiene practices, dental attendance, smoking history, practice of sports and body weight and height.
Results
Two hundred and fourteen students participated with age range of 18–31 years (mean = 21.64 ± 1.72 years). Oral hygiene habits were reported by a percentage of 97.2%, 34.6%, 30.8% and 19.2% who used a tooth brush, dental floss, mouthwash, and a miswak (a teeth cleaning twig made from the
Conclusion
It is concluded that female university students use various oral hygiene methods, however, dental attendance is poor and a number of health risk factors are noticed like smoking, lack of practicing sport and unhealthy body mass index (BMI).
Objective
This study aimed to investigate differences in healthcare seeking behaviour and barriers between students living in the parental home and those living on their own.
Participants
Five hundred and six second year students of the University of Amsterdam (UvA), interviewed in March and April 2015.
Methods
In a paper-and-pencil survey, questions were asked about the students’ healthcare seeking behaviour and barriers. Differences according to residency were analysed with χ
Results
The frequency of healthcare seeking behaviour varied according to residency, but none of the differences were statistically significant. Yet, a proportion of students living on their own visited primary healthcare providers less often after they changed residency (23.7% for general practitioner and 41.8% for dentist). Travel distance and lack of time were most often mentioned as barriers to students living on their own.
Conclusion
The barriers implicate the importance of encouraging students living on their own to switch to a new general practitioner or dentist.
Disruption in circadian rhythm affects the production of inflammatory cytokines. Understanding how it behaves in diseased conditions is essential. Despite the role of the interleukin-1β (IL-1β), a potent inflammatory cytokine, in human diseases, little is known about the steady-state circadian rhythm of IL-1β in healthy individuals. This short study investigates the diurnal pattern of salivary IL-1β throughout the day in healthy young adults. Twelve participants provided saliva samples at various times throughout the day. Salivary IL-1β were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blot analysis. Salivary IL-1β levels were highest at 0430 h and lowest at 0000 h and shared a similar diurnal pattern to that of salivary IL-6. Western blot analysis showed that these levels correspond to the mature form of IL-1β. Our findings are important as it established the diurnal pattern of salivary IL-1β is fluctuating normally throughout the day. The findings also open an incredible opportunity for developing research conducted in the field with saliva as the diagnostic tool.
More than 15 years have passed since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and a comprehensive re-examination of the 9/11 attackers is now warranted. Research on the psychology of terrorists has evolved dramatically, and there is also new information on some offenders. The present study provides the available psychological and psychiatric evidence on each of the 9/11 pilots, muscle hijackers, and thwarted hijackers who intended to participate in the “planes operation.” Overall, findings suggest that the 9/11 terrorists may have had significantly more mental health problems than previously assumed, and the leaders who planned 9/11 personally approved suicide attackers with prior histories of mental illness. By widely publicizing this information, security officials may be able to more effectively delegitimize suicide terrorism and reduce the number of individuals who would consider funding, supporting, or committing these deadly attacks.
Self/observer agreement on HEXACO-PI-R scale scores was examined as a function of observers’ subjective ratings of acquaintanceship. For each participant (N = 2200), personality self-reports were obtained along with observer reports from a friend. Each factor-level scale displayed a different pattern of upward accuracy trends in personality judgment. Self/observer agreement for Extraversion, Emotionality, and Openness was noticeably stronger at lower acquaintanceship levels than that for Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Honesty-Humility. Conscientiousness showed a steep upward accuracy trend across acquaintanceship levels, reaching a level of accuracy comparable to that of Extraversion and Emotionality. Self/observer agreement for Honesty-Humility and Agreeableness showed slower upward trends than that of Conscientiousness. In several cases, facet-level traits within the same broad factor differed in their accuracy trends.
Previous work on trait perception has evaluated accuracy at discrete stages of relationships (e.g., strangers, best friends). A relatively limited body of literature has investigated changes in accuracy as acquaintance within a dyad or group increases. Small groups of initially unacquainted individuals spent more than 30 hr participating in a wide range of activities designed to represent common interpersonal contexts (e.g., eating, traveling). We calculated how accurately each participant judged others in their group on the big five traits across three distinct points within the acquaintance process: zero acquaintance, after a getting-to-know-you conversation, and after 10 weeks of interaction and activity. Judgments of all five traits exhibited accuracy above chance levels after 10 weeks. An examination of the trait rating stability revealed that much of the revision in judgments occurred not over the course of the 10-week relationship as suspected, but between zero acquaintance and the getting-to-know-you conversation.
The commonly accepted interpretation is that a religious motive—the desire to please God—is the principal reason why people volunteer for suicide missions. American political scientist Robert A. Pape rejects this view. For him the common thread linking suicide bombers is a political objective— driving out an occupier from one’s homeland, which they see as furthering the common good of their society. In arriving at this theory, Pape relied on the concept of “altruistic suicide,” developed by French sociologist Emile Durkheim in his pioneering work Suicide (1897). These ideas are discussed in Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism (2005), from which the passage below is taken.
Increasingly in America, fame is revered as the ultimate form of prestige-bearing success, and the distinction between fame and infamy seems to be disappearing. In this context, some rampage shooters succumb to “delusions of grandeur” and seek fame and glory through killing. The present study offers initial findings on the behavior of fame-seeking rampage shooters, and then tests for differences between offenders who explicitly sought fame and other offenders. The results suggest that fame-seeking rampage shooters have existed for more than 40 years, but they are more common in recent decades and in the United States than in other countries. Overall, fame-seeking offenders appear younger than other rampage shooters, and they kill and wound significantly more victims. Several empirical predictions are made about the expected frequency and characteristics of future rampage shootings.
School shootings scare everyone, even those not immediately affected. They make national and international news. They make parents afraid to send their children off to school. But they also lead to generalizations about those who perpetrate them. Most assumptions about the perpetrators are wrong and many of the warning signs are missed until it’s too late. Here, Peter Langman takes a look at 48 national and international cases of school shootings in order to dispel the myths, explore the motives, and expose the realities of preventing school shootings from happening in the future, including identifying at risk individuals and helping them to seek help before it’s too late.
The Third Reich met its end in the spring of 1945 in an unparalleled wave of suicides. Hitler, Goebbels, Bormann, Himmler and later Göring all killed themselves. These deaths represent only the tip of an iceberg of a massive wave of suicides that also touched upon ordinary lives. As this suicide epidemic has no historical precedent or parallel, it can tell us much about the Third Reich's peculiar self-destructiveness and the depths of Nazi fanaticism. The book looks at the suicides of both Nazis and ordinary people in Germany between 1918 and 1945, from the end of World War I until the end of World War II, including the mass suicides of German Jews during the Holocaust. It shows how suicides among different population groups, including supporters, opponents, and victims of the regime, responded to the social, cultural, economic and, political context of the time. The book also analyses changes and continuities in individual and societal responses to suicide over time, especially with regard to the Weimar Republic and the post-1945 era.
While a specific personality trait may escalate suicide ideation, contextual factors such as social support, when provided effectively, may alleviate the effects of such personality traits. This study examined the moderating role of social support in the relationship between the Big-Five personality traits and suicide ideation. Significant interactions were found between social support and extraversion and emotional stability. Specifically, the relationship between emotional stability and extraversion to suicide ideation was exacerbated when social support was low. Slope analysis showed openness also interacted with low social support. Results were computed for frequency, duration and attitude dimensions of suicide ideation. Extraversion interacted with social support to predict all three dimensions. Social support moderated emotional stability to predict frequency and duration, moderated conscientiousness towards frequency and attitude, and moderated openness towards attitude. The results imply that whereas personality traits may be difficult to alter, social support may play a significant role in saving a life. Psychologists should include family and friends when treating a suicidal youth, guiding them to awareness of one's personality and being more supportive. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The accumulation of anecdotal accounts of copycat crime suggests that popular culture plays an important role in some instances and aspects of criminal behavior. However, there is little empirical research specifically examining the copycat effect on criminal behavior. Questions remain regarding the nature and extent of copycat crime, cultural influences that shape the copycat effect, the role and relevance of popular culture as a motivating factor for criminal behavior, and issues the copycat phenomenon raises for legal determinations of criminal responsibility. This paper reviews the research literature and contemporary case examples of copycat crime with attention to the influence of mass media technology on criminal behavior, the mechanisms of media-mediated crime, and the relevance of understanding the copycat phenomenon for determinations of criminal responsibility in insanity cases. An integrative theoretical model of copycat crime is proposed, a methodological framework for empirically investigating copycat crime is presented, and practical implications for understanding the role of the copycat effect on criminal behavior are discussed.
The Myth of Martyrdom: What Really Drives Suicide Bombers, Rampage Shooters, and Other Self-Destructive Killers proposes that suicide terrorists are psychologically and behaviorally similar to other people who commit suicide, due to a range of individual, social, and situational factors. Some commentators agree, while others are skeptical, given the lack of information about many attackers' lives. However, the book's position is not simply based on individual case studies; it is also supported by other independent assessments, the confirmation of empirical predictions, the paucity of contradictory evidence, and new applications of evolutionary theory. It is undisputed that human beings behave as the author suggests; it is unknown if they behave as the conventional wisdom suggests. Those who argue that suicide terrorists are psychologically normal and altruistically sacrificing their lives for an ideological cause should bear the burden of proof for those claims.
For years, scholars have claimed that suicide terrorists are not suicidal, but rather psychologically normal individuals inspired to sacrifice their lives for an ideological cause, due to a range of social and situational factors. I agree that suicide terrorists are shaped by their contexts, as we all are. However, I argue that these scholars went too far. In The Myth of Martyrdom: What Really Drives Suicide Bombers, Rampage Shooters, and Other Self-Destructive Killers, I take the opposing view, based on my in-depth analyses of suicide attackers from Asia, Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and North America; attackers who were male, female, young, old, Islamic, and Christian; attackers who carried out the most deadly and the least deadly strikes. I present evidence that in terms of their behavior and psychology, suicide terrorists are much like others who commit conventional suicides, murder-suicides, or unconventional suicides where mental health problems, personal crises, coercion, fear of an approaching enemy, or hidden self-destructive urges play a major role. I also identify critical differences between suicide terrorists and those who have genuinely sacrificed their lives for a greater good. By better understanding suicide terrorists, experts in the brain and behavioral sciences may be able to pioneer exciting new breakthroughs in security countermeasures and suicide prevention. And even more ambitiously, by examining these profound extremes of the human condition, perhaps we can more accurately grasp the power of the human survival instinct among those who are actually psychologically healthy.
This study examines the use of 7 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & Briggs, 1940) subscales in their ability to differentiate between male suicide completers and 1) clinically depressed men, and 2) a deceased control group consisting of men who have died of medical causes. Data were collected from a nonclinical student population that was followed longitudinally. The 7 scales, chosen to reflect aspects of coping and emotional resources include two of the original scales, Defensiveness (K), Social Introversion (Si), and supplementary scales: Ego Strength (Es; Barron, 1953), Blaming Self (Bs; Finney, 1965), Impulsivity (Imp; Gough, 1957), Suppression and Outburst of Hostility (Soh; Finney, 1965), and Motivation to Change (Mtc; Volsky, Magom, Norman & Hoyt, 1965). Results indicated that suicide completers had significantly higher scores on Bs and Si when compared with deceased controls. These scales were near significant in differentiating between suicide completers and depressed controls. The results of this study suggest that those who eventually commit suicide may endorse greater tendencies toward self-blame and social introversion during early adulthood.
Is it possible to deradicalize terrorists? Several countries in Europe and the Middle East have tried with far-right militants, narcoterrorists, and extremists of all stripes. And the success of a rehabilitation program for extremists in Saudi Arabia suggests that deradicalization can be achieved—so long as the motivations that drive terrorists to violence are clearly understood and squarely addressed.
