No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Research Design Effects on the Reliability of Rating Scales: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
This meta-analysis investigates the effects of research design on the reliability of rating scale measures used in marketing research. Three sets of independent variables—sampling characteristics, measure characteristics, and measure development processes—are investigated. The overall results suggest that measure characteristics have a major influence on obtained reliability estimates and that sampling characteristics and measure development processes have little impact. These results support measurement theory. The implications for measure development are discussed.
... All measures were rated on 7-point scales. For measures which originally used less than 7 anchor points (e.g., social media addiction, happiness, anxiety/stress), they were changed to a 7-point scale in the current research to be consistent across the survey and reduce survey fatigue following conventional wisdom of the survey questionnaire (Krosnick & Presser, 2010) and because psychometric literature suggested having more scale points is more efficient (Churchill & Peter, 1984;Nunnally, 1978;Taherdoost, 2019) because variance may increase with the number of scale points and greater variance generally increases reliability (Churchill & Peter, 1984). ...
... All measures were rated on 7-point scales. For measures which originally used less than 7 anchor points (e.g., social media addiction, happiness, anxiety/stress), they were changed to a 7-point scale in the current research to be consistent across the survey and reduce survey fatigue following conventional wisdom of the survey questionnaire (Krosnick & Presser, 2010) and because psychometric literature suggested having more scale points is more efficient (Churchill & Peter, 1984;Nunnally, 1978;Taherdoost, 2019) because variance may increase with the number of scale points and greater variance generally increases reliability (Churchill & Peter, 1984). ...
... First, following conventional wisdom of the survey questionnaire (Krosnick & Presser, 2010), we wanted to have a simpler, more consistent, and easy-to-fill-in survey and we decided to be consistent in the number of anchor/response points across different variables used in this study so as not to confuse our research participants because of the different number of anchor points used in the survey and not to be concerned about ways to standardize scales for data analysis due to different anchor points. Second, even though some studies suggested that the number of response options do not affect reliability and validity (Matell & Jacoby, 1971) and either 5 or 7 anchor points yield higher quality data than fewer responses and are more practical than longer rating scales (Robinson, 2018), the psychometric literature suggests that having more scale points is better (Churchill & Peter, 1984;Nunnally, 1978;Taherdoost, 2019). Churchill and his colleague (1984), in their meta-analysis of the effect of research design on the reliability of rating scales, also suggested that variance may increase with the number of scale points and greater variance generally increases reliability. ...
... Each construct consists of a different number of items and is measured by 7-points Likert scales ranging from "1=Strongly disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Somewhat disagree, 4=Neither agree or disagree, 5=Somewhat agree, 6=Agree, and 7=Strongly agree". This scaling helps to avoid respondents from choosing the mid-point compared to the 5-point scale (Churchill Jr and Peter, 1984). The 7-points Likert scale has shown to have higher accuracy, convenience and shows a better reflection of a respondent's true evaluation (Finstad, 2010). ...
The study aims to investigate how transformational leaders shape the attainment of firm’s technological sustainability (TS) through the effect of employee innovative behaviour and their active engagement in work. The research employed positivism using survey instrument to employees working in the capital city of Malaysia and its vicinity. A total sample of 220 were examined using SPSS and Smart-PLS statistical tools. The results indicated a strong relationship between transformational leaders and firm engagement in technological sustainability (ie SDG 9). It also reaffirmed the power of mediation effect of employee’s innovative behaviour and their work engagement. The findings in this study serve as a guiding framework for leaders, managers and policy makers in ensuring organisations develop and formulate strategies in line with SDG 9 in the betterment of not just the organisations’ continuous improvement in technological sustainability but the benefits to community as well as society at large. To the best of our knowledge, the findings offer a novel framework, in the context of Malaysia, that encumbrance the role transformational leaders play in influencing the achievement of technological breakthroughs and knowledge. Such cohesiveness also demonstrated the important of employee contribution in terms of their innovativeness and active engagement in work.
... software is mainly used in the specific verification. The reliability adopts the standard proposed by Fornell and Larcker [14] , Nunnally [15] , Churchill, and Peter [16] . Cronbach coefficient's reliability in different ranges indicates as below: when it is above 0.6, it means acceptable. ...
Service innovation is crucial for enterprises to improve customer satisfaction and win market competition, and the interaction and integration of enterprise knowledge are the continuous driving force of innovation. With the rapid development of IT (information technology), IT ability plays an increasingly important role in the process of knowledge integration. Focuses on the logistics industries, this paper makes an empirical study on the relationship among IT ability, knowledge integration and service innovation ability. At the same time, It investigates the impact of market recession on service innovation ability under the epidemic situation. The results show that IT ability has a significantly positive impact on knowledge integration and knowledge integration has the same positive impact on service innovation ability; Knowledge integration has a complete mediating effect on the relationship between IT ability and service innovation, while market recession has no moderating effect on the relations between IT ability and service innovation ability.
... In this study, the Cronbach's alpha for the twoitem measure was 0.646, which is only marginally less than the threshold of 0.70. Since the reliability of the scale is directly proportional to the number of items (Churchill & Peter, 1984), this reliability is acceptable. ...
In recent years, given the uncertain prospects, postdoctoral fellows’ intention to leave has increased significantly. Understanding the factors that influence postdoctoral fellows' intention to leave is crucial for devising effective strategies to reduce turnover rates. Drawing on Job Characteristics Model, this study explored the predictive effect of job characteristics (job independence and job interest) on intention to leave among postdoctoral fellows, and the mediating effect of sense of personal accomplishment and the moderating effect of mental health support on this relationship. Data from 6382 postdoctoral fellows in the 2020 Nature Survey were analyzed by hierarchical regression and bootstrapping. Results show that two situational job characteristics (job independence and job interest) negatively associate with intention to leave; sense of personal accomplishment mediates the association between two situational job characteristics (job independence and job interest) and intention to leave. Moreover, mental health support moderates the association between job interest and sense of personal accomplishment, but does not moderate the association between job independence and sense of personal accomplishment. This study has significant theoretical and practical implications as the findings extend Job Characteristic Model in some ways and deepen our understanding of the intention to leave among postdoctoral fellows.
... Reliability and validity tests were conducted on six variables: perfectionistic climate, challenge stressors, threat stressors, positive coping, negative coping, and athletic performance. The analysis results are presented in Table 3. Cronbach's α coefficients are all above 0.70, Composite Reliability (CR) values exceed 0.60, and the Corrected Item-Total Correlation (CITC) for each measurement item or indicator are greater than 0.3, indicating that the scale has good reliability (Churchill and Peter, 1984;Hair, 1998;Zhang et al., 2020). In the confirmatory factor analysis, the standardized factor loadings for each measurement item are greater than 0.50, and the calculated Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values for each latent variable are above 0.50, indicating good convergent validity for the latent variables. ...
Objective
In competitive sports, understanding how the perfectionistic climate within teams influences the performance of elite female athletes can provide valuable insights for enhancing coaching practice and athletic achievement. Based on the cognitive appraisal theory of stress, this study constructs a dual-path model using stressors and coping strategies as mediators, referred to as the Perfectionistic Climate on Athletic Performance model (PCPM). The study explores the predictive role of the perfectionistic climate within sports teams on the athletic performance of elite female basketball players.
Methods
The empirical study the relationships among the variables in the model using a sample of 125 core players from the top-level women’s basketball teams in the 24th CUBAL24 tournament in 2022. A Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis was conducted using AMOS 20.0, primarily employing the bias-corrected Bootstrap method to test the dual-path model.
Results
The findings reveal double-edged paths towards a perfectionistic climate on athletic performance. In the positive pathway, a perfectionistic climate can positively predict athletic performance through challenge-related sources of stress and positive coping strategies. In the negative pathway, a perfectionistic climate can negatively predict athletic performance through threat-related sources of stress and negative coping strategies.
Conclusion
Coaches need to pay attention to athletes’ cognitive evaluations of the perfectionistic climate as a source of pressure. By setting challenging goals, coaches can guide athletes to view the perfectionistic climate of the sports team as a source of challenging pressure, thus unleashing their potential. Coaches should actively guide athletes in coping with the pressure brought about by the perfectionistic climate, enhancing their ability to handle stress. This will enable athletes to better adapt to the team’s perfectionistic climate and further improve individual and team athletic performance.
... The contents for "appropriateness" are as following: "this expression is appropriate," "this display is odd," and "this expression fits the situation." The current study applied a 7-point Likert scale because a positive relationship exists between the number of scale points and the reliability of the measurement [55], and seven is a reasonable number of categories [56]. The use of a scale with more than seven points may be less meaningful to raters [57]. ...
The “thinking face” is a facial signal used to convey being in thought. For androids, the thinking face may be important to achieve natural human–robot interaction. However, the facial pattern necessary for portraying the thinking face remains unclear and has not yet been investigated in androids. The current study aims to (a) identify the facial patterns when people are engaged in answering complex questions (i.e., thinking face) and (b) clarify whether implementing the observed thinking faces in an android can facilitate natural human–robot interaction. In Study 1, we analyze the facial movements of 40 participants after they are prompted with difficult questions and indicate five facial patterns that corresponded to thinking faces. In Study 2, we further focus on the pattern of furrowing of the brows and narrowing of the eyes among the observed thinking facial patterns and implement this pattern in an android. The results show that thinking faces enhance the perception of being in thought, genuineness, human-likeness, and appropriateness in androids while decreasing eeriness. The free-description data also revealed that negative emotions are attributed to the thinking face. In Study 3, we compared the thinking vs. neutral faces in a question–answer situation. The results showed that the android's thinking face facilitated the perception of being in thought and human-likeness. These findings suggest that the thinking face of androids can facilitate natural human–robot interaction.
... The Likert scale has been explored for years, but still there has been no consensus on the best way to construct the scale. The doubts concern primarily the number of categories on the rating scale (Churchill & Peter, 1984;Clarke, 2000) and the influence of the central point of the scale on other response categories (Si & Cullen, 1998;Dawes, 2001). In the case of our research, the limited number of response categories (five-point scale) could have reduced the level of reliability of the constructs; the oddness of the scale could result in an error of central tendency, and leaving the middle point ('difficult to say' meaning the respondent`s neutral attitude) could reduce the frequency of indicating categories adjacent to this point. ...
... The research design of this research is exploratory and in order to support our research hypotheses, we followed the guidelines of Churchill and Peters [23]. First, we delved into the pertinent marketing literature, as well as, on primary data selected from qualitative research, through personal interviews, from 10 key informants operating in the social media-marketing field. ...
Influential marketing is gaining arousing interest in contemporary research among academics and practitioners. The vast majority of pertinent research on how influencers may affect consumer behavior is based on the followers’ perceptions, regarded as consumers. Nevertheless, attention shed on the influencers’ perceptions, regarded as the research field, is rather rarer. In this exploratory study we base upon quantitative data extracted from 65 Social-Media international influencers. Advanced statistical analysis, based on Confirmatory factor Analysis and Regression Analysis, produced findings implying that influencers’ personality, followers’ engagement and followers’ performance risk minimization may influence the followers’ buying behavior. On the whole, as our research results imply, companies partnering with influencers should recognize the need to provide them with comprehensive information and training, encompassing both the brand’s attributes and the company’s culture and values. This approach fosters a unified promotion strategy, greater customer engagement, and improved company-influencer alignment in communication strategies and goals, leading to enhanced products sales.
... The reliability of the study was determined to be 93 percent, using the reliability level formula proposed by Huberman & Miles (2002). According to Churchill & Peter (1984), reliability values of 70 percent or higher are considered sufficiently reliable. Therefore, based on this assessment, it can be confidently stated that the codifications used in this study are reliable. ...
Project-Based Learning (PBL) has been lauded as a robust alternative to traditional, didactic instructional methods. Despite its growing adoption, comprehensive syntheses of its effect on student learning remain scarce. This study aims to fill this gap by systematically reviewing and meta-analyzing the impact of PBL on students' academic performance across various disciplines. Employing the PRISMA guidelines, we evaluated 70 research articles published between 2010 and 2023 that quantitatively measured PBL educational outcomes. Our analysis, facilitated by advanced meta-analysis software, revealed a consistent, moderate to substantial enhancement in student performance under PBL compared to conventional teaching. The aggregate mean weighted effect size (d+) was 0.652, indicating a significant and positive influence of PBL on academic achievement. This effect persisted across different sample sizes and time frames within the study period. The findings underscore PBL's superiority in fostering academic success, particularly in science subjects. Consequently, this article contributes to the scholarly discourse by delineating the specific conditions and magnitudes of PBL's effectiveness and recommends its broader implementation in educational strategies. Based on the robust findings of this meta-analysis, the study strongly suggests education institutions integrate PBL, particularly in science education. Additionally, the study advocates for continuous, empirical research to refine and optimize PBL methodologies, ensuring their evolving effectiveness and adaptability in the dynamic landscape of educational pedagogies.
... The reliability of the study was determined to be 93 percent, using the reliability level formula proposed by Huberman & Miles (2002). According to Churchill & Peter (1984), reliability values of 70 percent or higher are considered sufficiently reliable. Therefore, based on this assessment, it can be confidently stated that the codifications used in this study are reliable. ...
Project-Based Learning (PBL) has been lauded as a robust alternative to traditional, didactic instructional methods. Despite its growing adoption, comprehensive syntheses of its effect on student learning remain scarce. This study aims to fill this gap by systematically reviewing and meta-analyzing the impact of PBL on students’ academic performance across various disciplines. Employing the PRISMA guidelines, we evaluated 70 research articles published between 2010 and 2023 that quantitatively measured PBL educational outcomes. Our analysis, facilitated by advanced meta-analysis software, revealed a consistent, moderate to substantial enhancement in student performance under PBL compared to conventional teaching. The aggregate mean weighted effect size (d+) was 0.652, indicating a significant and positive influence of PBL on academic achievement. This effect persisted across different sample sizes and time frames within the study period. The findings underscore PBL’s superiority in fostering academic success, particularly in science subjects. Consequently, this article contributes to the scholarly discourse by delineating the specific conditions and magnitudes of PBL’s effectiveness and recommends its broader implementation in educational strategies. Based on the robust findings of this meta-analysis, the study strongly suggests education institutions integrate PBL, particularly in science education. Additionally, the study advocates for continuous, empirical research to refine and optimize PBL methodologies, ensuring their evolving effectiveness and adaptability in the dynamic landscape of educational pedagogies.
... Similarly, according to Smith (2013) for the unknown population size, there needs to be a minimum of 384 sample responses. Further, for model testing, the sample size must satisfy both item-to-subject ratios (Hair et al. 2013;Churchill Jr and Peter 1984), and for every item, there are 10 responses. The chance for the occurrence of non-response errors is eliminated because the questionnaires were handed only to customers who agreed to provide the requisite level of agreement. ...
The purpose of this study is to accelerate green consumerism efforts by assisting green marketers in identifying the homogeneous and significant eco-friendly customer segments emerging in India. The study determines the antecedents driving customers to purchase green products, which can be leveraged while targeting the studied customer group and designing promotional strategies for these microgreen segments. Non-probability criterion-based sampling technique was used in collecting the data across Pan India through various online platforms like LinkedIn, Twitter, and Facebook. The exploratory factor analysis, followed by the cluster and discriminant analysis, is conducted for inferential results. The results reveal eight major factors influencing green consumer behavior, out of which green habit, green culture awareness and attitude, interpersonal influence, and green purchase intention/behavior emerged as the most significant factors. The study establishes two important clusters of green consumers, that is, “Green Dads”-generation Y males and “Green Janes”-generation Z females, with social media marketing and subjective norms as the most influential factors in discriminating between these two clusters. This research magnifies the importance of profiling customers based on demographics, psychographics, behavioral variables, and external marketing cues. The varied combinations of factors concerning ecological behavior imply the focus on micro variables by marketers, hence promulgating the projected granularity of green market segmentation and consequential consumer behavior.
... For example, market orientation (MO) is most commonly considered as a mediator variable in the EO-FP relationship (Bodlaj & Č ater, 2022), whereas environmental dynamism (ED) is most commonly considered as a moderator variable in the MO-FP relationship (Alpkan et al., 2007;Frank et al., 2012). While meta-analysis processes the relationship between two variables in a single way (Churchill & Peter, 1984), this study utilizes MASEM to analyze the EO-FP nexus as well as potential mediation and mediated moderation effects on the relationship between the two, thus addressing the defect of meta-analysis that it cannot be applied on multiple research variables (Viswesvaran & Ones, 1995). ...
This research introduces Meta-Analysis Structural Equation Modeling (MASEM), a novel method that integrates meta-analysis (MA) and structural equation modeling (SEM). The method helps researchers to comprehensively understand issues in the strategic management field. Applying MASEM to analyze data from 112 papers, covering 101,981 observations, the results can be summarized as follows. (1) Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) is significantly positively correlated with firm performance (FP), which addresses the issue of inconsistency among prior studies’ findings. (2) There is a significantly positive correlation between EO and market orientation (MO) and a significantly positive relationship between MO and FP, indicating that MO is a mediator variable to the EO-FP. (3) Environmental dynamism (ED) increases a positive link exists between MO and FP; in other words, compared to low ED, the presence of high ED enhances the correlation between MO and FP significantly. (4) ED influences the slope of MO’s function as a mediator between EO and FP - that is, high ED increases the slope of the intermediary effect of MO on the MO-FP nexus, and low ED reduces the slope of the mediation effect of MO on the MO-FP nexus. These findings provide new thoughts and insights for studies on the correlation between EO and FP and offer substantial suggestions for enterprises. The aforementioned results indicate that besides providing deeper insights and a more comprehensive understanding, MASEM presents deeper insights for researchers and is more efficient than the traditional meta-analysis method. Moreover, MASEM can be applied to in other fields and used with other methods for greater in-depth analyses. Overall, the MASEM technique herein has high reliability and validity when utilized for discussing relationships among variables and gives more comprehensive and accurate conclusions in theoretical and practical aspects.
... Des études ayant utilisé une version réduite du questionnaire (cinq à huit éléments) ont soutenu la validité et la fiabilité de cette échelle Hochwarter et al., 2003). L'intention de rester a été mesurée à l'aide d'échelles de mesure d'Armstrong-Stassen et al. (Churchill et al., 1984). Le choix d'une telle échelle était plutôt guidé par la nécessité d'identifier une modalité médiane (neutre) importante dans l'étude des perceptions. ...
This article examines how human resource motivation practices influence perceived organisational support and intention to stayusing social exchange theory and perceived organisational support theory as theoretical anchors. For the purposes of this study, a sample of 802 usable observations was collected, and the results allow us to conclude that remuneration and benefits play a key role in human resource motivation practices. The results speak for themselves and provide practical recommendations for the leaders and managers of the organisations surveyed. Finally, some limitations related to the sampling methodology, the specificity of the Moroccan banking sector,and the adaptation of measurement scales are discussed.
... Naturalmente, un constructo con un dominio amplio y múltiples dimensiones requerirá más indicadores para aprovechar adecuadamente la relación dominio/dimensiones que un constructo con un dominio estrecho y de pocas dimensiones. Dado que la mayoría de las escalas son autoadministradas, la fatiga y/o la falta de cooperación de los encuestados deben ser consideradas, por lo que la brevedad de la escala es a menudo ventajosa (Churchill y Peter, 1984;Cortina, 1993;DeVellis, 1991;Nunnally y Bernstein, 1994). Con el advenimiento del modelado de ecuaciones estructurales, otras pruebas de consistencia interna o de estructura interna (o de estabilidad interna) se hicieron disponibles. ...
... It was an important move to analyze the way respondents answered the survey questions/items relevant to the frameworks posed in the conceptual context after analyzing descriptive characteristics of the demographic details of respondents. The review of the survey questionnaire is often referred to as the examination of psychometric properties that enable the tests to be fairly accurate and true (Hair et al. 2010;Churchill & Peter, 1984). ...
The powerful tool of Islamic Microfinance (IMF) is to allow the self-employed,
run their own business and alleviate poverty in the rural region of the Muslim
country and develop the Islamic economic system in this challenging century.
Islamic Microfinance is interest-free, asset-based microfinancing following Islamic
principles or Islamic banking principles. The objective of this research is to identify
the factors that affect the adoption of Islamic microfinance among women
entrepreneurs of microenterprise, particularly in the rural region of Malaysia
Microfinance typically indicates all of the monetary-related administrations
including, credit, payments, savings, and protection for operators customized on
helping the specific needs of low-income households and their microenterprises leading to women’s empowerment by positively influencing women’s decisions
making power and enhancing their overall socio-economic status. While there is a growing demand for Islamic Microfinance all over the world, empirical studies are
lacking. So, the main aim of this study is to examine the nature of customer adoption of Islamic Microfinance products and services, particularly Islamic deposit and
financing schemes, by determining the crucial factors that affect the adoption of
Islamic microfinance in Malaysia. Furthermore, a literature review of previous
researchers provided key antecedents introduced in the research model. Besides,
constructs identified as pertinent, based on an extensive review of literature, have
also been incorporated into the framework.
Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
underpins this study's research framework. These theories are merged and developed by adding several variables after analyzing some variables that were thought to be influence Islamic Microfinance adoption. Therefore, the research framework for this study comprised five independent variables, one mediating variable, with the adoption of Islamic microfinance as the dependent variable. The convenience sampling technique is employed to select the participants in this study. A cross-sectional entrepreneur survey was conducted over several states of Malaysia through a close-ended questionnaire. A five-point Likert scale survey questionnaire is used to collect the primary data. A total of 550 questionnaires distributed to the respondents in selected areas among women entrepreneurs. The collected data is analyzed using the software tools SPSS-23 and SmartPLS 3.0.
The empirical analysis finds that participation in Islamic microfinance program
has a positive and significant impact on Islamic microfinance adoption in the rural
region in Malaysia. Since the SEM of this study shows the standard validity and
reliability at every stage of the statistical analysis, the theories based on the model
that were developed are also sufficiently valid and reliable. The empirical evidence of this study contributes to the literature of Islamic microfinance as well as conventional microfinance. Therefore, this study provides a timely empirical finding
on customer adoption of Islamic microfinance in Malaysia and partly addresses the
needs of the financial sector. Finally, the findings aid the government to design
poverty alleviation programs (focusing on Islamic microfinance), and develop a
network for Islamic microfinance, aid policymakers to ponder the religious and
ethical issue in microfinancing, and increase the interest in the microfinance industry
to adopt a full-fledged Islamic microfinance program, which ultimately benefits the
welfare of poor participants.
... It was an important move to analyze the way respondents answered the survey questions/items relevant to the frameworks posed in the conceptual context after analyzing descriptive characteristics of the demographic details of respondents. The review of the survey questionnaire is often referred to as the examination of psychometric properties that enable the tests to be fairly accurate and true (Hair et al. 2010;Churchill & Peter, 1984). ...
... According to the previous research (Nunnally and Bernstein 1978), the internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach's α) was used to test the reliability of the questionnaire. Generally speaking, the value of Cronbach's α over 0.7 can be considered reliable, and 0.5 to 0.7 is considered acceptable (Churchill and Peter 1984). In this study, the Cronbach's α coefficient was calculated by SPSS 22.0, and the results are shown in Table 2. ...
Servitization is vital to manufacturing enterprises’ competitive advantages and financial performance in contemporary digitalisation environments. Enterprises are increasingly relying on industrial Internet platforms to satisfy potential customers’ needs as well as to create superior value, but the literature has neglected to explain how enterprises can leverage such digital platform to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of servitization. This study aims at describing how the industrial Internet platform can enable servitization of manufacturers. Based upon the meta-theoretical foundations of service-dominant logic, we identify the ‘sense and respond’ servitization strategy enabled by the industrial Internet platform. By performing a questionnaire survey, we find that the industrial Internet platform approach based on the connectivity and compatibility architecture can enable manufacturers to improve the efficiency of resource integration and resource reconfiguration, which facilitates the implementation of servitization via market perception . We argue that the industrial Internet platform affects an organisation’s ability to sense the market and resource management actions; these operational resource actions are a significant antecedent of the servitization strategy.
... ölçek için Cronbach Alpha (α) katsayısının 0.60 üzerinde olması öngörülmüş (Churchill ve Peter, 1984içinde Mitra ve Lankford, 1999, katsayıyı düşüren ölçek ifadeleri içerikten çıkarılmış ve en yüksek güvenirlik katsayısı elde edilmiştir. ...
Almost every economic sectors are facing the changes with the effects of improving technology. While these changes effect people’s daily life, also they put the new habits instead of the old. Because of the growing production capacity and product differantiation possibilities, consumers offer their different demands to manufacturer bases on having services. Definitely these changes have an impact on Tourism industry as well. Classic services products are not satisfying “new generation consumers”. Entreprises are in a competitive battle about not only bases on prices but also related to product and product types. The most important factor for this competition is “innovation” that is needed by tourism enterprises. Therefore goverments and enterprises are trying to develop innovative projects by using their and out-sources in order to satisfy changing demands. Most of these prtojects aim to raise awareness on Tourism marketing, arouse considerable interests, and emphasize on concept of “new”. Some sources of the literature imply that consumers who are bored from the classic and smilar products, need to see new and innovative products and they try to search for experiencing the innovations. So these changes, about new and innovative products, are appeared. Hotels as a kind of Tourism enterprises also concentrate on innovative developments for affecting the consumer and providing benefits from the innovation.
In this term, giving informations about innovative developments in Tourism industry, the study aims to measure consumers’ perceptions about innovative products by illustrating an innovative hotel room. In the study process, collected data were analyzed and perceptional variables as involvement, need for product cognition, utilarian, hedonic and cost perception, independent judgement, novelty seeking were evaluated based on the innovative products.
... In the present study, the Cronbach's alpha for the two-item measure was 0 .676 . Since the reliability of the scale is directly proportional to the number of items (Churchill & Peter, 1984), this reliability is acceptable . ...
... 56 Here, the researchers found that negatively worded or reverse items did not affect reliability. 57 However, there is a concern that mixing negatively and positively worded items can adversely affect measure consistency or dimensionality, especially in translated measures when conducting cross-cultural studies. 58 Researchers must be aware that the translation process can undermine consistency and dimensionality. ...
Objective:
Assessing the perceived social support (PSS) that adolescents and young adults (AYAs) with cancer receive from family, friends, and healthcare providers is critical to promoting their adjustment. This study developed a reliable and comprehensive self-report PSS assessment tool that measures various aspects of social support by translating existing measurements into Korean.
Methods:
The translation was completed in accordance with international guidelines. To focus on cultural adaptation, the main ideas associated with items were translated to reflect the differences between Western and Eastern culture. In total, 144 Korean AYAs with cancer (mean age: 17 years; 46% female) completed the translated version. A separate principal component analysis (PCA) with an orthogonal quartimax rotation, a minimum eigenvalue of 1.0, and minimum factor loadings of 0.50 was used for each subscale. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were calculated for each PCA-derived subscale.
Results:
Four subscales with 46 items were identified. Two subscales represented perceived emotional support within the family (PSS-ESF, 14 items) and the AYA's perceived helpfulness within the family (PSS-HWF, 3 items). The third scale represented the perceived support of friends (PSS-Friends, 14 items). The final scale represented the perceived support of healthcare providers (PSS-HCPs, 15 items). Excellent reliability per subscale was demonstrated (Cronbach's alpha: 0.93 for PSS-ESF, 0.73 for PSS-HWF, and 0.92 each for PSS-Friends and PSS-HCPs).
Conclusions:
A culturally adapted and reliable Korean version questionnaire with four independent subscales was developed. Further assessment of the Korean PSS is required and will contribute to the development of culturally adapted and tailored interventions.
... The analysis of the reliability of the survey items revealed Cronbach's α values for service quality, perceived value, relationship quality, and loyalty to be 0.89, 0.88, 0.90, and 0.84, respectively. Because all the Cronbach's α values were greater than 0.5 [78], no items were eliminated from these four dimensions. The analysis also indicated that all the measurement variables in this study were reliable. ...
Building upon the literature’s contribution to organizational procurement, enterprises must confront challenges derived from the uncertainty of collective decision-making and increasing efforts to scan for relevant information among providers. Especially for service products that cannot be tried in advance, how should corporate customers determine the price/performance of products before purchasing? This study explores ways to overcome the effect of these vulnerabilities and advance the quality of service and the loyalty framework to enrich the information processing theory. The results indicate that perceived value and relationship quality have greater effects on loyalty than service quality. Thus, if service providers can maintain amicable relationships and interactions with enterprise users, this will help the vendor provide enterprise users with appropriate product information in their service process, increasing the enterprise users’ loyalty. This study also proposes practical implications for the research results above, providing the information service industry with feasible service model suggestions and maintaining a sustainable competitive advantage. This study addresses relevant challenges faced by practitioners and provides managerial guidance to strengthen customer loyalty.
... However, in this study, we chose to use a 5-point scale with the inclusion of a neutral point. This choice was based on the fact that previous studies (33)(34)(35) indicated that the greater the number of response categories, the better the sensitivity of the items and the greater the probability to discriminate structurally different individuals. In addition, the addition of the neutral point (35) was carried out in order to make respondents more comfortable, as it is possible that for some AUQEI questions the respondent does not have an opinion or experience and, therefore, the answer neutral would be the most viable alternative (Figure 1). ...
Objective
The aim of the present study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Autoquestionnaire Qualité de Vie Enfant Imagé (AUQEI) in pre-school children and estimate the influence of demographic characteristics on their subjective wellbeing.
Methods
Construct validity was estimated using confirmatory analysis and the chi-square per degrees of freedom ratio (χ²/df), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). Reliability was assessed by the ordinal alpha (α) and omega (ω) coefficients and the factorial invariance by the difference in CFI (ΔCFI). Mean scores for each AUQEI item and the general score were calculated.
Results
A total of 443 Preschool children enrolled in public education institutions participated. The original 4-factor AUQEI model showed collinearity between factors and a high correlation between two items. A single factor model was tested, presenting adequate fit to the data (χ²/df = 4.47; CFI = 0.98; TLI = 0.98; RMSEA = 0.08; α = 0.98; ω = 0.93; UniCo > 0.95, EVC > 0.85, and MIREAL < 0.30) and strict model invariance (ΔCFI < 0.01). The AUQEI model proved to be valid in relation to the external variables. Most children (76.7%) had positive subjective wellbeing. Higher scores were observed for items concerning recreation, holidays, and birthdays, and lower scores for those referring to hospitalization, medication, medical consultation, and being away from the family. The relationship between the demographic characteristics of the child or his/her mother and subjective wellbeing was not significant (p > 0.05).
Conclusions
The assessment of subjective wellbeing with the single-factor AUQEI model provided valid, reliable, and invariant. Thus, being a relevant and interesting instrument to assess wellbeing in young children.
... The highest degree of discordance between turnover intentions. This illustrates how excellent job satisfaction may lower employee turnover (Churchill Jr & Peter, 1984). ...
Using the adaptation theory as a framework, this study investigates the relationship between person-organization fit and job satisfaction and its impact on turnover intention. The results indicate that job satisfaction is negatively associated with turnover intention, positively associated with person-organization fit, and also influenced by rotation intention, job pressure satisfaction, and management factor satisfaction. The study employed SPSS 23.0 for data analysis, and Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to assess the internal consistency reliability of the survey. The findings showed that the questionnaire had high overall reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.901, indicating strong internal consistency across all scales. Previous research shows that Cronbach's alpha coefficient greater than 0.5 is acceptable, while values greater than 0.7 indicate high reliability.
... Между тем в нашей стране рейтингование журналов служит не только «забавой бюрократов», оно привлекает и некоторых исследователей, вероятно, решивших не обращать внимания на то, что, как давно известно, рейтинги и рэнкинги неустойчивы, их значения зависят от шкал, в которых измеряются исходные данные (Churchill, Peter, 1984;Goldstein, Spiegelhalter, 1996), а также от валидности измерителей результатов (Bird et al., 2005). Предложенные рейтинги российских экономических журналов, естественно, противоречат друг другу и зачастую отражают аффилиацию авторов (Гумеров, 2017). ...
People differ greatly in cognitive abilities, but all of them have limited abilities, ranging from the ability to perceive the surrounding reality and ending with the implementation of mathematical calculations and logical conclusions from the premises made. If a fully rational individual not only has complete information about the world, but also unlimited possibilities to make calculations and draw logical conclusions, then real people, including professional researchers, are only bounded rational. However, the scientific knowledge produced by scientists is close to completely rational. The article discusses the components of bounded rationality and those mechanisms within science that allow such a transition to be made. The leading role among these mechanisms belongs to scholarly communication, one of the functions of which is the correction of involuntary and unconscious errors made by bounded rational researchers. It is shown that the execution of this function faces certain difficulties, which are important to investigate in order to improve the error correction process.
... This could be due to the nature of the development of GRM which was fundamentally built for ordered rating scales; this finding is in support of previous studies by Churchill & Peter (1984). ...
This study constructed and validated multiple-choice items using dichotomous and polytomous scoring in Mathematics. It examined the difficulty and discrimination indices of polytomous items using dichotomous scoring; the thresholds and discrimination indices of the items using polytomous scoring (GRM) and compared the discrimination indices of the items in both scoring formats. The population of the study comprised secondary schools' students in Lagos State, Nigeria. The sample consisted of 1015 students; these were selected from two Education Districts (EDs) from the six EDs in the state using simple random sampling technique. The results revealed that more than half of the items had high difficulty indices with corresponding high discrimination indices , using dichotomous scoring. It showed the items had moderate transition locations and discrimination indices, using polytomous scoring. It also indicated that there was a significant difference in the discrimination indices of both scoring methods.
With the growing popularity of live streaming shopping, designing an effective live streaming commercial strategy is a focus for retailers as well as researchers. Drawing on stimulus-organic-response model and feeling-as-information theory, the current study explores the role of congruence between live streaming elements and the product in facilitating shopping intention in live streaming shopping context. A total of 543 customers who engaged in live streaming shopping in the past three months were surveyed and asked to reflect on one recent experience for completing the questionnaire. We conducted a series of confirmatory factor analyses to ascertain the research constructs’ reliability and validity. Furthermore, structural equation modeling was performed to test the research hypotheses. By distinguishing three forms of congruence between commercial elements and products (that between products and live stream content, atmosphere, and streamer, respectively), we found that a higher fit of live streaming elements with the product contributed to higher purchase intention via improved processing fluency and increased perceived authenticity of the product. From a cognitive perspective, our findings enrich the understanding of congruence between key live commercial elements and products. Specifically, our study highlights the significance of contextual stimuli in live streaming, by demonstrating its effectiveness in promoting sales through a cognitive friendly consumption experience. Additionally, it offers practical insights for optimizing design and sales promotion in the live streaming environment.
This study uses a mixed research approach based on the stimulus–organism–response framework to explore the experiencescape of rural homestays and its emotional and cognitive pathways to guest engagement behaviour (GEB) while investigating the mediating roles of guest feelings, guest judgments, and place attachment. The results reveal that six dimensions of the rural homestay experiencescape were identified: sensory, functional, social, natural, cultural, and hospitality culture components, which predicted guest feelings, judgments, and place attachment. Guest feelings and judgments positively impacted place attachment, and all three factors positively influenced GEB. Additionally, guest feelings and place attachment mediated the relationship between the rural homestay experiencescape and GEB. This study carries both theoretical and practical implications.
Purpose
Aim of this study is to examine how environmental concern and perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE) mediate the effect of consumer optimism and pessimism on Generation Z's intention to purchase sustainable clothes.
Design/methodology/approach
A survey was administered to 247 Gen Z students using a quantitative methodology. Structural equation modeling was used for hypothesis testing.
Findings
The examination of findings provides support for the idea that both optimism and pessimism have a direct impact on environmental concerns and perceived consumer effectiveness. Additionally, it reveals that environmental concerns and perceived consumer effectiveness play a positive role in influencing sustainable clothing purchases.
Originality/value
This study is one of the first marketing studies to explore the relationship between personality traits, environmental concerns and the intention to purchase sustainable clothing, providing insight into their relationship.
Research limitations/implications
Some methodological limitations impact the contributions of this cross-sectional investigation. It only tested a few variables predicting the intention to purchase sustainable clothing.
Practical implications
This research provides decision-makers, including marketers, with insights on leveraging dispositional traits to increase consumers' purchase intention of sustainable clothing.
Results
Environmental concerns and PCE have a positive effect on sustainable clothing purchases, which are influenced by both optimism and pessimism.
The main purpose of this study is to develop a scale regarding gamification in the field of marketing. Gamification is about using game elements in non-game contexts. Gamification in marketing is a strategy that includes the use of game elements in the brand-consumer relationship in order to add customers to the value creation process and interactive, competitive, passionate, enjoyable, goal and reward-oriented experiences. The study was generally an exploratory research and inductive method was used. Qualitative methods such as systematic literature analysis, focus group interviews and receiving feedback from experts, and quantitative methods such as validity and reliability studies by creating a data set through a survey were used in the research. A 34-stage scale development process was designed to achieve the main purpose of the study. Three studies were designed within the scope of the research. In Study-1, an expression pool was created by referring to primary and secondary sources to create the expressions of the scale. A total of 55 articles were examined, and the scale related to gamification was reached in 39 of these articles. 39 articles were also re-examined and a total of 1260 items regarding 204 variables developed by 177 researchers were obtained. Later, 4 focus group interviews were held and 56 items were created. The items were reduced and 64 items were included in the candidate items pool. By consulting expert opinions, the scale items were examined for content validity and 32 of the 64 scale items included in the analysis were eliminated, and the remaining 32 scale items were accepted as the first version of the scale (MARGAM). The overall content validity index (CVI) of the scale was found to be 0.80. In Study-2, a pilot study was conducted with data collected from 497 people to conduct validity and reliability analyzes for the MARGAM scale developed. Of the 32 items included in the analysis, 12 items were removed from the analysis for various reasons, and as a result, the final version of the scale on gamification in marketing (MARGAM), consisting of 6 dimensions (Interaction, Target, Scoring, Passion, Competition, Enjoyment) and 20 items, was obtained. For the construct validity of the scale, EFA and CFA were performed and evaluations were made based on the fit indices. Then, the convergent, discriminant, content and face validity of the scale were examined. Expert opinions of 12 academicians were used for content validity, and 2 psychologists with sectoral experience were used for face validity. Alpha Coefficient for the overall scale was found to be 0.937. In Study 3, a field application was designed with data collected from 525 people to test how the scale on gamification in marketing (MARGAM) fits together with different variables in practice. For this purpose, a new research model was designed and 4 new variables (Brand Engagement, e-WOM, Brand Loyalty, Behavioral Intention) were included in the model along with the MARGAM scale. With this, a total of 33 hypotheses were tested, 9 of which were basic. Validity and reliability analyzes were conducted and the MARGAM scale with 6 dimensions and 20 statements obtained in the previous stage was still supported, with all its values being high. It was observed that the Alpha Coefficient for all variables was above 0.8. Finally, the hypotheses were tested and 5 of the 9 main hypotheses were fully supported and 4 were partially supported. In general, as a result of the study, a scale (MARGAM) consisting of 6 dimensions and 20 items regarding gamification in the field of marketing was developed. Validity and reliability analyzes of the scale were conducted in accordance with the scale development methodology and a gap in the literature was filled.
Color composition (or color theme) is a key factor to determine how well a piece of art work or graphical design is perceived by humans. Despite a few color harmony models have been proposed, their results are often less satisfactory since they mostly neglect the variations of aesthetic cognition among individuals and treat the influence of all ratings equally as if they were all rated by the same anonymous user. To overcome this issue, in this paper we propose a new color theme evaluation model by combining a back propagation neural network and a kernel probabilistic model to infer both the color theme rating and the user aesthetic preference. Our experiment results show that our model can predict more accurate and personalized color theme ratings than state of the art methods. Our work is also the first-of-its-kind effort to quantitatively evaluate the correlation between user aesthetic preferences and color harmonies of five-color themes, and study such a relation for users with different aesthetic cognition.
Short scales are time‐efficient for participants and cost‐effective in research. However, researchers often mistakenly expect short scales to have the same reliability as long ones without considering the effect of scale length. We argue that applying a universal benchmark for alpha is problematic as the impact of low‐quality items is greater on shorter scales. In this study, we proposed simple guidelines for item reduction using the “alpha‐if‐item‐deleted” procedure in scale construction. An item can be removed if alpha increases or decreases by less than .02, especially for short scales. Conversely, an item should be retained if alpha decreases by more than .04 upon its removal. For reliability benchmarks, .80 is relatively safe in most conditions, but higher benchmarks are recommended for longer scales and smaller sample sizes. Supplementary analyses, including item content, face validity, and content coverage, are critical to ensure scale quality.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of physical environment design (PED) and its antecedents on consumers’ emotional well-being (EWB). Drawing on place identity and emotional theories, the study aims to provide a new perspective to retail store experiences.
Design/methodology/approach
A survey of 800 respondents was conducted in London, out of which 764 responses were constructively used. The data was collected from international retail outlets, and structural equation modelling was used to analyse the data.
Findings
The empirical results show that PED has a positive effect on consumers’ EWB. Among the antecedents, visual identity does not have any significant effect on PED and EWB. In contrast, communication had a significant effect on PED but did not have any effect on EWB, and further, cultural heritage had a positive effect on both PED and EWB. Further, moderator analysis identifies the boundary conditions under which specific theories hold.
Practical implications
The value of this paper lies in its potential to be used for creating the perfect design planning in retail stores. Significant implications for managers and researchers are highlighted.
Originality/value
This paper presents an innovative approach to develop the principles of retail store’s PED to support the EWB of consumers.
Purpose
This study aims to discover the factors which influence user satisfaction levels and their continuous use intention (CUI) of academic library social media, and then considers how to promote and improve further work on library social media to reduce user churn and increase user satisfaction.
Design/methodology/approach
An updated DeLone and McLean information systems success (D&M ISS) model and the expectation confirmation model for information systems continuance (ECM-ISC) with new variables of emotions are used to examine the factors which influence user satisfaction levels and CUI of academic library social media through 445 questionnaires. Partial least squares structural equation modelling was used to analyse the data and presented in tables.
Findings
The results show that information quality, system quality and emotions affect user satisfaction and CUI, and reveal that emotions can affect that most obviously.
Research limitations/implications
The WeChat public platform is mainly used in China, so the study only focuses on Chinese academic libraries. There are still limitations on the settings of observed variables which cannot cover all the causes of users’ positive and negative emotions. In addition, although the respondents of this questionnaire can represent academic library users, 445 samples are still fairly low in contrast to the great number of academic library WeChat public platform users.
Originality/value
This study integrates ECM-ISC and D&M ISS models, adds positive and negative emotions as new variables, to broaden the application scope of these models, and demonstrates the applicability of these two models in the fields of researching academic library social media, expanding and deepening related theories above. This also provides practical reference for academic libraries on how to improve user satisfaction and CUI of academic library social media and academic library WeChat public platforms, promoting the development of academic library social media.
Introduction
Developing countries around the world are facing a surplus of availability of labour compared to the demand in the markets. But the paradox is that the labour supply lacks the employable characteristics that are expected by organizations.
Methods
Hence it becomes indispensable for employers to be able to hire the most employable graduates out of the available pool of candidates, especially in the context of soft skills like personality, emotional intelligence, and kinesics (non-verbal communication).
Results
The present study has tried to assess the impact of emotional intelligence, personality traits, and kinesics on the satisfaction level of employers while hiring graduates. Model fit indices (CMIN/DF= 2.43 to 4.22, GFI= 0.90 to 0.95, NFI= 0.90 to 0.933, CFI= 0.920 to 0.951, RMSEA = 0.047 to 0.075) indicate a good model fit. It was established that personality traits had the strongest relationship with employer satisfaction, followed by emotional intelligence and kinesics. All three variables emerged as significant.
Conclusion
The results from this have practical implications for employers and help them in making an informed choice while hiring prospective candidates.
This article studies the effects of local dependence within the items of the first section of the LS/CMI on its reliability. Analysis were done to identify the dependent items namely through their correlations before and after Rasch modeling. Seven items were thus discarded, deemed dependent and redundant, and Cronbach’s alpha was calculated with all 43 items and then with the 36 items deemed independent. Test information and predictive validity were also compared. Removing the seven redundant items did not seem to have major effects on the reliability of the LS/CMI or the psychometric information it provided, and no tangible effects were observed on its predictive validity. The reliability of an instrument should be assessed with items that contribute each in its own way. However, it is hazardous to report the reliability of an instrument known to be multidimensional with means meant to be used with unidimensional instruments.
This research aims to examine the antecedent and consequent conditions of the widespread use of mobile payment services in developing economies. To achieve this goal, a pre- and post-covid survey of Google Pay users has been conducted to collect data on the prevalence of the digital payment system. The information was examined using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Based on the results, it is evident that users no longer care about issues like trust, confidentiality, and the security of their personal and financial information, which were significant concerns for their acceptance of the app before the advent of covid. Similarly, factors like app performance, ease of use, habit, and social influence that were not previously primary in deciding a user’s inclination to adopt the app are now critical. This may be due to the inevitability of using these apps for monetary transactions throughout and after the covid pandemic.
In the post COVID-19 era, social commerce witnessed significant growth due to increasing numbers of consumers choosing online channels as their preferred means of shopping. Consumer attitude and trust are key factors influencing customers purchase decision of buying products and services marketed through online platforms such as social commerce. A positive consumer attitude towards a brand or product can lead to greater level of perceived trust and, hence, increase the likelihood of purchasing. Further, a negative consumer attitude or low trust may deter individuals from purchasing, even if they are interested in the product. This study aims at investigating the mediating role of customers attitude and perceived trust on the relationship the relationship between social commerce and buying intention post-COVID-19 pandemic. Using a full-structured questionnaire directed to 570 e-commerce consumers, the obtained data were analyzed by hybrid approach based on PLS-SEM and fsQCA. The study results may help understand the variables that can affect consumer behavior in the post-COVID-19 era, and businesses can better modify their marketing strategies and fulfill the customers' needs.
In this research, brand loyalty is assessed under specific boundaries created by social media marketing factors including social network advertising, social media brand communities, loyalty reward programs and Electronic Word of Mouth (eWOM). Brand loyalty has always been under significant attention by researchers from the academic point of view since 1912. The advancement of the internet and social media have facilitated communications to be simpler, safer, smarter, cheaper and faster than ever. The use of smartphone and internet access enable people to share their opinions on any products with just a click. Based on the Theory of Planned Behavior, Theory of Social Identity, and the model of effects of the brand community, this study has discovered the factors which determine brand loyalty in the smartphone market and bridged the theoretical gap. This study successfully designs and develops a model which improves the present perception of brand loyalty in the smartphone market using the quantitative research approach. The questionnaire is designed and the evaluation is based on the five-point Likert scales which anchors ‘1’ as being ‘strongly disagree’ and ‘5’ being ‘strongly agree’. Throughout the time frame allocated, a total of 690 useful responses from individuals who own at least one smartphone, living in Malaysia are gathered. The respondents are selected using a random sampling technique. The collected ordinal data are further analyzed statistically using the PLS-SEM, a non-parametric analysis approach to determine the relationships and path coefficients between the proposed variables. This study confirms the significance of the relationship between social network advertising, social media brand communities, loyalty reward programs and eWOM with brand loyalty in the smartphone market of Malaysia. Furthermore, the results of this research demonstrate that loyalty reward programs mediate the relationship between social network advertising and social media brand communities with brand loyalty in the Malaysian smartphone market. Furthermore, the results of this study demonstrate that loyalty rewards programs mediate the relationship between social network advertising, social media brand communities with brand loyalty. In addition, this study proves the moderating role of eWOM on the relationship between loyalty reward programs and brand loyalty. The findings of this research will benefit both academia and the smartphone industry. It will enhance the theoretical understanding of brand loyalty, customer loyalty, brand switch behavior, social media marketing, and eWOM. Finally, the findings of this study provide significant insights for smartphone manufacturers on how they can improve the brand loyalty status among their patrons through social media marketing factors and eWOM.
This study expands on past deceleration and slow consumption research by introducing and validating a measure of need‐for‐deceleration, an individual's motivational ability to engage in activities aimed at slowing down the perceived fast passage of time. Following initial scale development, two studies establish construct validity by placing need‐for‐deceleration into a nomological network. Results indicate that the measure correlated with, but was distinct from, variables involving negative affective states, such as state anxiety and neuroticism. Need‐for‐deceleration scores were not related to materialism, but negatively correlated with self‐efficacy, life satisfaction, work‐life balance, and conscientiousness. Correlations were positive with need‐for‐uniqueness, future time orientation, and susceptibility to normative influence. Need‐for‐deceleration was also associated with regulatory focus (positively with prevention, and negatively with promotion focus). To explore criterion validity, a third study establishes associations between need‐for‐deceleration and consumer lifestyle variables. Developing and validating the scale can help researching and managing products relating to the consumption of time, wellness, mindfulness, and simplicity.
Purpose
The purpose of the article was to identify the core dimensions of strategic thinking and create a measure that provides a comprehensive operationalization of the construct.
Design/methodology/approach
The construct validity of the measure was assessed in two studies using four samples with a total of 985 participants. The measure was created using a multi-step process that included item development and content validation, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, convergent and discriminant validity, criterion validity and test-retest validity.
Findings
The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) supported the existence of the three dimensions of strategic thinking (visionary, synthetic and creative thinking) as conceptually proposed. The measure was reduced to nine items. The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed the three dimensions and revealed acceptable factor loadings and model fit. Convergent, discriminant and criterion validity were established, and the measure demonstrated acceptable test-retest reliability.
Originality/value
An individual's ability to think strategically is vital for making strategic decisions and relevant to upper echelon theory and strategic management. The definition and core dimensions of strategic thinking are unclear in the literature, creating confusion. This study added to the literature by defining the core dimensions of strategic thinking and developing the strategic thinking assessment (STA) to measure the construct.
Music festivals are increasingly utilising ICT to augment live music performances.
This research project proposes and trials three liveness scales to measure attendee’s perceptions of authenticity regarding liveness across a broad spectrum of formats for, and viewpoints of, live performances at, or emanating from, music festivals. The research addresses the thesis that: It may be possible to develop liveness scales to measure attendee perceptions of liveness regarding ICT enhanced performances at music festivals. Following item development processes, pre-test liveness Likert scales were developed, and two iterations of primary research were carried out to collect and interpret empirical evidence from 164 respondents. Formats and viewpoints generating the greatest acceptance or resistance were identified. Significant differentiation in responses was tested for by gender regarding audience viewpoints and by occupation regarding audience size. Potential to further develop/simplify the liveness scales, and for future research into ICT enhanced experiences at music festivals, was ascertained.
Organizational justice appears to be a key component that leads to attaining organizational goals and, as a result, increases organizational performance. Employees who feel fairness in today’s highly competitive workplace are more inclined to contribute more to their organization. Employees who feel their organization performs fairly are more likely to display citizenship behavior. The current study sought to ascertain the level of faculty members’ justice perception and extra-role behavior in higher education institutions. To investigate the impact of organizational justice on organizational citizenship behavior among faculty members of higher educational institutions, various research questions are developed: first, how much influence does faculty members’ Organizational Justice (OJ) have on their Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) towards the institution? Second are there any important connections between the OJ and OCB constructs? Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used in the study. Cronbach’s alpha, descriptive analysis and multiple regression analysis were applied in the study. According to the findings, OJ has a significant influence on the dimensions of OCB. It represents that the employees should exhibit selflessness and always thinks for the welfare of others, act in positive ways, never complain, and participate in the organization's political process.
The competitive levels in the higher education market have intensified over recent years. There is a need to develop innovative strategies for communicating the institution's value proposition. Market mavens play a significant role in the marketplace and can be part of a communication strategy. They are individuals who facilitate the exchange of information and willingly provide help to other marketplace participants. A sample of 346 responses from online students at a university in the southwestern United States was utilized. The results support the influence of affinity for technology in market mavenism in a higher education setting. In addition, the antecedents of self-efficacy, altruism, and marketplace involvement were confirmed to impact market mavenism. Market mavens communicate positive word-of-mouth, making them an attractive target for marketing communications. Higher education institutions have an opportunity to identify and focus on market mavens, who in turn can assist other students’ decision-making and give the institution a promotional advantage.
Despite the importance of the concept of involvement, it remains misunderstood. No attempt has been made to establish the reliability and validity of the concept. To resolve apparently conflicting research findings, Houston and Rothschild posit a paradigm which classifies involvement as situational, enduring, and response. The author assesses the reliability and validity of this tripartite classification of involvement by using a multitrait-multimethod matrix approach and a linear structural relations analysis approach. Subsequently, the S-O-R formulation and causality are also tested.
The concept of customer orientation in salespeople is defined, a scale is developed to measure the degree to which salespeople engage in customer-oriented selling, and the properties of the scale are reported. A test of the nomological validity indicates the use of customer-oriented selling is related to the ability of the salespeople to help their customers and the quality of the customer-salesperson relationship.
The influence of attitudinal similarities on the dyadic interaction of salesmen and their prospects was examined with particular attention to the unsold prospect. Unsold prospects differed significantly from salesmen and sold prospects on all variables, and perceived role congruence was found to be the major discriminator of unsold prospects.
The authors evaluate several factors affecting the attention given to or “use” of specific market research information by marketing managers. They apply path analysis to test a model of research use involving 11 variables. Factors found to be especially important are organizational structure, technical quality, surprise, actionability, and researcher-manager interaction. The topic and findings of the study relate to a central activity of the marketing profession—the application of knowledge—and to the use of an important product—market research. Both the knowledge system of marketing and the behavior of managers as consumers of research products have been relatively neglected.
The authors investigate whether it is necessary to include disconfirmation as an intervening variable affecting satisfaction as is commonly argued, or whether the effect of disconfirmation is adequately captured by expectation and perceived performance. Further, they model the process for two types of products, a durable and a nondurable good, using experimental procedures in which three levels of expectations and three levels of performance are manipulated for each product in a factorial design. Each subject's perceived expectations, performance evaluations, disconfirmation, and satisfaction are subsequently measured by using multiple measures for each construct. The results suggest the effects are different for the two products. For the nondurable good, the relationships are as typically hypothesized. The results for the durable good are different in important respects. First, neither the disconfirmation experience nor subjects’ initial expectations affected subjects’ satisfaction with it. Rather, their satisfaction was determined solely by the performance of the durable good. Expectations did combine with performance to affect disconfirmation, though the magnitude of the disconfirmation experience did not translate into an impact on satisfaction. Finally, the direct performance-satisfaction link accounts for most of the variation in satisfaction.
The effect of several factors on the validity of a product-anchored self-concept measure is examined. Though the measure is not affected by product order or subject's attitude toward the task, it is affected by social desirability and product ownership, two factors of central importance in consumer research.
A modified model for examining power and its sources in marketing channels is developed and tested. The results of testing this model indicate that its predictive ability is no better than that of previous approaches. Some unexpected results obtained in this and other studies are discussed in the context of an overall framework of power sources and their consequences in marketing channels.
Two field experiments were conducted to explore the effects of varying levels of product warranty, manufacturer reputation, and price on consumers’ risk perceptions and affective responses to new product concepts. Data were collected from a consumer panel in a new product concept test format for a tire product and for a computerized exercise device. Results from structural equation analyses reveal the important role of warranties and other extrinsic cues in reducing consumers’ risk perceptions and enhancing their affective responses to innovative product concepts.
The effect of varying fear levels was tested in a field experiment on a random resident sample and on separate demographic and psychographic subsegments. Certain attitudinal and behavioral effects were observed for the entire sample whereas others were segment specific.
The sources of power that auto manufacturers use to obtain control over their dealer network are shown to have a significant impact on the level of conflict that dealers have with their manufacturers. Coercive sources tend to increase the level of intrachannel conflict whereas noncoercive sources tend to decrease it. Auto manufacturers need to be cognizant of this fact in order to use intelligently their available sources of power.
Methodological studies on mail surveys typically assess the effectiveness of a device with respect to only one dependent variable—response rate. Other factors in the use of mail surveys, i.e. response speed and quality, also require methodological research. This report includes a discussion of these factors and a review of the findings of studies that have included them as dependent variables.
This report concerns the procedures used and results obtained in the development of an attitude scale to measure consumer discontent. Using consumer attitudes and the related consumerism literature as a point of departure, the writers define consumer discontent and develop a scale to measure the construct. The research results suggest that marketing and market-related constructs are potentially scalable properties that can meet rigorous reliability and validity criteria.
The results of a large-scale study of adolescent consumer socialization are presented. A general conceptual framework of socialization is outlined to serve as a blueprint for discussing variables and hypotheses in the specific context of consumer socialization. The authors then examine the development of several consumption-related skills as a function of variables derived from sociological and developmental theories of socialization.
Alienation has interested philosophers and researchers for many years, but only recently has empirical study been directed toward consumer alienation from the marketplace. The author reports the development of a test to measure alienation from the marketplace based on psychometric principles. The findings suggest that a reliable and valid measure has been constructed. The consumer alienation scale was found to be unidimensional rather than consisting of identifiable subscales. In addition, areas for future research that will aid the marketing manager in applying knowledge of consumer alienation to decision making are discussed.
The author presents a model designed to explain the performance, job satisfaction, and other behavioral outcomes experienced by salespeople. By building on the model of man proposed by Lewin and modern interactionist and social learning theories of personality, the behavior of salespeople is shown to be a function of the person, the interactions the person has with significant others in his or her role set, and forces in the situation. Hypotheses are tested on data gathered on industrial salespeople.
Can wives accurately report who exerts influence in family decisions? What self-reported measure of purchase influence is best? A multitrait-multimethod approach is used to answer these questions about the reliability and validity of influence measures.
Classical statistical significance testing is the primary method by which marketing researchers empirically test hypotheses and draw inferences about theories. The authors discuss the interpretation and value of classical statistical significance tests and suggest that classical inferential statistics may be misinterpreted and overvalued by marketing researchers in judging research results. Replication, Bayesian hypothesis testing, meta-analysis, and strong inference are examined as approaches for augmenting conventional statistical analyses.
The landslide victory of Michigan's “bottle bill” by popular vote contradicts previous findings regarding the small size of the ecologically concerned consumer segment. A survey of voter preference conducted just prior to the 1976 general election addresses this contradiction and some broader aspects of consumer environmental behavior. Implications for ecological marketers are discussed.
By use of path analysis on data from 600 shoppers, the authors explore the sequential relationships among several variables pertinent to retail crowding. Results furnish evidence that perceived crowding systematically affects shopping behavior and consumers’ feelings about retail outlets and shopping trips.
Statistical power and effect size are not considered sufficiently by marketing researchers. The authors discuss how better attention to these two factors can improve the planning, execution, and reporting of marketing and consumer research. Suggestions are offered about how to increase effect size and improve statistical power.
Manifest channel conflict is operationalized in terms of the frequency and intensity of disagreements between channel members and the importance of the issues about which they disagree. Six different multiple-item unidimensional measures including from one to all three of these components are evaluated with respect to reliability and validity with a sample of automobile dealers. The measure combining frequency, intensity, and importance multiplicatively is judged superior to the others.
The author describes the construction of a scale to measure self-concepts, person concepts, and product concepts. Multivariate analysis and multidimensional scaling procedures are employed to develop a 15-item semantic differential scale. Measures of test-retest reliability are reported. Validity of the scale is assessed by the multitrait-multimethod matrix approach.
The basic hypothesis of this study is that a meaningful typology of consumer behavior may be segmented along the lines of social character delineated by David Riesman. Under experimental conditions inner- and other-directed subjects indicated a differential preference for specially created advertisements developed to appeal to these two character types. Further, the study analyzed differential exposure to mass media and differential preference for mass media content.
CAD is a measurement instrument developed specifically for marketing research. An empirical assessment of reliability and validity raises some questions about its usefulness in its present form.
The basic theories and measurement procedures for reliability and the closely related concept of generalizability are reviewed, illustrated, and evaluated for use in marketing research. A critique is given of a subset of previous marketing research studies in which reliability estimates were used and recommendations are made for future research.
Path analysis is used to examine the relationships among the salesperson's perceptions of performance feedback, participation, role clarity, and job satisfaction. The results of the study indicate that performance feedback and participation in decision making are both positively related to role clarity. In addition, performance feedback is related primarily to lower order need fulfillment whereas participation and role clarity are related primarily to higher order need fulfillment.
While the unique characteristics of the industrial salesman's role has stimulated much recent research, this uniqueness requires the development and use of occupation-specific measurement instruments. A job satisfaction measure specifically designed for industrial salesmen is presented together with norms, a detailed description of the methodology employed, and techniques to evaluate the new instrument's factor structure, reliability, and construct validity.
The efficiency of the sales force could be improved if the effect of personal selling could be measured before a sale was completed. The experiment described here measured a central aspect of the prospective buyer's decision process—the change in his awareness and attitudes after receiving a sales call. Two scaling devices developed by psychologists and used extensively in advertising research were used.
The convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of the tripartite model of attitudes is investigated. On the basis of a structural equation methodology, evidence is obtained for convergent validity. Moreover, a factor analysis of the attitude measures and measures of perceived extraneous events and personal and social normative beliefs provides evidence for discriminant validity. Finally, evidence for predictive validity based on actual and intended behaviors is found to be mixed. The implications of these findings for research pertaining to the prediction of consumer behavior are discussed.
The author reports the results of a study of the motivational implications of the industrial salesperson's personal characteristics and his or her perceptions of the job, the company's organization, and selling constraints. Predictor equations for the salesperson's expectancy and instrumentality estimates are tested empirically. The results indicate the salesperson's personal characteristics and his or her perceptions of supervisory style, organizational communication, job significance and autonomy, job variety and completeness, job complexity, and selling constraints are potentially important predictors of salesforce motivation.
An attempt is made to explicate the meaning of construct validity. Operational issues in the process of construct validation are investigated. A subset of JMR studies involving construct validation are reviewed and the role of construct validity in marketing is considered.
Although the consumer behavior of young people has become of increasing interest to marketing practitioners and public policy makers, little empirical data are available to be used in effective decision making. This paper presents an analysis of adolescent consumer behavior and provides empirical data useful in understanding differences among teenage consumers.
This research presents both a conceptual and a methodological framework for examining organizational buying behavior from a multiperson level of analysis. Focusing on those organizational members who participate in the procurement decision making process, this research investigates the buying group's adaptive structural configuration in response to varying levels of environmental uncertainty.
The ethnicity literature within marketing has infrequently considered relevant subcultural norms in the derivation of hypotheses, the strength of ethnic identification in the grouping of subjects, and the investigation of ethnic groups other than blacks. The present research tests five hypotheses concerning Jewish ethnicity. It was found that Jewish subjects in two cohort samples differed significantly from non-Jewish subjects in childhood exposure to information, adulthood information seeking, product innovativeness, product information transfer, and cognitive characteristics relevant to consumption information processing.
A model is proposed which expresses consumer satisfaction as a function of expectation and expectancy disconfirmation. Satisfaction, in turn, is believed to influence attitude change and purchase intention. Results from a two-stage field study support the scheme for consumers and nonconsumers of a flu inoculation.
The satisfaction scales for work, coworkers, supervision, pay, and promotion of the INDSALES and Job Descriptive Index (JDI) were obtained from a national sample of 209 salesmen in the health care industry. Convergent and discriminant validity were examined by using the criteria of Campbell and Fiske.
An integrated framework for studying interpersonal aspects of consumer decision making is presented. The article describes a scale for measuring a person's interpersonal orientations. A study is reported that examines relationships between these traits and product and media choices.
Are consumers' ratings of advertisements definitive enough to yield valid information about effectiveness? Or do such ratings register consumers' likes and dislikes, and nothing more?
The author conducted a series of experiments on advertisement rating scales. He concludes that consumers' ratings can order advertisements along at least two, and perhaps three, different and important dimensions.
He further indicates that results obtained from rating scales have a useful relationship to the results obtained from another well-known advertising-testing method, that of aided recall.
A simple yet effective rating scale measure of satisfaction has been developed by sociological researchers studying the perceived quality of life. The author examines the suitability of this measure for marketing studies of consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Reliability, validity, and selected measurement properties are evaluated empirically.
Is the link between performance and job satisfaction myth or reality? Does performance influence satisfaction, or does satisfaction influence performance? This age-old managerial problem is examined with a causal modeling methodology to unravel the true relationship.
Male innovative behavior is examined from the perspective of a multidimensional conceptualization of the innovator. The analysis suggests that the simultaneous study of innovative behavior for several product categories yields meaningful bases for segmenting male suburbanites. The multidimensional conceptualization and the analysis approach appear to offer insights into the new product diffusion process of suburban males.
The relationships between the sales manager's social power bases and the salesperson's satisfaction with supervision, role clarity, and propensity to leave the organization are empirically analyzed. In addition, the influence of the salesperson's sex, age, and time on the job upon the sales manager-salesperson power relationship is explored.
What goes on in the mind of a consumer as he forms a purchase decision? To answer this question, the author uses a relatively new methodology with a computer for setting up and interpreting multiple time-period survey data. He examines the hierarchy-of-effects theory of consumer behavior with panel results for a convenience food brand.
This study investigates the relationship between salespeople's level of pay, satisfaction with pay, and valence for more pay using structural equation models with unobserved variables. The results suggest that (1) greater satisfaction with pay is associated with lower valences attached to it, (2) those who are most highly paid are most dissatisfied with their pay level, and (3) there is no direct relationship between an individual's income level and the person's valence for more pay.
A critical element in the evolution of a fundamental body of knowledge in marketing, as well as for improved marketing practice, is the development of better measures of the variables with which marketers work. In this article an approach is outlined by which this goal can be achieved and portions of the approach are illustrated in terms of a job satisfaction measure.