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Supporting information
Mucina et al. 2016. Vegetation of Europe: Hierarchical floristic classification of
vascular plant, bryophyte, lichen, and algal communities. Applied Vegetation
Science 19 (Suppl. 1): 3–264.
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Electronic Appendix S3: Glossary of vegetation, ecological, and geographical
terminology used in the verbal diagnoses of the syntaxa.
This Glossary summarises the scientific terms used in the verbal diagnoses and
Remarks of all three parts of the EuroVegChecklist (i.e. EVC1, EVC2 and EVC3).
Some widely used terms that are often interpreted in multiple ways have also
been included. This Glossary was compiled and edited by K. Šumberová and L.
Mucina, assisted by H. Bültmann, A. Čarni, M. Chytrý, F. Daniëls, J. Dengler, R.
Di Pietro, R. Gavilán, M. Hájek, T. Lysenko, J.S. Rodwell, A. Santos Guerra, J.-
P. Theurillat and M. Valachovič. Note that the biogeographical terminology
pertaining to the Iberian Peninsula is largely based on Rivas-Martínez (2002).
Terms and definitions
acidophilous (organism, vegetation): limited to or favouring acidic substrates.
aerohaline (vegetation, habitat): subject to sea-salt spray brought by winds, such
as the vegetation of maritime cliffs.
aero-hygrophilous (organism, vegetation): able to gather water from the air and
growing in sites with at least temporarily high air humidity.
aerophytic (organism, vegetation): living in contact with the air on the surface of
e.g. rocks and bark, not submerged and not in the soil.
aero-xerophilous (organism): living in habitats with little air humidity.
Aljibic (biogeography): a biogeographical unit of the Coastal-Lusitanian-
Andalusian Province that comprises the southernmost territories of the Iberian
Peninsula (Spain and Portugal).
Almerian (biogeography): biogeographical unit belonging to the Murcian-
Almerian Province and comprising southeastern regions of the Iberian Peninsula
(Spain).
Alpic (geography): referring to the Alps (‘of the Alps’).
alpine (vegetation belt): vegetation belt below the snow line and above the tree-
line of temperate mountain ranges; it is characterised by natural grasslands and
low scrub vegetation.
alvar (habitat): extensive cracked limestone pavement scraped by glacial action
and covered with shallow skeletal calcareous soils prone to desiccation in
summer; found around and on some islands in the Baltic Sea.
amphiadriatic (organism, biogeography, vegetation): occurring on both sides of
the Adriatic Sea and having a range restricted to the Apennine and Balkan
Peninsulas.
andosol (soil): substrate developed on young pyroclastic sediments (ash and
pumice) typical of steep slopes and high regional rainfall.
andropogonoid (plant): grasses of the tribe Andropogonoideae (Poaceae)
widespread throughout tropical and temperate regions including many well-
known genera dominant in dry grasslands of southern Europe (e.g. Andropogon,
Bothriochloa, Cymbopogon, Heteropogon, etc.).
anthropogenic (vegetation): plant communities occupying man-made habitats or
natural habitats modified by heavy disturbance; includes ruderal vegetation
occurring on various man-made and heavily disturbed habitats and segetal
(weedy) vegetation occurring on arable land and accompanying the vegetation of
agricultural crops.
Aragonian (geography): region on Iberian Peninsula comprising regions north of
the Central Pyrenees and southwards to the Sistema Ibérico (Spain).
Arctic (biogeography): a tree-less bioclimatic zone north of the polar treeline
characterised by tundra, barrens and desert-like vegetation.
arctic (vegetation): vegetation confined to the Arctic zone.
Atlantic (biogeography): western regions of the temperate zone extending along
the Atlantic Ocean, under the influence of an oceanic climate characterised by
mild winters, abundant precipitation, as well as small diurnal and seasonal
temperature amplitudes.
Auverno-Pyreneean (biogeography): region encompassing the French
piedmonts of the Central Pyrenees (Midi-Pyrenées).
azonal (vegetation): plant communities and their complexes occurring across
several zonal (macro)habitats (such as latitudinal zones or altitudinal belts) that
are primarily shaped by soil (substrate) and hydrological extreme conditions
(including flooding, high salinity, high heavy-metal content, extremely low
nutrient-status of soils) rather than by macroclimate.
Betic (biogeography): referring to the Southern Iberian Peninsula, south of the
Guadalquivir River and including the Sierra Nevada Mts. (Spain).
basiphilous (organism, vegetation): limited to or favouring base-rich (usually
calcareous) substrates.
beard lichen: growth-form of lichen resembling a beard; occurring especially in
fog-rich environments.
benthic (habitat): attached to substrate (e.g. plants, stones, etc.) or living on the
bottom of water bodies.
bog (habitat, vegetation): permanent wetland with low amount of calcium and
nutrients available to plants; bogs are fed by mineral-poor, acidic water, either by
ground water (in regions formed by acidic, mineral-poor bedrocks) or by
precipitation water (see ombrotrophic bog).
boreal (vegetation, biome): bioclimatic zone bordering on the arctic zone in the
North and temperate zone in the South; in Europe it covers extensive areas in
Fennoscandia and northern Russia; the predominant vegetation is coniferous
forest (taiga), with significant occurrence of mires.
boreo-atlantic (geography): pertaining to the boreal coasts of the North Sea and
Atlantic Ocean.
brackish (habitat): aquatic or wetland environment characterised by mixing of
freshwater and seawater (such as in estuaries).
brezal (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): scrub dominated by ‘brezo’ (Erica: E.
arborea, E. canariensis, E. scoparia, E. umbellata, etc.).
Britannian (geography): pertaining to the coast of Britanny (France).
calicioid lichen: special growth-form of lichens with often pin-like fruiting bodies,
of which the spore-bearing layer disintegrates into a powdery mass.
cantuesal (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): silicicolous scrub dominated by
‘cantueso’ (Lavandula).
cardonal (vegetation): succulent scrub dominated by columnar Euphorbia
canariensis that might reach a height of 2−3 m; it forms species-rich coastal
communities in Macaronesia and the western coast of Morocco; it is
bioclimatically confined to the inframediterranean and thermomediterranean
belts.
carr (vegetation): type of forest or woodland characteristic of waterlogged
organic soils that are base-rich and moderately rich in nutrients.
Calabro-Sicilian (biogeography): a region comprising Calabria (southern part of
the Apennine Peninsula and Sicilia (Italy).
Cantabrian (geography): region comprising the Cantabrian Mts. (northern
Iberian Peninsula; Spain) in broad sense.
Cantabro-Atlantic (biogeography): biogeographical unit (subprovince) of the
Atlantic Province and comprising the Iberian seaboards of the Cantabrian Sea.
Cantabro-Francoatlantic (geography): pertaining to the coastal regions of the
Bay of Biscay (Spain and France).
Castilian-Oroiberian (biogeography): biogeographical unit of the Castilian and
Sistema Ibérico (Spain).
Cantabro-Pyreneean (biogeography): biogeographical unit matching the Low
Aragonese Subprovince, belonging to Mediterranean Central Iberian Province
and comprising regions of southern Pyrenees and Ebro River valley (Spain).
Catalano-Valencian (biogeography): Iberian biogeographic unit comprising the
coastal Catalonia and the region of Valencia (Spain).
chernozem (soil): very fertile soil type characterised by a deep humus horizon
that developed in post-glacial era under the climate of the steppe zone.
chamaephytic (vegetation): dominated by chamaephytes, i.e. perennial plants,
especially dwarf shrubs, having overwintering buds located up to about 25 cm
above the soil surface – hence typically protected by snow during winter.
chasmophytic (organism, vegetation): growing in rocky crevices of cliffs and
rock faces.
chionophilous (organism, vegetation): thriving in habitats experiencing
extended snow cover protecting the plants/vegetation against destructive effects
of wind and extremely low temperatures in winter.
chionophobous (organism, vegetation): thriving in habitats without snow cover
or experiencing only reduced periods under snow cover (e.g. steep slopes or
wind-exposed ridges).
chomophytic (organism, vegetation): growing as cushions and mats rooting in
shallow soils an underlying hard surface of bedrock.
circalittoral (habitat): zone of the sublittoral below the infralittoral zone.
circum-arctic (organism, vegetation): distributed all around the Arctic zone.
circum-mediterranean (organism, vegetation): distributed all around the
Mediterranean Basin.
congelifracted (soils): developing from bedrock subject to shattering or splitting
of the rocks as a result of freezing-and-thawing cycles.
coastal foredunes (habitat): substantial accumulations of wind-blown sand
landwards of embryonic dunes; the sand accumulation (hence dune growth) is
encouraged by vigorous grasses (such as Ammophila arenaria) that stabilise the
dunes, which are typically mobile and, initially at least, have relatively low
vegetation cover; also known as ‘yellow dunes’.
coastal hinddunes (habitat): increasingly stable accumulations of sand
developed behind coastal foredunes, in which pioneer grasses become
moribund, but where an extensive carpet of grasses, forbs, bryophytes and
lichens covers the surface; also known ‘grey dunes’.
coenon (vegetation typology; pl. ‘coena’): abstract vegetation type, normally
referring to ‘complete plant communities’ – those plant communities where all
synusiae (phanerogams, bryophytes, and lichens were considered); this term is
more or less synonymous with ‘syntaxon’ (of the Braun-Blanquet approach). The
term ‘coenosis’ refers to the actual vegetation stand.
colline (vegetation belt): altitudinal belt at low elevations of the temperate zone,
usually associated with hilly landscapes and the piedmonts of the mountain
ranges above the planar belt; it is characterised by short periods of frost during
winters, suitable for the cultivation of vine, corn and chestnut, and supporting oak
and hornbeam deciduous forests.
colluvial (habitat, soil): pertaining to colluvium – accumulation of debris on
slopes and at the foot of mountains; colluvial soils are usually mixtures of soil
particles of various size, without well-developed soil horizons.
CORINE: Coordination of Information on the Environment (an early
environmental programme of the European Union); associated with the creation
of early versions of a unified habitat system for the European Union
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_of_Information_on_the_Environment).
crustose lichen: growth-form of lichen that is firmly attached to the substrate
and resembles a surface crust.
cryomediterranean (vegetation belt): the highest bioclimatic belt of the mountain
ranges embedded within the Mediterranean region; it is a region above the
Mediterranean tree-line and is characterised by natural grasslands, low heath,
and the absence of trees; equivalent to the alpine belt of the temperate mountain
ranges.
cryophytic (vegetation): found on and in permanent snow and glaciers.
cryoturbated (soil): subjected to the process of cryoturbation, i.e. the mixing of
various soil layers as a consequence of periodical freezing and thawing. It is
typical of high-mountain altitudes and the High Arctic.
cryoxerophytic (vegetation): preferring habitats characterised by extremely dry
climate in cold regions of the Subarctic and Arctic.
C4 (plant): those plants using the C4-photosynthetic strategy to assimilate
carbon dioxide (see Sage et al. 2011).
dealpine (organism, vegetation): occurring in relict, post-glacial habitats, usually
at lower altitudes at the periphery of high mountain ranges, retaining certain
microclimatic features reminiscent of high-altitude (usually subalpine and alpine)
habitats; the dealpine vegetation is considered a relic of the pleniglacial
vegetation patterns when the cold-loving vegetation of high-altitude descended to
lower altitudes.
dolina (topography): typical karst depression of relatively small size and roughly
circular, which is common on limestone plateaus.
EEA: European Environment Agency (www.eea.europa.eu) – a major
administrative body of the European Union.
embryonic dunes (habitat): small accumulations of wind-blown sand developed
above the strandline, progressing to (coastal) foredunes where colonisation by
pioneer grasses encourages further deposition and upward growth, but
vulnerable to repeated setback by unusually high tides.
endolithic (lichen, vegetation): growing in the outer part of rock.
ephemeral (organism, vegetation): having very short life cycles, usually several
weeks up to several months (for species) or appearing (vegetation) only for short
periods of time; typical in habitats experiencing water and/or nutrients pulses.
ephemeroid (organism): perennial plant surviving the larger part of the year in
the form of underground organs (e.g. bulbs) and forming vegetative above-
ground organs and flowers only for short period of the year; in terms of
Raunkiaer’s system of life-forms, ephemeroids are invariably geophytes.
epigaeic (organism, vegetation): growing on the surface of soil; synonymous
with ‘terricolous’.
epilithic (organism, vegetation): growing on the surface of rock.
epiphyllous (organism, vegetation): growing on leaves of other plants – a
special type of epiphytic plant.
epiphytic (organism, vegetation): growing on other plants (e.g. on branches or
trunks of trees and shrubs).
eremean (habitat): pertaining to desert environments.
ericoid (plant): plants having small-size, leathery leaves, usually with enrolled
margin such as those often found Erica and Empetrum (both Ericaceae).
escobonal (vegetation; orig. from Castilian: ‘escoba’ means ‘broom’): generic
name used for any plant community on the Iberian Peninsula dominated by
leguminose broomy shrubs).
eulittoral (habitat): corresponds to the intertidal zone.
EUNIS: European Nature Information System – a database collecting data on
habitats, species, habitats types and sites of the European Union (www.
Eunis.eea.europa.eu).
Euxinic (biogeography): pertaining to the Black Sea (= Pontus Euxinus).
EVS: European Vegetation Survey (www.euroveg.org) – a working group of the
International Association for Vegetation Science.
fellfield (habitat): a complex habitat beyond the latitudinal tree line characterized
by heterogeneous, open, and patchy vegetation cover dominated by
chamaephytes and hemicryptophytes.
fen (habitat, vegetation): type of permanent wetland, usually poor in nutrients (or
of poor nutrient availability) yet considerably rich in calcium; fens are fed by
neutral to basic ground water; the calcium-rich fens are characterized by
absence of Sphagnum mosses but can be rich in other wetland mosses.
fen meadow (vegetation): meadow occurring on fen substrate.
fjeld (landscape, habitat): a high rocky plateau with little vegetation in
Scandinavian countries.
foliose lichen: growth-form of lichen characterised by horizontal spread and
which tend to be somewhat loosely attached to the substrate; they take their
name from the fact they often resemble leaves.
forest (vegetation): vegetation dominated by trees the crowns of which touch
and thus characterised by more or less closed canopy.
forest-steppe (biome, vegetation): transitional zone (sub-zone) between the
temperate (nemoral) or boreal forest and steppe, formed of patchy mosaic of
forests and steppic grasslands; in Europe it occurs from the Carpathian
(Pannonian) Basin through the Danube river valley and Ukraine to the South
Urals; also known as ‘lesostep’ (orig. from Russian).
fruticose lichen: growth-form of lichens formed of cylindrical or strap shaped
parts resembling a tiny shrub or pendulous plant.
fumarole (habitat): volcanic vent emitting steam and gases.
garrigue (vegetation; orig. from French): Mediterranean scrub formation
dominated by drought-tolerant shrubs of the genera Calicotome, Cistus,
Coridothymus, Rosmarinus, etc.; often this scrub is considered to be a
degradation stage of macchia thickets and Mediterranean woodlands.
geophyte (species): a Raunkiaer life-form category; perennial plant surviving
unsuitable period of the year (e.g. summer drought or winter low temperatures) in
underground organs (e.g. rhizomes, bulbs).
gorse (species): the spiny shrubs of the genus Ulex (Fabaceae).
graminoid (plant): grass-like plant (characterised by tufted narrow leaves,
inconspicuous flowers and often forming tussocks); the term encompasses all
representative of the family Poaceae (Gramineae) as well as sedges
(Cyperaceae), rushes (Juncaceae) and the like (e.g. Isoëtaceae,
Juncaginaceae).
grassland (vegetation): formation dominated by grasses (or graminoids) usually
with a single-layered structure and sometimes (in case of wooded savannas or
savannoid vegetation) with an open, woody plant cover (modified after
Rutherford et al. 2006).
grey dunes (habitat): coastal hind dunes.
Guadarramean (biogeography): biogeographical unit (sector) that comprises the
Sierra de Guadarrama between Madrid and Segovia (Spain).
gypsophilous (organism, vegetation): limited to or favouring calcium sulphate-
rich (gypsum-rich) substrates.
gypsum (geology): a mineral rich in calcium and sulphur; it originates mainly
through crystallization from saline water.
halo-nitrophilous (organism, vegetation): limited to or favouring habitats with
high content of nitrates and soluble salts.
halophilous (species, vegetation): limited to or preferring saline habitats
characterised by high content of soluble salts in water and/or soil.
halophyte (species): plant or fungus that grows on saline soils.
halo-tolerant (species, vegetation): tolerating increased (higher than usual)
content of soluble salts in water and/or soil.
hayedo (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): forest of ‘haya’ (Fagus sylvatica).
heath (vegetation): plant formation dominated by dwarf or low shrubs with fine
evergreen sclerophyllous leaves, mainly belonging to the family Ericaceae.
hellenic (geography): pertaining to Greece (Hellas).
heliophilous (species, vegetation): favouring sunny habitats.
Hellas (geography; from ‘Ελλάδα’ in Greek): Greece, officially: Ελληνική
Δημοκρατία (the Hellenic Republic); we prefer using the name ‘Hellas’ to the well-
known name Greece.
hemerophilous (species, vegetation): favouring habitats modified (disturbed) by
zoo-anthropogenic actions.
hemicryptophytic (vegetation): plant communities dominated by
hemicryptophytes, i.e. perennial plant species with overwintering buds located at
soil surface level (often grasses and graminoids, but also many herbs).
herbland (vegetation): structural vegetation type dominated by herbs (after
Rutherford et al. 2006b).
hypersaline (habitat, soil): referring to habitats and soil characterised by
extremely high content of soluble salts (e.g. NaCl, MgSO4), rendering the
environment toxic for the majority of plants.
hygrophilous (species, vegetation): limited to or favouring water-saturated
habitats.
IAVS: International Association for Vegetation Science (www.iavs.org).
Ibero-Tingitan (biogeography): referring to the southern-most regions of Spain
and adjacent North Africa.
iberoatlantic (geography): referring to the Iberian seaboards of the Atlantic
Ocean.
Ibero-Levantine (biogeography): eastern regions of the Central Iberian Province
(see Rivas-Martínez et al. 2002).
infralittoral (habitat): zone below the eulittoral or intertidal zone, the upper zone
of the sublittoral.
inframediterranean (vegetation belt): related to a bioclimatic belt including the
lowest altitudes and latitudes of the Mediterranean region; characterised by a
warm (average minimum of the coldest month > 7° C) and arid climate; it is
developed in only a small part of the Mediterranean region, for instance in
southwestern Morocco and on Canary Islands (here called ‘inframacaronesian’).
intratidal (habitat): tidal zone located between the lowest and the average high
tidal limit (excluding supratidal habitats).
intrazonal (vegetation): type of vegetation developing in azonal habitat
conditions, and showing affiliation to a particular zonal macrohabitat (latitudinal
zone, altitudinal belt).
jaral (vegetation; from Castillian): low scrub dominated by ‘jara’ (Cistus).
jelly lichen: growth-form of lichens with a cyanobacterial photosynthetic partner;
it has a jelly consistency when in a wet state.
karst (topography, geology; orig. from ‘kras’ in Croatian): landscape composed
of highly-weathered calcareous bedrock forming various phenomena such as
dolinae, poljes, limestone pavements and especially caves.
kastanozem (soil): humus-rich and calcareous zonal soils of brown colour
developed under short-grass steppe vegetation in precipitation-poor regions of
Eastern European steppe zone.
kermes oak (plant): Quercus coccifera.
krummholz (vegetation; orig. from German): gnarled, stunted and ascending or
prostrate scrub vegetation, typically found between the upper limit of the forest
(the timberline) and the extreme upper limit of tree growth (the tree-line) in the
temperate-European mountains; it descends to low altitudes in the boreal and
subarctic zone of Northern Europe.
laurisilva (vegetation): vernacular term for evergreen warm-temperate forests;
the terms comes from Laurus (and other genera of Lauraceae).
lapiés (topography; orig. from French): weathered, rugged limestone surface
found in karst regions that consists of more or less deep straight grooves incised
by rain water; largely synonymous with ‘karren’.
leprose lichen: a growth form of lichen forming a powdery crust.
Ligurian (geography): related to the northern Italian region of Liguria (Northern
Italy) as well as the seaboards of the Ligurian Sea.
lithosol (soil): substrate characterised by very shallow and skeletal humus-rich
horizon with parent bedrock often protruding to the surface.
littoral (habitat): in the broadest sense, the part of a water body or sea close to
the shore. It can be divided into several sub-zones: the main divisions include
supralittoral (also called supratidal, i.e. seashore-zone above the mesolittoral, the
spray zone), mesolittoral (also called eulittoral, i.e. tidal zone, which is
periodically subjected to falling and rising tides), and infralittoral (also called
sublittoral, i.e. the photophytic zone below the mesolittoral with continuous
submersion); the dark, permanently submerged zone below the infralittoral is
called circalittoral. In other water bodies, the littoral is defined as zone of shallow
water up to about 1 m deep characterised by the occurrence of reed and sedge
vegetation. The so-called epilittoral includes the zone that is flooded only during
spring tides when tidal flux is greatest (i.e. during full and new moon) and might
be in larger measure fed by underground water. Eulittoral in water bodies is
characterised by high water level fluctuation during the year and, dependent on
precipitation, it can be submerged or exposed. Sublittoral is flooded throughout
the year and its upper border is marked by lowest water level in summer.
loess (geology): poorly-stabilised sediment formed by accumulation of wind-born
particles (mainly siliceous, with admixture of calcium carbonate); loess usually
develops in vegetation-free areas, for instance in Europe much accumulated
following glacial retreat; steppe grasslands are often associated with loess
habitats.
Lusitano-Andalusian (biogeography): comprising coastal regions of western
Andaluse (Spain) and south-central Portugal.
Lusitano-Extremadurean (biogeography): biogeographical unit (subprovince)
belonging to the West Iberian Province and comprising southern Western Iberian
plateau regions from the Sistema Central to Gualdaquivir River (Spain).
Macaronesian (biogeography): the region comprising the Canary Islands,
Madeira and the Azores; characterised by several endemic genera of plants,
frequent occurrence of relic vegetation types such as succulent scrub formations
and laurisilva forests.
macchia (vegetation; orig. from in Italian): typical Mediterranean scrub
dominated by tall, evergreen leathery-leaved shrubs; often forming dense and
impenetrable thickets; called maquis in French and matorral in Castilian.
Maghreb (geography): western part of North Africa.
Maghrebinian (biogeography): biogeographic unit pertaining to the western part
of North Africa.
magnesitic (soils): derived from magnesite-rich (MgCO3-rich) substrates usually
associated with dolomitic and ultramafic rocks (such as peridotites).
maquis (vegetation; orig. from French): equivalent to macchia (in Italian) and
matorral (in Castilian).
macrolichen: those lichenised fungi possessing foliose and fruticose lichen
growth-forms.
Madeirean (biogeography): biogeographical unit that comprises Madeira and
close island groups.
mantle (vegetation): scrub made of heliophilous shrub species favouring the
forest edge.
matorral (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): equivalent to macchia (in Italian) and
maquis (in French).
meadow (vegetation): plant formation dominated by grasses (or other
graminoids) and herbs usually found in humid to mesic habitats; most European
meadows are of anthropogenic origin, dependent on regular management such
as mowing.
mediterranean (vegetation): vegetation typical of the Mediterranean Region:
sclerophyllous scrub, tall evergreen thickets and woodlands, extensive annual
grasslands and herblands in disturbed habitats etc.
Mediterranean (biogeography, geography): phytogeographic unit (floristic
region) around the Mediterranean Sea characterized by warm and dry summers
as well as wet, cool-to-mild winters; often used as a vernacular name for the
Mediterranean Sea.
Mediterranean-Iberoatlantic (biogeography): biogeographical unit comprising
the Western Iberian regions of Spain and Portugal, which are dominated by
siliceous geology.
meridional (region): informal term designating regions of southern Europe
(especially for the mountain ranges like the Dinarides and the Pyrenees).
mesomediterranean (vegetation belt): bioclimatic belt in the Mediterranean
region characterized by warm summers and mild winters with almost no frost,
suitable for the cultivation of the olive tree; the native vegetation of this belt is
evergreen oak forest.
mesophilous (organism): preferring mesic habitats, hence those located around
the middle of an environmental moisture gradient.
meso-xerophilous (organism): preferring mesic and dry habitats, hence those
located around the middle and at the dry end of environmental moisture gradient.
mesophytic (vegetation): dominated by mesophilous plants, hence those
preferring habitats located in the middle of the environmental moisture gradient.
meso-xerophytic (vegetation): dominated by mesic and xerophilous plants,
hence plants preferring habitats around the middle or at the dry end of
environmental moisture gradient.
microcoenon (vegetation; pl. ‘microcoena’): cryptogam-dominated small-scale
phytocoena or synusia.
minerotrophic mire (habitat): a type of mire that is fed exclusively or to a large
extent by groundwater; this group of mires is comprised of fens and transitional
mires.
mire (habitat): type of permanent wetland, usually poor to moderately rich in
nutrients and often characterised by accumulation of peat; mires are usually
divided into fens, transitional mires, and bogs; in some alternative systems, the
fens are excluded and only transitional mires and bogs are understood as mires.
montane (vegetation belt): an altitudinal belt in the mountains of the temperate
(nemoral) zone; the montane vegetation belt is the region at mid-elevations,
located above the colline belt; in the submediterranean regions of southern
Europe this belt is sometimes called ‘supratemperate’.
mud flat (habitat): the term is usually used for seashore wetland habitats formed
by accumulations of mud as a result of tidal action (tidal flats); in a broader
sense, it is sometimes used for similar habitats of periodically-exposed muddy
sediments in rivers, lakes and ponds; the mud flats characterised by the
occurrence of habitat specialists adapted to frequent water-level changes.
Murcian-Almerian (biogeography): biogeographical unit (province) comprising
southeastern regions of Murcia and Almería (Spain).
mylonite (geology): a generic name for fine-grained, hard, metamorphic rock of
varying mineral composition; in the process of formation of mylonites, the parent
rock is nearly completely pulverised and the original minerals are broken and re-
crystalized as smaller grains.
nemoral (vegetation zone): the mid-latitude zone (of Eurasia) dominated by
broad-leaved, deciduous forests; it is equivalent to the forested portion of the
temperate bioclimatic zone.
neophyte (plant): alien (non-native) plant species that arrived in Europe after
1492 (the year of the ‘discovery’ of America by Christopher Columbus).
nitrophilous (organism, vegetation): favouring habitats rich in nitrogen (usually
in the form of nitrates).
nival (vegetation belt): altitudinal belt influenced by permanent snow cover, and
obviously the highest natural altitudinal belt of nemoral and boreal mountain
ranges of Europe; in the polar and sub-polar regions it frequently extends to sea
level; the landscapes of the nival belt typically combine snow fields and glaciers
with cliffs and talus slopes.
oligotrophic (habitat): nutrient-poor.
oligo-mesotrophic (habitat): relatively poor in nutrients (in comparison to
mesotrophic and eutrophic habitats), however, slightly more nutrient-rich than
oligotrophic; spanning oligotrophic and mesotrophic conditions.
ombrophilous (species, vegetation): Tolerant to and generally preferring
habitats with much rain.
ombrophobic (species, vegetation): growing in habitats that are protected from
rain.
ombrotrophic bog (habitat, vegetation): type of bog that is water-fed by
precipitation water; this type of bog develops in precipitation-rich regions,
including at high altitudes of mountains.
ophiolithic (geology): term used to indicate a type of substrate characterized by
the dominance of ophiolites, a type of ultramafic rocks forming part of the former
under-sea crust that has been uplifted and exposed.
ornithocoprophilous (species, vegetation): growing in habitats fertilised by bird
guano.
Oroiberian (biogeography): biogeographical unit (subprovince) comprising the
Sistema Ibérico mountain ranges.
Orocantabrian (biogeography): biogeographical unit (subprovince) comprising
the Cantabrian range.
orocantabro-atlantic (biogeography): pertaining to the region encompassing the
Cantabrian Mts. and the adjacent Atlantic seaboards.
Orocantabro-Bercian (biogeography): biogeographical unit (sector) comprising
the Cantabrian range and El Bierzo region (Spain).
oromediterranean (vegetation belt): bioclimatic belt in the mountain ranges
embedded within the Mediterranean region; the oromediterranean belt occurs
below treeline and it is characterized by coniferous heaths and forests with
junipers and pines; it is equivalent to the montane belt of the temperate mountain
ranges.
palaeodune (habitat): old dune usually of Pleistocene age.
Pannonian (biogeography): related to the region occupying the eastern part of
the Carpathian (= Pannonian) Basin, characterised by sub-continental climate
and forest-steppe vegetation.
pasture (vegetation): open plant formation (mainly grasslands) consisting of
grasses (or other graminoids) and herbs on dry to wet (sometimes briefly
flooded) habitats. Similarly to meadow, it is mainly of anthropogenic origin, and is
dependent on regular grazing, mainly of livestock, sheep, goats or horses.
peat (soil): accumulation of organic sediment originating from dead biomass of
mosses of the genus Sphagnum and/or vascular plants, especially Carex;
particularly in the Sphagnum-dominated habitats, the peat layer can be up to
several metres deep as a result of poor decomposition of the dead organic
matter due to permanent saturation of the habitat with water, lack of oxygen, low
nutrient availability, poor microbial activity and in some regions also a cold
climate that slows down the decomposition processes; peat is a typical substrate
of mires.
permafrost (soil): permanently-frozen subsurface layer of soil, chiefly ground in
Arctic regions where temperatures below freezing point have persisted for at
least two consecutive winters and the intervening summer.
photophilous (organism, vegetation): favouring well sun-lit habitats not exposed
to direct sun radiation.
phrygana (vegetation; orig. from Greek): a vegetation type of low, hemispherical,
usually spiny, and often aromatic dwarf shrubs, resistant to drought and
browsing; the term phrygana is sometimes identified with low-grown garrigue, yet
it is distinct in terms of physiognomy, origin and constituent plant strategies.
pine (plant): member of the genus Pinus.
piornal (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): generic name used for any community
of ‘piorno’, designating usually Cytisus.
planar (vegetation belt): pertaining to the lowest altitudinal belt of the temperate
zone, synonymous with ‘lowland belt’.
planktic (organism): free-floating in a water column (equivalent to the less
correct term ‘planctonic’).
pleniglacial (stratigraphy): full glacial period – the cold and dry period of a
glacial cycle.
polje (topography; orig. from Croatian): one of the most prominent karst features;
it is a relatively large basin (at least 0.5 km wide) with a flat bottom that might be
suitable for agricultural use.
Pre-Pyreneean (geography): region encompassing the piedmonts (in our use,
those of Spanish macro-slope) of the Pyrenees.
psammophilous (species, vegetation): limited to or favouring sandy substrates.
pseudomaquis (vegetation; orig. from French): formation that occurs at the
transition between the typical mediterranean evergreen macchia/maquis scrub
and continental deciduous šibljak scrub; pseudomaquis is secondary vegetation
developing after clearance of submediterranean oak woodlands (e.g. Quercus
pubescens) or by degradation through intensive woodland grazing; both
evergreen (e.g. Juniperus excels, Quercus coccifera) and deciduous (e.g.
Carpinus orientalis, Fraxinus ornus, Jasminum fruticans) elements appear in this
vegetation.
pseudosteppe (vegetation): steppe-like grasslands outside the steppe zone;
usually controlled by local edaphic conditions or considered remnants (relicts) of
the past climates resembling the current steppe climate patterns; we use this
term also to refer to secondary grasslands replacing various Mediterranean scrub
(maquis, garrigue).
psorid lichen: growth form of lichens in the form of squamules.
psychrophilous (species, vegetation): cold-loving or cold-tolerating.
raised bog (habitat, vegetation): a type of bog that in a hydrosere replaces
minerotrophic mires; it usually develops during succession where the preceding
mires are fed by the mineral rich lake water and later, due to continued peat
accumulation, the upper layers of the mire become finally disconnected from the
lake water and subsequently fed only by rain water; these bogs function as
ombrotrophic bogs.
ravine forest (vegetation): forest type occurring on slopes, the foot of slopes, in
sinkholes, gorges and hollows with colluvial, skeletal and primarily unstable soil.
refugial (biogeography, vegetation): a type of vegetation (e.g. some beech
forests in Europe) surviving in glacial refugia (mainly in Southern Europe but also
in some parts of Central Europe), i.e. the regions not affected directly by
glaciation or associated climate change; refugial forests should be richer in
species and relicts.
regosol (soil): a type of raw soil consisting of unconsolidated material from
freshly-deposited alluvium or sand.
retamal (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): communities of ‘retama’ (usually
referring to Retama sphaerocarpa).
retamoid (plant): plants having broom-like appearance.
riparian (habitat, vegetation): pertaining to habitats and vegetation associated
with rivers (both flowing and intermittent).
romeral (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): scrub dominated by rosemary (romero;
Rosmarinus officinalis).
ruderal (species, vegetation): preferring or limited to man-made or heavily
disturbed habitats such as ruins, roadsides, trampled places; these habitats have
relative low competitive stress and usually high nutrient status (either because
disturbance can promote quick mineralisation of organic matter, or because of
land-use activities).
rupicolous (species, vegetation): plants and vegetation growing on or among
rocks, including cliffs and stony walls (here in crevices, clefts or sticking to the
rocky surface). The organisms are adapted to special environmental conditions,
such as extreme changes of temperature and moisture, a limited nutrient pool
and space to grow; equivalent to ‘saxicolous’ tough the latter is sometimes
narrower in that it is not as frequently applied to solid rock as opposed to stones.
sabinar (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): communities dominated by junipers
with imbricated leaves (e.g. Juniperus thurifera, J. sabina).
saline (habitat): soils or water having high content of soluble salts (e.g. NaCl,
MgSO4), making the environment toxic for the majority of common (hence
ecologically not specialized) species; these habitats support facultative or
obligate halophytes.
salt-pan (habitat): occasionally or periodically flooded flat-bottomed depression
supporting intermittent water body, accumulating high concentration of soil-borne
and also air-borne salt and often supporting halophyte-dominated vegetation.
salviar (vegetation): scrub dominated by aromatic Salvia (Lamiaceae) species.
Sarmatian (biogeography): related to the eastern part of nemoral zone and
including a large part of European Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and some
neighbouring countries; unlike the western part of temperate zone, it is
characterised by a quite continental climate; characteristic of this region are,
besides the coniferous and broad-leaved forests, steppes and forest-steppes.
sclerophyllous (plant): plant possessing tissue with high body mass to water
ratios (making the leaves for instance appear leathery and tough).
sclerophyllous (vegetation): plant communities characterized by the dominance
of species with small leathery evergreen leaves that allow them to tolerate the
summer-drought stress; Mediterranean scrub woodlands are prevailingly
sclerophyllous.
sciophilous (species, vegetation): limited to or favouring shady habitats.
seaboard (geography): region bordering on a sea or ocean.
segetal (species, vegetation): favouring or limited to arable fields with cereals or
tuber crops, vineyards, young fallows, etc.; many of the segetal (weedy) species
and communities show a specific relationship to particular cropping technique.
seral (vegetation): referring to an intermediate stage in a successional series.
schor (habitat: pl. ‘schorren’; orig. from Dutch): coastal habitats under influence
of high spring-tides; more or less corresponding to supratidal habitats.
šibljak (vegetation; orig. from Serbian and Croatian): distinct scrub formation
dominated by heliophilous (mainly deciduous) shrubs of the genera Corylus,
Crataegus, Juniperus Paliurus, Rhamnus etc.; they are a result of degradation of
original warm-temperate deciduous oak and oak-hornbeam forests and rarely
also develop as primary scrub in edaphically extreme habitats.
siderotrophic (habitat): characterised by high level of dissolved iron.
silicicolous (species, vegetation): limited to or favouring siliceous bedrocks.
slik (habitat; spl. ‘slikken’; orig. from Dutch): habitats regularly (twice a day)
inundated by the sea; equivalent to intra-tidal mud-flat habitats.
snow beds (habitat): depressions or sheltered slopes characterised by
prolonged snow cover, supporting mainly hygrophilous plant communities.
solifluction (soil): very slow movement of water-saturated or supersaturated soil
driven by gravity and typically associated with freeze-thaw activity and often with
permafrost.
soligenous mire (habitat): type of mire fed mainly by streaming ground water
and developing, for instance, along valley margins.
solonchak (soil): type of saline soil with the highest content of soluble salts in
the surface horizon; solonchak usually develops under a continental climate and
in habitats exposed to flooding or waterlogging for some part of the year;
intensive evaporation during the dry season transports the salts from the salt-
containing parent bedrock (e.g. marine sands, loams or gravels) to the soil
surface and in places ‘salt flower’ may form.
solonetz (soil): type of saline soil with a high content of soluble salts in the sub-
surface sodium horizon; it develops under continental, semi-arid or arid climate
on relatively dry habitats where the movement of salts from parent bedrock to soil
surface is limited; typically these saline soils support saline steppes.
steppe (vegetation, biome): a zonal plant formation dominated by perennial
grasses under a continental climate.
steppic (vegetation): grasslands physiognomically reminiscent of true steppes
(see above), yet found in zones outside the steppe – usually under specific
edaphic conditions that limit water availability (e.g. rocky steppic grasslands,
sandy steppic vegetation).
strandline (habitat): narrow band on beach recognisable by deposition of sea-
borne debris (wrack) by wave action (after Rutherford et al. 2006b).
stratocenon (vegetation typology; pl. ‘stratocoena’): abstract type of a partial
community (merocoenon) delimited according to vegetation layers/strata.
stonewort (species): member of the family Characeae.
sub-aerohaline (habitat, vegetation): partially under the influence of air-borne
sea-salt spray brought by the onshore winds.
subalpine (vegetation belt): an altitudinal belt located directly above the tree-line
in the temperate mountain ranges; in Europe this term is mostly used to indicate
the altitudinal belt dominated by the dwarf scrub or krummholz vegetation with
Juniperus alpina, Rhododendron, Pinus mugo, Vaccinium myrtillus etc.. In the
submediterranean regions of southern Europe this belt is sometimes called
‘orotemperate’.
sublittoral (habitat): part of littoral (flooded habitat close to the sea or lake shore
or river bank) flooded for the whole year; its upper limit is marked by lowest water
level in summer.
submediterranean (biogeography): bioclimatic region that, although included in
the temperate zone, exhibits some climatic (temperature and rainfall) features
typical of the mediterranean zone; some authors define as ‘submediterranean’
that climate which exhibits at least one of the three summer months showing a
T/P < 2.5 (using the mean monthly values of temperature T and precipitation P).
submontane (vegetation belt): an altitudinal belt in temperate-zone mountains; it
is located directly between the montane and colline belt, and typically supports
mesophilous mixed deciduous woodlands.
submontane-montane (vegetation belt): both in submontane and montane
vegetation belts.
sub-saline (species, vegetation): favouring slightly saline habitats but often
growing also on other mineral-rich (e.g. lime-rich) habitats; for species, the terms
‘sub-halophyte’ or ‘facultative halophyte’ are more or less equivalent.
subnival (vegetation belt): an altitudinal belt usually developed in the highest
zone where vegetation typically exists; this area is determined by the frequent
frosts that restrict extensive plant colonization; much of this vegetation belt is
covered by patchy grassland, sedges and cushion plants typical of the arctic
zones.
summer pool (habitat): see temporary pool, of which this is a subset defined by
temporary inundation occurring in the summer months.
summer-annual (vegetation): plant formation composed of short-lived species
(usually therophytes) that germinate usually in spring or early summer and
finalise their life cycles during the same growing season; this vegetation can only
occur in regions with a sufficient sum of precipitation during the first half of
growing season, enabling the germination of seeds and early development of
seedlings.
supralittoral (habitat): equivalent of supratidal in coastal habitats, but also the
zone of freshwater lakes submerged in wet season and located above the water
level in dry season.
supramediterranean (vegetation belt): mediterranean altitudinal belt located
between the oromediterranean (upper) and mesomediterranean (lower) and
dominated by broad-leaved deciduous forests.
supramontane (vegetation belt): an altitudinal belt in the temperate-zone
mountains developed between the montane beech forests and alpine timberline;
synonymous with ‘upper montane’, sometimes (although not correctly) used as a
synonym for the subalpine belt.
supratidal (habitat): coastal habitats slightly elevated above the intratidal flats
and experiencing tidal influence only occasionally (high spring tides); the air-
borne salt and salt precipitating from ascending ground water as a result of
desiccation of the surface in dry seasons may contribute to an increase of
ambient salinity in supratidal habitats.
synusia (vegetation; pl. ‘synusiae’): in original sense an abstract partial
community (merocoenon) of species that share the same microhabitat
(microcoenon), stratum (stratocoenon) or periodicity (chronocoenon); nowadays
synusia is used in a wider sense for any type of abstract partial community,
including taxocoena, microcoena, stratocoena, chronocoena or any combination
of these, hence as a synonym of merocoenon; in the narrow sense this is term
used for abstract partial biotic communities that share the same microhabitat,
stratum, periodicity and/or life-form; occasionally ‘synusia’ is also used to
designate a small-scale cryptogam phytocoenon.
tabaibal (vegetation): low succulent scrub dominated by different species of
Euphorbia endemic or native to Macaronesian archipelago; true tabaibal is only
present in the Canaries and the Madeira archipelago.
taiga (vegetation; orig. from Turkic or Mongolian, used in contemporary
Russian): the predominantly coniferous forest located in the boreal zone of the
Northern Hemisphere; the open northern portion of the boreal forest composed of
open woodland of coniferous trees; this term is sometimes used in a regional
sense to designate the ‘subarctic zone’.
tamujal (vegetation; orig. from Castillian): scrub vegetation dominated by
‘tamujo’ (Flueggea tinctorea).
tardiglacial steppe (habitat, vegetation): referring to the cold and dry steppe
formation found in Central and Southern Europe during the last glacial period.
taxocoenon (vegetation typology; pl. ‘taxocoena’): abstract type of a partial
community (merocoenon) delimited taxonomically; for example, one could split a
complete plant community type (phytocoenon) into taxocoena of vascular plants,
bryophytes and lichens.
temperate (vegetation zone): bioclimatic zone which extends over the major part
of the European continent between the boreal zone in the north and
Mediterranean zone in the south; it is characterized by the predominance of
broad-leaved deciduous forests as potential natural vegetation.
temporary pool (habitat): small and shallow water body characterized by large
water level fluctuations during the year and periodic drying out; it is typical of, but
not confined to, regions with a highly uneven distribution of precipitation and
regular periods of drought (e.g. in the Mediterranean region or semi-deserts
around the Caspian Sea); time of flooding can be used to distinguish vernal pools
(flooded in spring, after the winter precipitations) from summer pools (flooded by
summer rains or showing prolonged inundation throughout the year).
terra rossa (soil): clayey soil with low humus content, rich in lime and iron oxides
giving a bright red colour to this soil; terra rossa soils arise as a residual deposit
after weathering of limestone, typical of the Mediterranean, but can also be found
(as relic soils) elsewhere.
thallophyte (species): informal term for any organism formerly considered as
member of the Kingdom Plantae (including the algae, fungi, and lichens) that
shows no differentiation into stem, root, or leaf.
thermo-atlantic (biogeography): related to the southern part of the Atlantic
region characterized by mild winter and with warm summers, extended from the
Aquitaine (France) to Atlantic seaboards of Galicia and northern Portugal.
thermomediterranean (vegetation belt): bioclimatic belt (usually close to the
coast) that exhibits a relatively long-lasting summer drought-stress period
(average ranging between 3–5 months) and that is characterized by potential
vegetation dominated by the evergreen sclerophyllous scrub.
thermo-supramediterranean (vegetation belt): pertaining both to the
thermomediterranean and supramediterranean belts.
therophyte (species): usually annual plant species, surviving unsuitable
conditions (e.g. low winter temperatures or summer drought) as seeds in soil.
tidal zone (habitat): the stretch of the coast that experiences a daily tidal regime.
tidal flat (habitat): see mud flat.
tomillar (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): Spanish term to designate a low
garrigue with dwarf shrubs, especially thyme species; to an extent analogous to
‘phrygana’ in Hellas.
toxitolerant (species, vegetation): tolerating high levels of ambient poisons, such
as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the air or high concentration of heavy
metals in soil.
tragacanthic (vegetation): scrub formation dominated by hemisphaeric (cushion-
forming) shrubs in the oromediterranean belt of Eurasia; the term comes from
Astragalus section Tragacantha commonly represented in this type of vegetation.
transitional mire (habitat): type of permanent wetland fed by mineral-poor to
medium-rich, slightly- or medium-acidic groundwater; also called ‘poor fens’.
tundra (vegetation, biome): cold-climate biome characteristic of Subarctic and
Arctic regions consisting of grasslands, heathlands, scrub, lichen- and bryophyte
dominated vegetation, sometimes including areas with very sparse vegetation
otherwise referred to as polar desert.
Tyrrhenian (geography): pertaining to the seaboards and archipelago in the
Tyrrhenian Sea.
umbilicate (lichen): growth-form of foliose lichens attached to rock only with one
holdfast.
ultramafic (geology): with a high content of mafic minerals (= dark coloured
minerals with high Fe and Mg content). For most plant species, such a condition
is toxic (due to the Ca:Mg ratio and increased contents of heavy metals) and
therefore it is generally colonized only by habitat specialists. Also called
‘ultrabasic’, the best-known examples are serpentinite, peridotite and harzburgite.
vallicar (vegetation; orig. from Castilian): grasslands dominated by ‘vallico’ or
‘ballico’ (Agrostis castellana).
woodland (vegetation): open-canopy forest, usually with grassy undergrowth.
white dunes (habitat): coastal foredunes.
winter-annual (vegetation): dominated by short-lived therophytes that germinate
usually in autumn and develop optimally in winter (rainfall-rich period).
xeric (habitat): dry.
xerophilous (organism): preferring habitats characterised by (at least
temporarily or locally) dry meso- and microclimate.
xero-thermophilous (plant, vegetation): preferring habitats characterised by (at
least temporarily or locally) dry soil and warm meso- and microclimate.
xerophytic (vegetation): dominated by xerophilous plants, hence preferring
habitats on the dry end of the environmental water gradient.
yaila (habitat): summer pasture in the Crimean mountains.
zonal (biogeography, vegetation): zonal vegetation occupies zonal
(macro)habitats that are primarily under control of macroclimate (also controlling
formation of zonal soil patterns) over long time scales; large-scale, natural
disturbance factors such as heavy animal grazing and recurrent fire also
contribute as important drivers of the zonal vegetation physiognomy (defined by
typical combination of plant functional types), typical of particular (zono)biome;
for further details see Walter (1976), Walter & Box (1976) and Rutherford et al.
(2006a).
zoogenic (habitat, vegetation): result of activity of animals (e.g. mechanical
disturbance of soil, grazing); usually linked to places where high densities of
animal populations occur (e.g. surroundings of mammal burrows, nesting sites of
birds).
References
Rivas-Martínez, S., Díaz, T.E., Fernández-González, F., Izco, J., Loidi, J., Lousã,
M. & Penas, A. 2002. Vascular plant communities of Spain and Portugal.
Addenda to the syntaxonomical checklist of 2001. Itinera Geobotanica 15: 5–432.
Rutherford, M.C., Mucina, L. & Powrie, L.W. 2006a. Biomes and bioregions of
Southern Africa. In: Mucina, L. & Rutherford, M.C. (eds.), The vegetation of
South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, pp. 30–51. SANBI, Pretoria.
Rutherford, M.C., Mucina, L., Powrie, L.W., Ward, A.R. & Ellis, F. 2006b.
Glossary of selected scientific and vernacular terms. In: Mucina, L. & Rutherford,
M.C. (eds.), The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, pp. 791–
800. SANBI, Pretoria, ZA.
Sage, R.F., Christin, P.-A. & Edwards, E.J. 2011. The C4 plant lineages of planet
Earth. Journal of Experimental Botany 62: 3155–3169.
Walter, H. 1976. Globale Gliederung der natürlichen terrestrischen Ökosysteme.
Flora 165: 315–323.
Walter, H. & Box, E. 1976. Global classification of natural terrestrial ecosystems.
Vegetatio 32: 75–81.
Further major terminological sources consulted
Allaby, M. 1996. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Ecology. Oxford University
Press, Oxford, UK.
Allaby, M. (ed.) 2006. A Dictionary of Plant Sciences. Revised ed. Oxford
University Press, New York, US.
Blackmore, S. & Tootill, E. (eds.) 1984. The Penguin Dictionary of Botany.
Penguin Books, London, UK.
Clark, A.N. 1990. The New Penguin Dictionary of Geography. Penguin Books,
London, UK.
Géhu, J.-M. 2006. Dictionnaire de sociologie et synécologie végétales. J.
Cramer, Berlin, DE.
Mayhew, S. & Penny, A. 1992. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Geography.
Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Whitten, D.G.A & Brooks, J.R.V. 1972. Penguin Dictionary of Geology. Penguin
Books, London, UK.