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Quality of Maternal and Paternal Parenting Following Separation and Divorce: Applied Research for the Family Court
Abstract
This chapter examines quality of parenting following separation and divorce. It considers the most influential factors for high-quality parenting following separation and divorce; the strengths and weaknesses of available studies; and whether the quality of parenting can be improved. Detailed information is presented on the measures used in the research literature as well as the empirical studies related to the quality of maternal and paternal parenting.
... Theoretical models of the effects of postdivorce/separation PT on child mental health have focused on two related constructs that may be impacted by PT and may themselves affect child mental health, IPC and PQ. The associations between higher IPC and higher child mental health problems (Pruett & DiFonzo, 2014;Warshak, 2014) and between higher quality of postdivorce parenting and lower child mental health problems (Sandler et al., 2012) are well-documented. However, perspectives diverge when PT, IPC, and PQ are considered together. ...
... Many studies have documented a significant linear relation between PT and PQ (paths A 2 & A 3 , Figure 1) in divorced and separated families (for reviews, see Fabricius, Sokol, Diaz, & Braver, 2016;Sandler et al., 2012). We argue that the relation between PT and PQ may not be optimally captured by a linear function, as there is likely to be a "good enough" point operating in nature. ...
... It is particularly important to understand the nature of these relations in the context of divorce where time spent with one parent is inversely related to time spent with the other parent. There is also strong empirical evidence that high quality parenting by both mother and father is a protective factor (paths B 2 and B 3, Figure 1) for children who experience parental divorce (Sandler et al., 2012). ...
Despite widespread acknowledgment that “frequent, continuing, and meaningful” (Pruett & DiFonzo, 2014) time with both parents is beneficial for children from divorced or separated families, and that interparental conflict (IPC) is associated with increased child mental health problems, the joint effects of parenting time (PT), parenting quality (PQ), and IPC on children’s mental health problems are less clear. The current study integrates two theoretical models in multiple mediator analyses to test indirect effects of mothers’ and fathers’ PQ and IPC to explain the association between PT and children’s mental health problems within the same model. Participants were children aged 9–18 years (N = 141) who had one or both parents participate in a randomized comparative effectiveness trial of a court-based prevention program for high-conflict divorcing or separating families. Data were collected at pretest and 9-month follow-up. Analyses revealed an indirect effect in which fathers’ PQ mediated the association between PT and child internalizing problems both concurrently and 9 months later. There were no significant indirect effects involving IPC. Analyses indicated a significant quadratic relation between PT and fathers’ PQ, suggesting that although more PT is associated with better father–child relationships, there is a point beyond which more time is not related to a better relationship. We discuss the study findings, research limitations, and implications for public policy.
... Prior research indicates that the positive quality of mothers' parenting and the family environment following divorce, including acceptance, communication, consistent discipline, support, and regular family routines, are consistently associated with fewer child adjustment problems (see Sandler et al., 2012 for a review). Research on divorced fathers' parenting has also consistently shown that a positive quality of father-child relationship is related to better child postdivorce adjustment (King & Sobolewski, 2006;Menning, 2006;Sandler, Wheeler, & Braver, 2013). ...
... Research on divorced fathers' parenting has also consistently shown that a positive quality of father-child relationship is related to better child postdivorce adjustment (King & Sobolewski, 2006;Menning, 2006;Sandler, Wheeler, & Braver, 2013). Further, the effect of mothers' and fathers' parenting on children's postdivorce outcomes is present even after controlling for interparental conflict and parenting time (Sandler et al., 2012). Despite considerable research on the relations between parenting time of divorced fathers and children's adjustment, studies have yielded inconsistent findings, such that greater parenting time is not always beneficial (see Smyth et al., 2016 for a review). ...
... Researchers have primarily used three approaches to disentangle the effects of these constructs on children's adjustment. One approach is to investigate the relations between quality of parenting and child adjustment statistically controlling for other factors (Sandler et al., 2012). A second approach is to investigate conditional or interactive relations between parenting time, quality of parenting, and interparental conflict with children's postdivorce adjustment (e.g., Sandler et al., 2008Sandler et al., , 2013. ...
Parenting time, interparental conflict, and the quality of parenting a child experiences in the postdivorce family environment have complex relations with child adjustment outcomes. Using person-centered latent profile analyses, the present study examined (a) separate profiles of mothers' (N = 472) and fathers' (N = 353) parenting time, interparental conflict, and quality of parenting following divorce; and (b) associations of mother and father profiles with concurrent child outcomes (48% female, 3- to 18-years-old) as well as child outcomes 3 and 10 months later. Mother and father profiles were primarily differentiated by levels of parenting time and quality of parenting, respectively. Mother and father profiles defined by greater parenting time and lower quality parenting were associated with the poorest child outcomes.
... One significant change is that non-residential fathers are increasingly involved in their children's lives following divorce (Parkinson 2011). There is considerable research evidence that a father's active involvement (i.e., contact and support) with his children following divorce is related to better child adjustment (Bastaits et al. 2012;Fabricius et al. 2012;Flouri 2006;Sandler et al. 2012), but that children's adjustment may be compromised when father involvement is associated with high levels of interparental conflict (Fehlberg et al. 2011). Understanding the relationships between father involvement and children's post-divorce adjustment is complicated by the many factors that & Kit K. Elam kkelam@asu.edu ...
... Others have proposed that the effects of fathers' postdivorce involvement on children's adjustment may differ as a function of the broader family context, particularly the level of interparental conflict (Modecki et al. 2015;Sandler et al. 2012). Interparental conflict is known to have a negative influence on adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems (David and Murphy 2004;Doyle and Markiewicz 2005), especially conflict between mother and non-residential father (Dunn et al. 2005). ...
... One approach examines the unique effect of each variable while controlling for the effects of the others. For example, several studies have found that the quality of the father-child relationship predicts children's adjustment after controlling for interparental conflict and mother-child relationship quality (e.g., Sandler et al. 2012). A second approach examines interactive effects where the effect of each variable is conditioned by the effect of other variables. ...
Variable-centered research has found complex relationships between child well-being and two critical aspects of the post-divorce family environment: the level of non-residential father involvement (i.e., contact and supportive relationship) with their children and the level of conflict between the father and mother. However, these analyses fail to capture individual differences based on distinct patterns of interparental conflict, father support and father contact. Using a person-centered latent profile analysis, the present study examined (1) profiles of non-residential father contact, support, and interparental conflict in the 2 years following divorce (N = 240), when children (49 % female) were between 9 and 12 years of age and (2) differences across profiles in concurrent child adjustment outcomes as well as outcomes 6 years later. Four profiles of father involvement were identified: High Contact-Moderate Conflict-Moderate Support, Low Contact-Moderate Conflict-Low Support, High Conflict-Moderate Contact-Moderate Support, and Low Conflict-Moderate Contact-Moderate Support. Concurrently, children with fathers in the group with high conflict were found to have significantly greater internalizing and externalizing problems compared to all other groups. Six years later, children with fathers in the group with low contact and low support were found to have greater internalizing and externalizing problems compared to children with fathers in the high conflict group, and also greater internalizing problems compared to children with fathers in the low conflict group. These results provide insight into the complex relationship among non-residential fathers' conflict, contact, and support in child adjustment within divorcing families.
... Second, existing longitudinal studies with children at risk due to a variety of adversities have not examined prospective relations between parental warmth and cortisol regulation over prolonged periods of time (e.g., into adulthood). Third, theoretical and empirical accounts suggest that parental divorce may pose a risk to developing biological regulation, and positive mother-child relationships are consistently associated with improved child psychological adjustment post-divorce (44), but research has not yet prospectively evaluated maternal warmth as a predictor of cortisol regulation in children from divorced families. Finally, studies of the impact of parental warmth on children's health primarily rely on caregiver reports, while retrospective research in adulthood primarily relies on offspring ratings. ...
... Parental divorce is a well-established risk factor for a number of short-and long-term mental and physical health problems. However, the presence of a responsive, supportive caregiver has consistently emerged as a protective influence for children exposed to varied forms of adversity, including children from divorced families (44). The current longitudinal study evaluated maternal warmth as a protective influence on biological regulation among young adults who experienced parental divorce during childhood. ...
... Finally, we did not evaluate the impact of paternal warmth on offspring cortisol regulation. The father-child relationship is typically more disrupted following divorce than the mother-child relationship (58) and the quality of paternal parenting is independently related to children's post-divorce adjustment (44). A growing research literature recognizes the importance of father-child relationships for developing biological regulatory systems as well (e.g., 59), and it will be important to consider paternal warmth in future research. ...
Objectives:
The experience of parental divorce during childhood is associated with an increased risk of behavioral and physical health problems. Alterations in adrenocortical activity may be a mechanism in this relation. Parent-child relationships have been linked to cortisol regulation in children exposed to adversity, but prospective research is lacking. We examined maternal warmth in adolescence as a predictor of young adults' cortisol stress response 15 years after parental divorce.
Methods:
Participants included 240 youth from recently divorced families. Mother and child reports of maternal warmth were assessed at 6 time points across childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. Offspring salivary cortisol was measured in young adulthood before and after a social stress task. Structural equation modeling was used to predict cortisol response from maternal warmth across early and late adolescence.
Results:
Higher child-reported maternal warmth in early adolescence predicted higher child-reported maternal warmth in late adolescence (standardized regression = 0.45, standard error = 0.065, p < .01), which predicted lower cortisol response to a challenging interpersonal task in young adulthood (standardized regression = -0.20, standard error = 0.094, p = .031). Neither mother-reported warmth in early adolescence nor late adolescence was significantly related to offspring cortisol response in young adulthood.
Conclusions:
Results suggest that for children from divorced families, a warm mother-child relationship after divorce and across development, as perceived by the child, may promote efficient biological regulation later in life.
Trial registration:
ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01407120.
... Thus, findings from empirical research often play a critical role in shaping court practices and policies. For example, it has consistently been shown that the quality of parenting by both the mother and father are related to the well-being of children following divorce (e.g., Kelly & Emery, 2003;Sandler et al., 2012). Thus, court-related parent-education programs teach the importance of both parents to the postdivorce adjustment of children (Braver, Salem, Pearson, & DeLuse, 1996;Geasler & Blaisure, 1999). ...
... The current study adds to prior empirical literature on mother and father parenting following divorce (for a review, see Sandler et al., 2012) by testing three contextual factors as moderators of the relations between mother and father parenting and the well-being of children: quality of parenting by the other parent, interparental conflict, and the number of overnights the child spends with each parent. This study was conducted with a sample of parents who are in high conflict over reaching a legal agreement on a postdivorce parenting plan, a population of particular interest to family courts. ...
... and further supported the creation of a composite scale of the three parenting scales. Use of a composite positive parenting score is consistent with prior research on postdivorce parenting by mothers and fathers (e.g., Sandler et al., 2008;Simons et al.,1994), and composite parenting scores have repeatedly been correlated with child mental health problems (Sandler et al., 2012). The composite scale was created by taking the mean of the standardized scales for mothers and fathers, respectively. ...
The current study examined the associations between child mental health problems and the quality of maternal and paternal parenting, and how these associations were moderated by three contextual factors: quality of parenting by the other parent, interparental conflict, and the number of overnights parents had with the child. Data for the current study came from a sample of divorcing families who are in high legal conflict over developing or maintaining a parenting plan following divorce. Analyses revealed that the associations between child mental health problems and positive maternal and paternal parenting were moderated by the quality of parenting provided by the other parent and by the number of overnights children spent with parents, but not by the level of interparental conflict. When parenting by the other parent and number of overnights were considered together in the same model, only number of overnights moderated the relations between parenting and child-behavior problems. The results support the proposition that the well-being of children in high-conflict divorcing families is better when they spend adequate time with at least one parent who provides high-quality parenting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
... Quality of maternal and paternal parenting has emerged as a central predictor of children's adjustment after separation and divorce in the past decade, and in fact, is a more potent predictor of adjustment than parent conflict (for recent reviews, see Fabricius, et al., 2012; Kelly, 2012; Pruett, et al., 2012; Sandler, et al., 2012). Newer studies of father involvement often measure quantity of time, quality of parenting, and dimensions of the father-child relationship. ...
... Extensive research confirms that more father involvement and close father-child relationships following separation, regardless of family structure and living circumstances, are associated with better adjustment and increased resiliency in children and adolescents. Benefits were widespread across the age spectrum, including: behavioral (e.g., lower incidents of aggression, delinquency, substance abuse); cognitive (e.g., better verbal and math literacy); emotional/social (e.g., greater problem solving competence, stress tolerance, empathy, and better peer relationships); and academic (e.g., higher grade completion and high school graduation rates, higher achievement scores (see Kelly, 2007, 2012; Lamb, 2010, 2012a; Pruett, et al., 2012; Sandler, et al., 2012 for reviews). As with infant-father involvement studies, these positive effects were independent of the contributions of mothers' involvement. ...
... It is important to note, however, that children whose parents encapsulated their conflict (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002) and did not put children in the middle of their disputes (Buchanan, Maccoby, & Dornbusch, 1991) were as well adjusted as children of low conflict parents. The presence of protective buffers, such as encapsulation, competent parenting of one or both parents, and parental warmth, were found to diminish the impact of high parental conflict after separation and divorce (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002; Kelly, 2012; Sandler et al., 2012). ...
This paper reports upon part of an inquiry into the effects of parental divorce on children and adolescents. The entire sample includes 131 children between the ages of 2 1/2 and 18 yr from 60 families. These children and their parents were studied intensively by an interdisciplinary clinical team at two points in the family life experience: shortly after the initial separation of the parents and a year later. In this first report on the preschool children, the authors present the initial response of all 34 preschool children in the sample to the parental separation and pending divorce, and turn then to a fuller consideration of those 15 children (44%) who at the second check point of the study appeared in significantly worsened psychological condition.
... In addition to the extensive evidence that IPC undermines children's emotional security, other family processes can positively affect children's sense of safety and security in their families. Generally, high-quality parent-child relationships are robustly protective in the face of adversity (Mortensen & Mastergeorge, 2014;Yap et al., 2016), particularly following separation/divorce (Sandler et al., 2012). However, prior research is mixed about whether parent-child relationships are protective against IPC specifically (Davies, Harold, et al., 2002;DeBoard-Lucas et al., 2010;El-Sheikh & Elmore-Staton, 2004;Grych et al., 2004;O'Hara et al., 2021). ...
... We also observed that all forms of emotional insecurity predicted self-reported internalizing and externalizing problems for adolescents from married and divorced families, except that parent-child insecurity only predicted externalizing problems in married families. It is difficult to make sense of this finding in the context of the larger literature that supports the role of high-quality parent-child relationships in preventing externalizing problems, particularly after separation/divorce (Sandler et al., 2012). Parent-child relationships are typically defined as a broad construct that includes attachment, among other qualities, such as warmth and communication. ...
This study investigated whether interparental conflict was differentially related to forms of emotional security (i.e., family, interparental, parent–child) and whether forms of emotional security were differentially associated with mental health problems for adolescents in married versus divorced/separated families. Participants were 1032 adolescents (ages 10–15; 51% male, 49% female; 82% non‐Hispanic White, 9% Black/African American, 5% Hispanic, 2% Asian or Pacific Islander, 2% Native American) recruited from a public school in a middle‐class suburb of a United States metropolitan area. We used multiple group multivariate path analysis to assess (1) associations between interparental conflict and multiple measures of emotional insecurity (i.e., family, interparental, and parent–child), (2) associations between measures of emotional insecurity and internalizing and externalizing problems, and (3) moderation effects of parent–child relationships. The patterns of association were similar across family structures. A high‐quality parent–child relationship did not mitigate the harmful effects of interparental conflict on emotional insecurity or mental health problems. Findings suggest that regardless of family structure, emotional security across multiple family systems may be a critical target for intervention to prevent youth mental health problems, in addition to interventions that reduce conflict and improve parent–child relationships.
... Kelly (2012), in a comprehensive review of the research, identified risk and protective factors associated with child and adolescent adjustment following separation and divorce, such as interparental conflict, parent mental health problems, and quality of parenting and coparenting. Similar to the concept of cumulative risk and protection (Rutter, 1979;Sandler et al., 2012;Wilson, Hurtt, Shaw, Dishion, & Gardner, 2009), risk factors are predicted to have an additive effect on the development of problem outcomes. In a prospective longitudinal study of a sample of children (ages 9 through 12) from divorced families, Dawson-McClure, Sandler, Wolchik, and Millsap (2004) found that after accounting for the effects of child behavior problems at baseline, a composite measure of environmental stressors (that included measures of interparental conflict, negative life events, contact with noncustodial father, maternal mental health problems, and financial hardship) predicted multiple problem outcomes when children were ages 15 through 18. ...
... The predictive value might be improved by combining information across multiple reporters and methods, such as by using mother, father and child reports and direct observation of parent-child interactions. The predictive value of the father report measure might be improved by adding measures of the aspects of the father-child relationship that predict children's well-being following divorce, such as quality of parenting (Sandler et al., 2012). Another approach to improving the predictive validity of the measure might be to include items on other risk and protective factors following parental divorce, such as divorce related-stressful events and coparenting, and use a different set of behavior problem items, such as items from the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 2001) that have been found to predict child behavior problems in other populations. ...
This article reports on the development of a brief 15-item parent-report risk index (Child Risk Index for Divorced or Separated Families; CRI-DS) to predict problem outcomes of children who have experienced parental divorce. A series of analyses using 3 data sets were conducted that identified and cross-validated a parsimonious set of items representing parent report of child behavior problems and family level risk and protective factors, each of which contributed to the predictive accuracy of the index. The index predicted child behavior outcomes and substance abuse problems up to 6 years later. The index has acceptable levels of sensitivity and specificity as a screening measure to predict problem outcomes up to 1 year later. The use of the index to identify the need for preventive services is discussed, along with limitations of the study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
... Coparenting arrangements characterized by high levels of conflict and low parental involvement put children at greater risk for negative outcomes (Fagan, 2014;Zhao et al., 2022), such as behavioral problems (Choi & Becher, 2019) and lower academic self-efficacy (Kara & Sümer, 2022). Conversely, a strong co-parenting alliance, characterized by positive parenting practices and a high degree of teamwork between parents (McHale et al., 2004), can potentially insulate children from some of the unpleasantness of the divorce process (Sandler et al., 2012), while also aiding their socioemotional development (Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2023). A strong co-parenting alliance can also hold benefits for parents, including lower levels of parental stress, which may lead to less harsh parenting (Choi & Becher, 2019) and healthier co-parenting practices (Cronin et al., 2017). ...
... As a consequence, parental stress can lead to inconsistent parenting practices, severely affecting adolescents' emotional and academic outcomes (Sun & Li, 2011). Keeping the focus on adolescents, Sandler et al. (2012) highlighted that while adolescents may appear more resilient than kids, the compounded stress of economic difficulties and reduced supervision can lead to risky behaviors and mental health issues. Some mechanisms outlined above may help explain heterogeneities in separation penalties by age at parental separation. ...
This paper addresses the long-standing question of whether parental separation shapes offspring school performance drawing on retrospective data from a group of university students in Italy, a country that has historically had very low separation rates yet has experienced an important rise in family dissolution over the last two decades. Using survey data from 1st-year enrollees in undergraduate courses in Economics and Statistics at two points in time (2000 and 2017), we explore whether the association between parental separation and children’s school performance (i) is observed both at the level of middle school (MS) and high school (HS); (ii) varies according to the age at which students experienced separation, and (iii) varies by parental socio-economic status (SES). Our results suggest that students whose parents separated before MS completion score on average 2 points less on the end-of-middle-school exam relative to students whose parents did not separate or separated after MS completion. Similarly, students whose parents separated before HS completion score 1 point less on the end-of-high-school exam relative to their counterpart. As such, we document a parental separation penalty both at the level of MS and HS, yet lower by half when separation occurs later in students’ life course. Moreover, for HS grade parental separation is associated with more negative consequences when students experience it at very young ages (0–5), while for MS grade heterogeneity by age is less clear-cut. Such penalties are concentrated among children of low-educated mothers, particularly for HS, providing support to the “compensatory advantage” hypothesis predicting smaller penalties for children of high-SES parents. Overall, findings from this study corroborate existing evidence suggesting that the consequences of parental separation vary depending on a combination of social background and the “selectivity” of the educational outcome considered.
... Although it is still in dispute whether the beneficial effects of high-quality parenting would be substantially reduced by high interparental conflict following parental separation or divorce (Nielsen, 2017), accumulating research has generally indicated that following parental divorce children tend to have the best adaptation outcomes when parenting quality is high in both parents and interparental conflict is low. Moreover, there is also some evidence showing that high-quality parenting by one parent may compensate for the deleterious effects of interparental conflict and low-quality parenting by the other parent on child adjustment (Carr et al., 2019;King & Sobolewski, 2006;Lau, 2017;Mahrer et al., 2016Mahrer et al., , 2018Sandler et al., 2008Sandler et al., , 2012Sandler et al., , 2013. As such, a more pertinent question that awaits to be more thoroughly addressed appears to be whether and how high-quality parenting following divorce or separation is beneficial for child adaptation in the presence of other conditions that often threaten child well-being (e.g., protracted, high levels of interparental conflict). ...
Divorce has been conceptualized as a process. Research has extensively demonstrated that it is pre/postdivorce family environment factors that primarily account for the variability in children’s adaptation over parental divorce process rather than the legal divorce per se. Amongst various factors, interparental conflict has been consistently identified as a prominent one. Surprisingly, a single source is still lacking that comprehensively synthesizes the extant findings. This review fills this gap by integrating the numerous findings across studies into a more coherent Divorce Process and Child Adaptation Trajectory Typology (DPCATT) Model to illustrate that pre/postdivorce interparental conflict plays crucial roles in shaping child adaptation trajectories across parental divorce process. This review also summarizes the mechanisms (e.g., child cognitive and emotional processes, coparenting, parent–child relations) via which pre/postdivorce interparental conflict determines these trajectories and the factors (e.g., child gender and age, child coping, grandparental support) that interact with pre/postdivorce interparental conflict to further complicate these trajectories. In addition, echoing the call of moving beyond the monolithic conceptualization of pre/postdivorce interparental conflict, we also review studies on the differential implications of different aspects (e.g., frequency versus intensity) and types (e.g., overt versus covert) of interparental conflict for child adjustment. Last, limitations of prior studies and avenues for future research are discussed. The proposed framework may serve as a common knowledge base for researchers to compare/interpret results, detect cutting edges of the fields, and design new studies. The specificity, complexity, nuance, and diversity inherent within our proposed model await to be more fully revealed.
... Prior empirical and theoretical research indicates that after parental divorce children are at increased risk of short-and long-term physical health problems (Afifi & McManus, 2010). However, the quality of paternal parenting post-divorce can potentially mitigate this risk (Sandler et al., 2012). In a 15-year prospective longitudinal study of children following parental divorce, the current study found that child reports of higher father supportive behavior in pre-adolescence were associated with more child-level protective resources later in adolescence, which predicted better physical health perceptions in young adulthood. ...
We evaluated the long‐term impact of father supportive behaviors post‐divorce on youth physical health perceptions, mediated through youth's protective resources. Youth (N = 240; 49% female, 88% Caucasian) reported on father supportive behaviors post‐divorce four times (between ages 9–12), protective resources once (age 15–19), and perceptions of physical health at age 24–28. Higher father support behaviors predicted more protective resources in adolescence which predicted better perceived health in young adulthood. Father support post‐divorce can have long‐term benefits for offspring health by promoting child‐level protective resources. This article examines the long‐term health benefits of father supportive behavior on children's health post‐divorce. This article looks at how father supportive behaviors benefit youth, e.g., via building up children's protective resources later in life. This article examined specific types of father behaviors that are beneficial to youth health.
... They are also more likely to engage in substance abuse and have higher risk of morality (Zebrak & Green, 2016). These individual health-related issues negatively impact their parenting quality (Sandler et al., 2012), depreciating their effectiveness as parents. Disruptive parenting and family create adverse effect on child and adolescent psychosocial development (Parke et al., 2004). ...
... Similarly, the CCF posits that contextual factors, such as children's relationships with their parents, are critically important in shaping their appraisals of IPC (Grych & Fincham, 1990). High quality parenting is a robust protective resource for children, especially those who experience parental divorce (Sandler et al., 2012). How might high-quality parenting mitigate the effects of IPC on children's fear of abandonment, and in turn, mental health problems? ...
In a sample of 559 children (ages 9–18), researchers investigated whether: (a) fear of abandonment mediated the association between postdivorce interparental conflict (IPC) and mental health problems, and (b) parent–child relationship quality moderated the association between IPC and fear of abandonment. Mediation analyses indicated that pretest IPC predicted fear of abandonment 3 months later, which then predicted child‐ and teacher‐reported mental health problems 10 months later. The hypothesized protective effect of a high‐quality parent–child relationship was not observed. IPC predicted fear of abandonment for all children, except for those with low‐ and moderate‐quality father–child relationships, for whom IPC was not significantly related to fear of abandonment. Findings highlight the need to optimize child coping programs and improve parenting‐after‐divorce programs to reduce IPC.
... & Fincham, 1996;Sandler et al., 2012), distinctions between mother-child and fatherchild relationships were found. For instance, a longitudinal study found that interparental relationship adjustment and child-rearing difficulty (e.g., parental psychological control) were only significantly related in the paternal pathway (Davies, Sturge-Apple, Woitach, & Cummings, 2009). ...
Familial influences on children’s cigarette smoking have been established, yet little is known about whether these influences in childhood relate to offspring’s smoking behavior in adolescence. Drawing on prior work showing that children’s emotional and behavioral problems (i.e., internalizing and externalizing behavior problems) are influenced by both interparental and parent–child relationships, we examined whether children’s emotional and behavioral problems would further predict their smoking behavior in adolescence. Two hundred and twenty‐one families were followed from early childhood (Mage = 4.05 years) to the 10‐year follow‐up. Interparental relationship adjustment and disagreement, dysfunctional parenting, and children’s emotional and behavioral problems were reported by both mothers and fathers. Adolescents’ self‐reported cigarette smoking status was assessed along with other demographic variables. Using structural equation modeling, the hypothesis was only supported based on mothers’ reports, suggesting that early couple relationship adjustment and parenting relate to children’s emotional and behavioral problems, which associate with smoking behavior in adolescence. When the hypothesized model was tested with emotional and behavioral problems separately, only behavioral problems were related to adolescent smoking for both parents. Findings from this study support models of family environment and children’s behavioral problems, providing evidence of the long‐term links with adolescent cigarette smoking behaviors. Further family‐focused research and preventive work, for instance, testing the combination of partner support and parent training, are needed.
... Family Relations (2019) Researchers have documented many protective and risk factors for children's outcomes in the context of parental divorce (for a review, see Kelly, 2012). Specific to this study, established literature indicates that a stronger coparenting alliance (Teubert & Pinquart, 2010) and greater positive parenting practices are protective (Sandler et al., 2012). Conversely, high levels of parental conflict correspond with high risk of negative outcomes among children (Fagan, 2014;Grych, 2005). ...
Objective
To examine the influence of positive parenting and parental conflict on the coparenting alliance.
Background
Research indicates that child and family outcomes after divorce are affected by the quality of the coparenting relationship between parents, with many divorce education programs focusing on coparenting as a core programmatic component. Less is known about how positive parenting and parental conflict affect the coparenting alliance.
Method
This study collected online survey data from a convenience sample of divorcing parents (N = 430). Participants completed measures of parenting, parental conflict, and coparenting alliance. Regression and simple slope analyses were performed with parental conflict and positive parenting as predictors of coparenting alliance.
Results
Positive parenting and parenting conflict both predicted the coparenting alliance. Low levels of conflict predicted high levels of coparenting when positive parenting was high and moderate; however, conflict did not predict alliance when positive parenting was low.
Conclusion
Parents who engaged in moderate to high positive parenting had the anticipated negative relationship between conflict and coparenting alliance, but this did not hold true for parents who engaged in below average positive parenting, suggesting that both parenting and conflict play a role in a resilient coparenting alliance.
Implications
Divorcing parents' parenting skills may be important to consider when deciding on prevention and intervention efforts aimed at supporting their coparenting alliance. Therefore, divorce education programs may benefit from incorporating content related to positive parenting and parents with weaker parenting practices may need different types of intervention.
... Other forms of trauma such as those resulting from unintentional injury, health disorders, child surgery, parental substance use, parent mental health, acculturation stress, and historical violence (e.g., atrocities against American Indians) were not included. Also excluded from this definition were studies of parenting interventions for families experiencing conflict following divorce, which has its own robust literature (see Sandler et al. 2012). Studies of child maltreatment interventions were not included if they involved the offending parent as these interventions might have different incentives for participation (i.e., court mandated) and target substantively different parenting practices. ...
Over half of all youth are exposed to violence, which a growing body of literature suggests is associated with a broad range of negative developmental outcomes over the life course. However, best practices for supporting parenting are not widely applied to parents with children exposed to violence-related trauma. This meta-analyses seeks to synthesize the literature base of trauma-informed parenting interventions to better understand their potential impact on parenting and child outcomes. Specifically, 21 trauma-informed parenting interventions were identified that quantitatively assessed intervention effects on parenting and child outcomes. Six meta-analyses were conducted to assess intervention effects on (1) positive parenting practices, (2) negative parenting practices, (3) parenting stress, (4) children’s internalizing problems, (5) children’s externalizing problems, and (6) trauma symptoms, respectively. Moderate to large effect sizes were found for positive parenting practices (d = 0.62) as well as child internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and trauma symptoms (d = 0.48–0.59). Validity tests indicated robust findings for positive parenting and for all child outcomes. Additional moderator analyses support the importance of informed intervention design, showing differential findings by trauma type as well as by duration of the intervention. These findings indicate the value of evidence-based parenting interventions for violence-related trauma and support models of trauma-informed care that situate treatment in the broader social context, particularly the family. Results are discussed with respect to which parenting practices hold the most promise for supporting children exposed to violence-related trauma.
... En Chile, habitualmente, este es el hogar materno. Sin embargo con el fin de facilitar el tránsito entre un tipo de familia biparental a uno uniparental, ambos padres pueden participar con los mismos derechos y deberes en la crianza y educación de sus hijos, que es lo que se pretende a través del concepto de "co-custodia" 34,35 o custodia compartida. ...
When divorce or separation of a couple occurs, children will no longer live with both parents at the same time. There may be multiple causes for divorce, and both literature and our own experien ce as child mental health providers, report some short- and long-term consequences for children, especially where the divorce has been conflictive. In these cases, increased risk of developing be havioral disorders, poor school performance, and substance abuse has been documented as well as consequences in adult life with higher risk of psychiatric pathologies or difficulties in interpersonal relationships, if an intervention that addresses some potentially traumatic situations for children is not done. Pediatricians are in a privileged relationship with children and their families in order to detect signs of parental discord and altered mental health in children. Children behaviors as a result of divorce and parental conflict will depend on the age of the child and stage of development, and it is important to recognize them in order to intervene properly. This article proposes some guidelines for parents. Good management of high conflict situations related to divorce may prevent some of the consequences that these can have on children.
... Parenting quality is a broad term that has been applied to several constructs including the quality of the parent-child relationship (e.g., warmth, communication, support, encouragement, closeness), parental involvement in children's activities, and use of effective discipline (e.g., consistency, appropriate consequences, effective monitoring). The combination of a warm parent-child relationship and use of appropriate discipline has been consistently linked with positive child adjustment following divorce (Adamson & Johnson, 2013;Sandler, Wolchik, Winslow, Mahrer, Moran, & Weinstock, 2012). Reliable and valid measures of the quality of parenting by mother and father have been developed, although sometimes different measures are used for fathers because children have historically lived primarily with their mothers after divorce. ...
Despite a recent shift in the allocation of parenting time arrangements following divorce, there is no clear consensus regarding the effects of shared parenting on children’s adjustment in high-conflict families. We propose key questions and methodological options to increase the ability of results from well-designed empirical studies to inform practice and policy. We review 11 studies of relations between parenting time and parenting quality with children’s adjustment in high-conflict divorced families. Despite heterogeneity of methods used across the studies, some tentative conclusions can be made based on findings of multiple studies. Higher levels of shared parenting were related to poorer child adjustment in samples with high conflict many years following the divorce, but typically not in samples that assessed conflict during the divorcing process or in the 2 or 3 years following the divorce. There is also evidence that the effects of shared parenting on child adjustment in the presence of high conflict differs by gender, and that high quality of parenting by at least 1 parent is associated with better child adjustment in high-conflict divorces. Implications for policy and practice are discussed as well as directions for research to strengthen the knowledge base to inform policy.
... However, as time goes on, generally, it has been found that non-residential fathers' having contact with children does not necessarily lead children to positive outcomes (Modecki et al. 2015). Instead, the quality of the relationships between non-residential fathers and children, including an emotional bond, feeling close, an authoritative parenting style, and higher levels of parental advice or support, is important for children's outcomes, such as externalizing behavioral problems (e.g., antisocial behaviors and delinquency) and internalizing behavioral problems (e.g., negative feelings, depression, lower self-esteem) (Aquilino 2006;King 2006;King and Sobolewski 2006;Mitchell et al. 2009;Sandler et al. 2012;Yoder et al. 2016). In addition, given that an individual's psychosocial adjustment is linked to romantic relationship qualities (Tolpin et al. 2006), it can be assumed that qualities of relationships between nonresidential fathers and children are important for children's romantic relationship qualities. ...
The current study examined parent–child relationships during adolescence as a moderator between earlier parental divorce and children’s romantic relationships in emerging adulthood. In addition, the study examined the potential different outcomes in children’s romantic relationships according to the gender of parents and children as well as to fathers’ different residence types. The data for this study came from a 22-year 9-wave investigated longitudinal study, Michigan Study of Life Transitions (MSALT), which began in 1983. The sample for the current study was 520 (female = 311 and male = 209) from ‘always-married’ and 154 (female = 107 and male = 47) from ‘divorced’ families. Some of main findings are that residential father–child relationships during adolescence were more critical for children’s satisfaction in their romantic relationships in emerging adulthood than non-residential divorced father–child relationships, and that relationships with fathers during adolescence mattered for daughters’ satisfaction in their romantic relationships in emerging adulthood, but not for the sons’ satisfaction. Possible explanations of the findings, limitations, and strengths in the current study are discussed, and future research directions are addressed.
... A narrative review of the literature on father post-divorce involvement noted that multiple indicators of the quality of father parenting, including feelings of closeness between the father and child, involvement in children's activities, responsiveness, and use of effective discipline were associated with better child adjustment (Sandler et al. 2012). Several studies found specific aspects of father parenting related to specific outcomes (e.g., father engagement in a variety of activities, discussions of schoolwork related to academic outcomes; Menning 2006). ...
This paper reports on the effects on parenting and on children's mental health problems and competencies from a randomized trial of a parenting program for divorced and separated fathers. The program, New Beginnings Program-Dads (NBP-Dads), includes ten group sessions (plus two phone sessions) which promote parenting skills to increase positive interactions with children, improve father-child communication, use of effective discipline strategies, and skills to protect children from exposure to interparental conflict. The program was adapted from the New Beginnings Program, which has been tested in two randomized trials with divorced mothers and shown to strengthen mothers' parenting and improve long-term outcomes for children (Wolchik et al. 2007). Fathers were randomly assigned to receive either NBP-Dads or a 2-session active comparison program. The sample consisted of 384 fathers (201 NBP-Dads, 183 comparisons) and their children. Assessments using father, youth, and teacher reports were conducted at pretest, posttest, and 10-month follow-up. Results indicated positive effects of NBP-Dads to strengthen parenting as reported by fathers and youth at posttest and 10-month follow-up. Program effects to reduce child internalizing problems and increase social competence were found at 10 months. Many of the program effects were moderated by baseline level of the variable, child age, gender, and father ethnicity. This is the first randomized trial to find significant effects to strengthen father parenting following divorce. In view of recent changes in family courts to allot fathers increasing amounts of parenting time following divorce, the results have significant implications for improving outcomes for children from divorced families.
... Research on fathers' participation in parenting interventions during divorce or separation is timely because divorced fathers are spending more time with their children due to changing court practices that increasingly promote gender equality in assignment of parenting time following divorce (Cancian et al. 2014). Moreover, there is robust evidence that the father-child relationship has a significant impact on children's post-divorce adjustment (Sandler et al. 2012). ...
We examined attendance trajectories among mothers and fathers in the effectiveness trial of the New Beginnings Program, a parenting-focused prevention program for divorced and separated parents. We also investigated attendance trajectory class differences on two sets of pretest covariates: one set previously linked to participation in programs not specifically targeting divorced parents (i.e., sociodemographics, perceived parenting skills, child problem behaviors, parent psychological distress) and another that might be particularly salient to participation in the context of divorce (i.e., interparental conflict, level of parent-child contact, previous marital status to the ex-spouse). For mothers and fathers, results supported four attendance trajectory classes: (1) non-attenders (NA), (2) early dropouts (ED), (3) declining attenders (DA), and (4) sustained attenders (SA). In the final model testing multiple covariates simultaneously, mothers who were EDs and DAs were more likely to be Latina than SAs, and EDs reported more interparental conflict than SAs. Mother trajectory groups did not differ on parenting skills, child problem behavior, or mother-child contact in the final or preliminary models. In the final model for fathers, EDs rated their children higher on externalizing than DAs, had less contact with their children than DAs and NAs, and reported less distress than SAs. Father trajectory groups did not differ on fathers' age, ethnicity, income, perceived parenting skills, or interparental conflict in the final or preliminary models. Results highlight qualitatively distinct latent classes of mothers and fathers who disengage from a parenting intervention at various points. We discuss implications for intervention engagement strategies and translational science.
... Divorced fathers are another important subgroup for implementation of NBP. Although fathers often experience diminished levels of contact with their children following divorce (Fabricius et al. 2010) and experience a heightened sense of role strain in the parenting role (Umberson and Williams 1993), research has consistently found that the quality of paternal parenting following divorce is predictive of child wellbeing (Amato and Gilbreth 1999;Sandler et al. 2012). The finding that fathers' efficacy and competence of home practice predicted child and parent reports of improvement in relationship quality provides strong support that programs can improve father-child relationships through teaching and supporting use of these skills. ...
An examination of the content and processes of evidence-based programs is critical for empirically evaluating theories about how programs work, the “action theory” of the program (West et al. in American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 571–605, 1993). The New Beginnings Program (NBP; Wolchik et al., 2007), a parenting-after-divorce preventive intervention, theorizes that program-induced improvements in parenting across three domains: positive relationship quality, effective discipline, and protecting children from interparental conflict, will reduce the negative outcomes that are common among children from divorced families. The process theory is that home practice of program skills related to these parenting domains is the primary mechanism leading to positive change in parenting. This theory was tested using multi-rater data from 477 parents in the intervention condition of an effectiveness trial of the NBP (Sandler et al. 2016a, 2016b). Four research questions were addressed: Does home practice of skills predict change in the associated parenting outcomes targeted by the program? Is the effect above and beyond the influence of attendance at program sessions? What indicators of home practice (i.e., attempts, fidelity, efficacy, and competence) are most predictive of improvements in parenting? Do these indicators predict parenting improvements in underserved subpopulations (i.e., fathers and Latinos)? Structural Equation Modeling analyses indicated that parent-reported efficacy and provider-rated parent competence of home practice predicted improvements in the targeted parenting domains according to both parent and child reports. Moreover, indicators of home practice predicted improvements in parenting for fathers and Latinos, although patterns of effects varied by parenting outcome.
... Defining and measuring quality of parenting Parenting quality is a broad term that has been applied to several constructs including the quality of the parent-child relationship (e.g., warmth, communication, support, encouragement, closeness), parental involvement in children's activities, and use of effective discipline (e.g., consistency, appropriate consequences, effective monitoring). The combination of a warm parentchild relationship and use of appropriate discipline has been consistently linked with positive child adjustment following divorce (Adamson & Johnson, 2013;Sandler et al., 2012). Reliable and valid measures of the quality of parenting by mother and father have been developed, although sometimes different measures are used for fathers because children have historically lived primarily with their mothers after divorce. ...
... Equally, contentment and affection between partners may positively influence the motherchild dyad, engendering more helpful and prosocial behaviors in the offspring. In general, it is thought that mothers with poor marital relationship quality are more likely to engage in problematic parenting practices, including hostile and vindictive communications and inconsistent disciplinary action (Sandler et al., 2012), than those with high relationship quality, and these serve to adversely influence both the mother-child relationship and child wellbeing (Pappa, 2013). ...
We investigated the association between marital quality and child behavior, assessing mother–child relationship quality as a potential mediator. The sample included 78 mothers with two target children (mean ages = 9.82 and 12.05 years, respectively). Mothers reported on their children’s behavior as well as their marital quality, while each child reported on their relationship with their mother. Confirming our hypothesis, marital quality did relate to child behavior. Contrary to our expectations, the mother–child relationship provided negligible mediation of the link, but did provide significant prediction of child behavior in its own right. Importantly, our findings show differential outcomes for children within the same family, supporting a differentiated child-specific outlook. Further evidence that both marital quality and shared, as well as differential, mother–child relationships link with child behavior is provided here. Consequently, interventions with the aim of decreasing children’s behavioral problems and increasing more positive conduct can usefully include a focus on the nature of the parents’ romantic relationship, alongside parenting.
... Over the past three decades, we have conducted randomized trials of brief (10-to 12-group sessions) parenting programs for families who experienced divorce (13) and the death of a parent (14). Children in families who experience these disruptions are at increased risk for problems years later; effective parenting is a major protective factor that correlates with more optimal outcomes for children (15,16). These trials tested experimentally the proposition that promoting effective parenting in families that experience these adversities reduces children's long-term problems. ...
In this article, we address three questions concerning the long-term effects of parenting-focused preventive interventions: (a) Do prevention programs promote effective parenting in families facing normative stressors as well as those facing frequent adversity? (b) Do parenting programs prevent children's long-term problems? (c) Do changes in parenting mediate long-term effects of programs? We address these questions by summarizing evidence from 22 programs with randomized trials and followups of 3 years or longer. We describe in more detail two interventions for divorced and bereaved families, suggesting that they prevent a range of problems and promote a range of developmental competencies over a prolonged period. Program effects to strengthen parenting mediated many of these long-term outcomes.
... On the other hand, two studies using a prospective design in which parenting time was measured at an earlier time did not find significant associations between the amount of father-child contact and later father-relationship quality (DeGarmo, Patras, & Eap, 2008;Dunn, Cheng, O'Connor, & Bridges, 2004). Thus, although more parenting time appears to be related to a higher quality father-child relationship, the direction of causality between these variables has yet to be established (Sandler et al., 2012). ...
This article examines evidence on 3 determinants of the outcomes of children of divorce that are shaped but neither confound or are confounded by court decrees for custody and parenting time: father contact or involvement, high interparental conflict, and domestic violence. This evidence is brought to bear in an analysis that contrasts predictions based on the rationales for sole maternal versus joint custody and explores implications for judicial decision making. It is found that the best-interests-of-the-child standard better serves children in contested cases when this evidence is taken into account. A call is made for rebuttable presumptions for joint custody and commensurate parenting time except when parent-perpetrated violence or other patterns of abusive behavior are substantiated. Steps for judicial reform are proposed.
... Studies on father involvement repeatedly showed that school aged children whose fathers were minimally present or absent from their lives had difficulties across behavioral, cognitive and academic achievement, social, moral, and emotional domains (Furstenberg, Morgan, & Allison, 1987;McLanahan, 1999;Wallerstein & Kelly, 1980). In contrast, significant benefits for children across domains are associated with higher levels of positive paternal involvement (for reviews, see Kelly, 2012, King, 2002, Cowan, Cowan, Cohen, Pruett & Pruett, 2008Sandler et al., 2012). Like mothers, fathers' warmth, structure, and discipline benefit children. ...
The AFCC Think Tank on Research, Policy, Practice, and Shared Parenting was convened in response to an identified need for a progression of thinking in the family law field, removed from the current polarizing debates surrounding the postseparation care of infants and very young children. We share this goal as our research and commentaries have been centrally implicated in the current controversies. Our collaboration over this empirical paper and its clinical counterpart endorses the need for higher‐order thinking, away from dichotomous arguments, to more inclusive solutions grounded in an integrated psycho‐developmental perspective. We first critically appraise the theoretical and empirical origins of current controversies relevant to attachment and parental involvement research. We then describe how attachment and parental involvement contribute complementary perspectives that, taken together, provide a sound basis from which to understand the needs of very young children in separated families. As a companion piece, Part II offers a collective view of a way forward for decision making about overnights for infants and young children, toward the integration of theoretical and empirical with clinical wisdom.
Key Points for the Family Court Community
An integrative perspective suggests that the goals of attachment and early parental (typically paternal) involvement with very young children after separation are mutually attainable and mutually reinforcing rather than exclusive choices.
An optimal goal for the family is a “triadic secure base” developed through a co‐parenting environment that supports the child's secure attachment with each parent and the recognition by each parent of the other's importance to the child.
Cautions against overnight care during the first three years are not supported. The limited available research substantiates some caution about higher frequency overnight schedules with young children, particularly when the child's relationship with a second parent has not been established and/or parents are in frequent conflict to which the child is exposed.
Parent education programs have been designed explicitly for separated and divorced parents. These programs typically aim to help parents navigate the challenges of co‐parenting, reduce their children's exposure to interparental conflict, and promote their children's well‐being post‐separation and divorce. Evaluating the effectiveness of parent education programs has been challenging, given the heterogeneity of formats, duration, and settings of these programs. This meta‐analytic review aimed to complete a compressive search of relevant studies of parent education programs for separated and divorced parents. Among 40 studies, 103 treatment effects were included across education programs. The overall weighted standardized mean difference across all education programs was 0.24 (CI = 0.14, 0.34, Q = 1274.69, df : 97, p < 0.001, I ² = 0.96.7), but these small effects were not maintained at follow‐up (ES 0.00, CI: −0.09, 0.09). Given the considerable heterogeneity across effect sizes, a meta‐regression and multiple regressions were computed to assess the influence of moderator variables. This review provides further evidence of the effectiveness of parent education programs. Implications are provided to create evidence‐based guidelines.
This chapter begins with an overview of the prevalence and public health impact of parental separation/divorce. We then review research on the consequences of parental separation/divorce for children’s adjustment during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Finally, we describe risk and protective factors related to children’s adjustment across domains of functioning. We include both nonmodifiable risk and protective factors, such as child age and gender, as well as modifiable risk and protective factors, such as interparental conflict, quality of parenting, and child coping. We end with a brief statement of implications for clinical practice.KeywordsParental divorceParental separationChild mental healthRisk factorsProtective factorsParentingCopingInterparental conflict
There are many differences between countries in how to define relocation and how relocation issues are dealt with by the courts. • Qualitative studies show the following: • There is often more than one reason for mothers wanting to move. • Contact with the nonmoving parent often diminishes over time, but in many cases the relationship was poor before the relocation. • After relocation disputes, some fathers follow to the new location and some mothers eventually return to the old. • Children who moved generally settled into new schools and made new friends without much difficulty, but some missed the nonresident parent very much. • It is important for custody evaluators to make a realistic assessment of the cost and feasibility of the proposals being suggested for contact if the move goes ahead. • They should also assess the importance to the child of the relationship with the nonresident parent. Questions in the assessment should include the following: How close is that relationship? To what extent has the father embraced the responsibilities and obligations of parenthood? How committed is he to the children's well-being and how close do the children feel to him?
Children and adolescents with and without parental divorce experience were assessed regarding their father–child communication quality and any lack of contact with their fathers, and the relationship with subjective health complaints and life satisfaction. A total of 4207 girls and boys between the age of 11 to 17 participated in a cross-sectional study. The findings revealed that almost 40% of the parental divorced youth had a poor father–child communication quality whereas about 10% did not have any contact with their fathers at all. Both communication quality and any lack of father–child contact were significantly related to subjective health complaints and life satisfaction. Communication quality moderated subjective health complaints only at the highest level of communication, whereas it moderated life satisfaction at all levels of communication. Thus having even a poor communication with the father, may be slightly better than no contact when it comes to life satisfaction after parental divorce. Implication of the study would be to address the risks related to poor father–child communication as well as lack of contact with the father in the aftermath of parental divorce, and emphasize the need for efficient efforts to prevent any such consequences.
Στόχος της παρούσας έρευνας ήταν να εξεταστεί εάν το διαζύγιο αποτελεί παράγοντα επικινδυνότητας για τις γονεϊκές πρακτικές μετά τον έλεγχο των γονεϊκών συγκρούσεων και των αρνητικών γεγονότων ζωής. Συμμετείχαν 2083 έφηβοι, αγόρια και κορίτσια, 15-17 ετών από 14 λύκεια στην Αττική. 12% των έφηβων ζουν με χωρισμένους/σε διάσταση γονείς. Το διαζύγιο, οι γονεϊκές συγκρούσεις και τα αρνητικά γεγονότα ζωής εξετάστηκαν ως παράγοντες επικινδυνότητας. Τέσσερις γονεϊκές πρακτικές εξετάστηκαν: ο συναισθηματικός δεσμός, ο ψυχολογικός έλεγχος, ο συμπεριφορικός έλεγχος και η εκχώρηση αυτονομίας. Τα ερωτηματολόγια που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν απαντώνται στη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία και μεταφράστηκαν από την αγγλική στην ελληνική
γλώσσα. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι όταν το διαζύγιο μελετήθηκε ως μόνος παράγοντας επικινδυνότητας, έθετε σε κίνδυνο τις γονεϊκές πρακτικές. Μετά τον έλεγχο των γονεϊκών συγκρούσεων και των αρνη-
τικών γεγονότων ζωής, το διαζύγιο δεν έθετε σε κίνδυνο τις γονεϊκές πρακτικές των μητέρων, ενώ έθετε σε κίνδυνο τις γονεϊκές πρακτικές των πατέρων. Οι γονεϊκές συγκρούσεις και τα αρνητικά γεγονότα ζωής απο-
τέλεσαν παράγοντα επικινδυνότητας για τις γονεϊκές πρακτικές των μητέρων και των πατέρων, ανεξαρτήτως οικογενειακής κατάστασης. Τέλος, βρέθηκαν διαφορές στις γονεϊκές πρακτικές ως προς το φύλο των
εφήβων και το κοινωνικο-οικονομικό επίπεδο των γονέων. Τα ευρήματα συζητώνται ως προς τη σημασία των εφαρμογών τους στη συμβουλευτική οικογένειας.
Parent–child contact problems may arise in the context of high conflict separation/divorce dynamics between parents. In cases where there are parent–child contact problems and children resist or refuse contact with one of their parents, there may also be incidents of child maltreatment, intimate partner violence, or compromised parenting that can be experienced by a parent or child as traumatic. The circumstances around separation and/or post‐divorce often result in intense stress for families. In this paper we distinguish between the stressful circumstances that may arise as a result of high interparental conflict and pulls for alignment from a parent, and the real or perceived trauma as a factor which contributes to resistance or refusal of a child to have contact with a parent. Interventions to address both trauma responses and the resist‐refuse dynamics are differentiated and discussed. After screening and assessment, the intent is to treat trauma responses with short‐term, evidence‐based therapy, either before or concurrent with co‐parent and family intervention.
This chapter reviews several sources of evidence bearing on the question of whether
equal parenting time with both parents is in the best interests of children of divorce.
First, the scientific evidence consists of correlational findings that meet four conditions
necessary for a causal role of parenting time: A legal context that constrains the possibility
of self-selection; a “dose-response” association between parenting time and fatherchild
relationships; positive outcomes when parents disagree and courts impose more
parenting time; and negative outcomes when relocations separate fathers and children.
Second, the cultural evidence is that norms about parenting roles have changed in the
last generation, and this is reflected in public endorsement of equal parenting time.
Third, test-case evidence comes from the 2013 equal parenting law in Arizona, which has
been evaluated positively by the state’s family law professionals. Finally, examples from
recent Canadian case law show courts responding to the new cultural norms by crafting
individualized equal parenting time orders over one parent’s objections even in cases of
high parent conflict, accompanied by well-reasoned judicial opinions about how that is in
children’s best interests. The chapter concludes that the overall pattern of evidence indicates
that legal presumptions of equal parenting time would help protect children’s emotional
security with each of their divorced parents, and consequently would have a positive
effect on public health in the form of reduced long-term stress-related mental and
physical health problems among children of divorce.
Keywords: equal parenting time, parent conflict, divorced fathers, parent-child relationships, legal presumptions
Divorce education programs are conducting increasingly rigorous impact evaluations to assess if their curriculum improves parenting practices, reduces conflict in the coparenting relationship, and improves outcomes for children. This article presents a 6-month follow-up evaluation of the online version of Parents Forever, an 8-hour divorce education course developed by the University of Minnesota Extension. At follow-up, parents (N = 232) reported significant improvements on several questions about postdivorce parenting and well-being, indicating that the online version of Parents Forever is effective in promoting positive behavioral change for parents.
This study examined profiles of nonresidential father engagement (i.e., support to the adolescent, contact frequency, remarriage, relocation, and interparental conflict) with their adolescent children (N = 156) 6 to 8 years following divorce and the prospective relation between these profiles and the psychosocial functioning of their offspring, 9 years later. Parental divorce occurred during late childhood to early adolescence; indicators of nonresidential father engagement were assessed during adolescence, and mental health problems and academic achievement of offspring were assessed 9 years later in young adulthood. Three profiles of father engagement were identified in our sample of mainly White, non-Hispanic divorced fathers: Moderate Involvement/Low Conflict, Low Involvement/Moderate Conflict, and High Involvement/High Conflict. Profiles differentially predicted offspring outcomes 9 years later when they were young adults, controlling for quality of the mother-adolescent relationship, mother's remarriage, mother's income, and gender, age, and offspring mental health problems in adolescence. Offspring of fathers characterized as Moderate Involvement/Low Conflict had the highest academic achievement and the lowest number of externalizing problems 9 years later compared to offspring whose fathers had profiles indicating either the highest or lowest levels of involvement but higher levels of conflict. Results indicate that greater paternal psychosocial support and more frequent father-adolescent contact do not outweigh the negative impact of interparental conflict on youth outcomes in the long term. Implications of findings for policy and intervention are discussed.
Research on parenting skills training programs provides wide-ranging support for the relationship between core parenting skills and children's healthy development. This article integrates empirically-supported parenting skills in a model organized into three parenting skills constructs: nurturing, teaching, and coparenting. Methods are described for assessing parenting skills across seven domains of data typically used in assessments for family court evaluations.
Findings from a 5-year longitudinal study of 131 children from 60 divorcing families, drawn from a predominantly white, middle-class California population, revealed unexpected changes in the relationship between the visiting parent and the child after the marital separation. The changes that showed improvement and that showed deterioration in 50% of the father-child relationships were substantially related to the difficulties and psychological conflicts engendered by visitation and divorce, the father's capacity to accommodate to the constraints of the visiting relationship, and the age and sex of the child.
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