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Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017), 185198, DOI: 10.1007/s11200-016-1036-9
185
© 2017 Inst. Geophys. CAS, Prague
Better constrained selection
of the Paleozoic West Gondwana (South America)
paleomagnetic poles for the APWP determination
B
ERNARD
H
ENRY
1
,
M
OHAMED
E.M.
D
ERDER
2
,
M
OHAMED
A
MENNA
2
,
S
AID
M
AOUCHE
2
AND
B
OUALEM
B
AYOU
2
1 Paléomagnétisme, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Univ. Paris
Diderot and UMR 7154 CNRS, 4 avenue de Neptune, 94107 Saint-Maur cedex, France
(henry@ipgp.fr)
2 CRAAG, B.P. 63, Bouzaréah 16340 Alger, Algeria
Received: May 9, 2016; Revised: September 4, 2016; Accepted: October 3, 2016
ABSTRACT
The reliability of an Apparent Polar Wander Path (APWP) obviously depends on the
paleomagnetic poles used to determine it. The APWP of Africa and South America are
fairly well defined for the 330
260 Ma interval. However, this study pointed out
a moderate shift between these two curves, and an incoherency of the South American
data, contrary to the African ones, which are homogeneous. A number of South American
pole positions were re-evaluated in an effort to better constrain the APWP for the entire
continent. Most of discarded poles correspond to sites at the area of the junction of
Cordillera with the stable craton. That could have structural implications for the
evolution of the western margin of the Gondwana. A new criterion for the evaluation of
paleomagnetic poles reliability for APWP is presented. Based on comparison of data from
different continents and labeled “coherence” criterion, it is independent from Van der
Voo’s ones.
K e y w o r d s : APWP, paleomagnetic poles, South America, Africa, Late Paleozoic,
Paleoreconstructions, Gondwana
1. INTRODUCTION
Paleomagnetism is one of the main tools used for paleocontinental reconstructions.
Since the pioneering work of Creer et al. (1954), an Apparent Polar Wander Path (APWP)
has been progressively defined and improved for each main continent. An APWP is a plot
of the sequential positions of paleomagnetic poles from a particular area (tectonic plate,
continent, …), usually shown on the present geographic grid (see Butler, 1992). Well-
defined APWP can be used for innovative methods in paleoreconstruction such as
constraining paleolongitude (Wu and Kravchinsky, 2014). The “excellence” of an APWP
depends mainly on the reliability of the used selection of paleomagnetic poles. APWP
reconstruction methods vary (e.g., Van Alstine and de Boer, 1979; Thompson and Clark,
B. Henry et al.
186
Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)
1981; Harrison and Lindh, 1982; Irving and Irving, 1982; Jupp and Kent, 1987; Le Goff
et al., 1992), but the present paper focuses on pole selection.
Van der Voo (1990) provided an objective method for evaluating paleomagnetic poles.
In the previous studies, a few compilations have applied reliability criteria (e.g., B, A, A*,
A** in Irving and Hastie, 1975; Irving et al., 1976a,b,c), when listing all experimental
data and results. The criteria proposed by Van der Voo (1990) are:
1. Reliable determination of the rock age and a presumption that magnetization is of
the same age. This criterion also implies magnetization polarity not in
contradiction with an expected polarity (particularly for long normal or reversed
periods).
2. Sufficient number of samples: N > 24, k (or K) ≥ 10 and
95
(A
95
) < 16 (precision
parameter and 95% confidence limit, respectively, Fisher, 1953). We suggest that
this criterion could be specified requiring at least 3 independently situated
sampling locations, corresponding to different stratigraphical levels or to distance
between sites of more than 200 m and with at least 4 independent samples per site.
3. Adequate demagnetization that demonstrably includes vector subtraction.
4. Field tests that constrain the age of magnetization.
5. Structural control and tectonic coherence with craton or block involved.
6. The presence of field reversals.
7. No resemblance to paleopoles of younger age (by more than a period).
A paleomagnetic data fulfilling 4 or more of these criteria is considered as “robust”.
Nevertheless, as underlined by Van der Voo (1990), none of these criteria gives a proof
that magnetization is primary (except for the contact test - intrusion magnetization - and
mostly for the conglomerate test, for the criterion 4). Some of them correspond to
necessary but not sufficient conditions (criteria 1, 2, 3 and 5). Other issues related to the
reliability criteria are that the fold test provides key age constraints only when the age of
folding (in a pre-folding magnetization) is close to the age of the rocks. The presence of
reversals (criterion 6) can be found in both primary and secondary magnetizations (Henry
et al., 2004). Poles of different ages (criterion 7) can fall close to younger poles when the
continent has undergone little or no movement (rotational or latitudinal), or if the
continent occupied a similar position at two different time intervals as it was the case for
Africa at 200 and 100 Ma (e.g., Besse and Courtillot, 2002). It is however clear that
criterion like 1 or 5 are sometimes depending on authors interpretation. The main aim of
this paper is to look for another criterion, independent from the Van der Voo’s ones, to
better constrain the selection of paleomagnetic data to establish more reliable APWP.
2. COMPARISON OF APWP AND PALEOMAGNETIC POLES
The available paleomagnetic data (Derder et al., 2006; McElhinny et al., 2003;
Domeier et al., 2012, Torsvik et al., 2012, Amenna et al., 2014; Table S1 in
Supplementary Data), were used in our Gondwana compilation to build the main APWP.
All APWP described in this paper are shown on the southern hemisphere and in North-
West African coordinates (using the same rotation parameters as in Torsvik et al., 2008,
2012 for the Paleozoic time). The statistical approach that we used to build our APWP
Paleozoic West Gondwana paleomagnetic poles
Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)
187
(Le Goff, 1990; Le Goff et al., 1992) requires that age uncertainty associated with each
pole must fall within a 20 My window around the mean ages on the APWP. We also apply
a secondary weighting based on the number of samples used to define the pole (see Le
Goff et al., 1992).
An incoherency concerning the Gondwana curves was evidenced recently during
a paleomagnetic dating study (age obtained by comparison of a paleomagnetic datum with
the reference APWP for the studied area). This study was carried out in North Africa
(Saharan craton) on the Zarzaïtine formation in the Anai area (Murzuq basin). This
formation is very well-dated at La Reculée section in the Illizi basin, farther north (see
Henry et al., 2014 and Fig. 1 herein), but none paleontological constraints was obtained in
the Murzuq basin. The newly obtained Anai pole for the Zarzaïtine formation was
compared with the Gondwana APWP (Amenna et al., 2014, completed for 240210 Ma
by the APWP of Domeier et al., 2012) and for 200 Ma to present time with the Africa
APWP (Besse and Courtillot, 2002). This comparison surprisingly highlighted relatively
to the Gondwana APWP a weak eastward shift of the Anai pole that does not affect the
significance of the age determination. However, the same moderate eastward shift was
Fig. 1. Apparent polar wander path (APWP, poles with their A
95
confidence angles) for
Gondwana (for 500250 Ma, after Amenna et al., 2014 and for 240210 Ma, after Domeier et al.,
2012) and for Africa (for 2000 Ma after Besse and Courtillot, 2002) and Late Carboniferous
(Henry et al., 1992; Derder et al., 1994,2001a,b; Amenna et al., 2014) and Early Permian (Derder et
al., 1994) African paleomagnetic poles, from the Illizi and Murzuq basins, in North-West African
coordinates (Anai pole, obtained in a formation of disputable age, was used for paleomagnetic
dating - Henry et al., 2014).
B. Henry et al.
188
Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)
evidenced for all the other African poles for the period 330260 Ma (Fig. 1). The African
APWP for this period is very coherent and well-defined (Fig. 2a; Table S2 in
Supplementary Data) since several new reliable poles were acquired in the Saharan
platform during the last decades (see Table S1 in Supplementary Data). The few poles
from Antarctica and India are relatively scattered and do not yield reliable APWP. On the
contrary, APWP have been obtained from South America and Australia poles (Fig. 2b,c;
Table S2 in Supplementary Data). The main shape of the three curves (Africa, Australia
and South America) is similar in spite of very high uncertainty for the Early Paleozoic
poles from Africa and South America. For the Late Paleozoic, the African and South-
American curves are much better defined than the Australian path. The moderate
difference between the African and Australian APWP could be explained by significant
uncertainties in the reconstruction of the eastern part of the Gondwana (e.g., Schmidt et
al., 1990; Ricou et al., 1990; Li et al., 1993, Powell et al., 1998), as well as by the
relatively large paleomagnetic uncertainties of the Australian curve. This is not the case
for the difference between the South America and Africa paths, the first one being shifted
to the west of the Africa path (Domeier et al., 2011b,2012; Amenna et al., 2014). In fact
both curves are well-defined and the reconstruction Africa - South America in the
Gondwana supercontinent is thought to be highly reliable, even if slightly different
reconstructions were proposed (we used the same rotation parameters as in Torsvik et al.,
2012 for the Paleozoic time; see Nürnberg and Müller, 1991; Torsvik et al., 2008). This
westward shift of the South America APWP could explain, but does not justify, the
difference between the African poles and the Gondwana curve, which depends, at least in
part, on South American data. This difference between the two APWP being not related to
a misfit between Africa and South America, the incoherence arises from the APWP
themselves.
We therefore reconsidered the selected paleomagnetic poles used to determine the
APWP for Africa and South America for the period 330260 Ma, for which, contrary to
previous periods like the Devonian (Fig. 2), both curves are well-defined. Figure 3 shows
the APWP for Africa (Fig. 3a) and South America (Fig. 3b) and the corresponding
paleomagnetic poles used to build them. The African APWP fits well with most of the
Fig. 2. Apparent polar wander path (APWP, poles with their A
95
confidence angles) for a) Africa,
b) South America and c) Australia: see pole list in Amenna et al. (2014). All in North-West African
coordinates (rotation parameters from Torsvik et al., 2012).
Paleozoic West Gondwana paleomagnetic poles
Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)
189
African poles while the South American one is located between two groups of South
American poles and fitting with neither of these two groups (Fig. 3b). An effect of
inclination shallowing would have affected the data from sedimentary rocks everywhere
and cannot explain this separation into two groups of poles.
3. THE SOUTH AMERICA DATA
It is clear that the South America APWP pole selection is problematic and needs
improvement. Although most poles clearly belong to one of the two groups (NE or SW
groups), it is unclear which group contains some of the Late Paleozoic poles hereafter
called “questionable” poles that are in intermediate position (Fig. 3b). Based on a visual
inspection, we use a NW-SE line as a boundary between the two pole groups on the
present geographic grid (Fig. 3b). We emphasize that the introduction of the NW-SE line
is somewhat arbitrary. In order to check the variability of the obtained poles distribution,
we carried out APWP determination that included the “questionable” poles. The obtained
result for South America APWP was almost the same as without these poles (between
these APWP and only for the most recent mean poles, a very small angular difference,
lower than 2°, was obtained for the corresponding mean poles, defined with 10 My
intervals on the APWP). This introduces the question on which group is representative for
the South American continent. Taking into account the Van der Voo (1990) reliability
criteria, all paleomagnetic data have almost similar weight. To avoid circular reasoning
and obtain unbiased interpretation, the choice of the poles for the South America APWP
needs to be based on data independent from the South America poles. Only one of the
groups of South America poles is in agreement with the poles positions and the associated
well-defined APWP for Africa (Fig. 3b and see poles 19 in Fig. 4). Taking into account
the precise Africa - South America reconstructions within the Gondwana, the north-
eastern group can be considered as the representative of the stable South America APWP,
Fig. 3. Paleomagnetic poles (dots) with the A
95
confidence angles and corresponding apparent
polar wander paths (APWP) (black thick line) for the period 330260 Ma for: a) poles for Africa
(open circles) and b) South America (retained - north-eastern group: open circles; rejected - south-
western group: crosses; indexes (letters or numbers) correspond to sites locations in Fig. 4). For
comparison, APWP for Africa is indicated. c) Retained poles for the north-eastern group of South
American poles (open circles). All in North-West African coordinates.
B. Henry et al.
190
Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)
close to Tomezzoli (2009) suggestion, but in contradiction with Domeier et al. (2012)
interpretation. In addition using only the data of the north-eastern group, the obtained
APWP correlates very well with the African curve (Fig. 3c). Such approach allows
suggesting a new additional criterion, labeled “coherence” criterion, based on the
research, among data from different and independent sources with homogeneous
characteristics (here from South America and Africa).
On the other hand, the most south-western group data lie to Western South America
(mainly close to the eastern border of the Andes Cordillera), in which the reliability
criterion 5 is not always satisfactorily fulfilled (Fig. 4). This could be related to tectonic
effects suspected in this area. The SW-ward shift of the poles of the south-western group
relative to those of the north-eastern group suggests a clockwise rotation around vertical
axis of the area close to the eastern border of the Andes Cordillera. This rotation could be
Fig. 4. Location of the paleomagnetic sites (from the pole list in Amenna et al., 2014) in South
America: For the South America apparent polar wander path (APWP), retained (north-eastern
group: open squares) and rejected (south-western group; full squares - white squares indicates sites
of the Paganzo basin with data compatible with the north-eastern group) data. Indexes (letters or
numbers) correspond to pole locations in Fig. 3b.
Paleozoic West Gondwana paleomagnetic poles
Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)
191
due to a moderate dextral shearing.along the border of the Cordillera. However, some
poles from this area have positions compatible with the north-eastern group. The
assumption that they were not subjected to disturbances is matter of discussion and
without clear evidence, they cannot be definitely dismissed or accepted. This data
uncoherency within Paganzo basin rather suggests that disturbances were local, but
possibly in a context of moderate deformation along the whole Cordillera border. The use
of criterion 5 in this part of South America seems then not suitable.
Among the rejected data (south-western group, Table 1), two poles were obtained in
stable areas and fully satisfy criterion 5. These poles were obtained from two different
formations:
The Independencia group (Rapalini et al., 2006 - site “d” in Figs 3 and 4): The
Late Permian age of the studied levels, based only on a comparison with
a Brazilian formation, is not well defined. The Presence of both magnetic polarities
was used by Rapalini et al. (2006) as an indicator of a post-Kiaman age. However,
the obtained paleomagnetic directions have an orientation close to that of the
“recent” magnetic field (paleomagnetic pole at 80.7S, 7.0E in South American
coordinates) and are likely due to Cenozoic remagnetizations. Such recent
remagnetizations, with positive reversal test, were already obtained in the Algerian
Saharan platform (Henry et al., 2004; Lamali et al., 2014; Amenna, 2015).
The Santa Fé group (Brandt et al., 2009 - site “c” in Figs 3 and 4): The age is
assumed to be “Permo-Carboniferous”, although the upper age limit is not well-
Table 1. Retained South American (Southern hemisphere) paleomagnetic poles in the initial pole
list (Table S1 in Supplementary Data), in NW Africa coordinates for the period 330260 Ma. Age:
the mean age computed from the time scale given in the GPMDB; N: number of sites in each study;
Plat and Plong: pole latitude and longitude, respectively; Q: quality factor (Van der Voo, 1990);
RefNo/ResNo: reference number and result number, respectively, in the Global Paleomagnetic
Database (GPMDB) Ver.4.6 (February 2005) following McElhinny and Lock (1996).
Label Age
[Ma] N Plat
[°S]
Plong
[°E] Rock Unit Q RefNo/ResNo
Mid to Late Permian (240270)255 Ma
8 255 8 47.9 59.0 Choique Mahuida Fm., Argentina 4 689
7 263 35 46.2 65.9 Sierra Chica, la Pampa, Argentina 6 Torsvik et al. (2012)
Early Permian (270290)280 Ma
6 275 20 32.8 65.1 Tunas Fm., Argentina 6 8459
Late Carboniferous 2 (290310)300 Ma
4 300 10 34.6 49.1 Pilar and Cas Fms, Chile 6 598
3 310 10 21.5 46.8 La Tabla Fm., Chile 4 597
2 310 12 24.8 39.2
Itarare Subgroup, Tubarao Group,
Brazil 3 2369
1 310 15 24.2 44.3 Piaui Formation, Brazil 3 3134
5 310 10 26.1 54.5 Pular and Cas Fms, Chile 6 Torsvik et al. (2012)
B. Henry et al.
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Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)
established (the Santa Fé formation is overlain by a Cretaceous group). This
suggests that this age could be not well constrained. In addition, the Santa Fé
virtual geomagnetic poles (VGP) are relatively scattered, with an elongated
distribution likely indicating a possible composite magnetization or more simply
a geological formation corresponding to a very large age window, possibly up to
Triassic (Ernesto et al., 2015) but not up to Lower Cretaceous (e.g., Geuna and
Vizán, 1998; Solano et al., 2010).
Table 1. Continuation: Not-retained South American (Southern hemisphere) paleomagnetic poles.
Label Age
[Ma] N Plat
[°S]
Plong
[°E] Rock Unit Q RefNo/ResNo
Mid to Late Permian (240270)255 Ma
g 240 1 50.3 42.1
Amana Fm., Pagonzo, Goupr,
Argentina 5 Torsvik et al. (2012)
r 240 14 49.1 54.6
Puesto Viejo Fm. volcanis,
Mendoza 6 Torsvik et al. (2012)
a 248 6 50.4 25.5 Mitu Group red beds, Peru Torsvik et al. (2012)
d 260 10 46.3 49.8 Independencia Group, Paraguay Torsvik et al. (2012)
q 263 4 53.1 49.0 Porphyritic Series, Argentin 1205
f 265 1 53.3 49.2
La Colina Fm., Los Colorados,
Argentina 2721
Early Permian (270290)280 Ma
h 270 23 54.5 48.1
Middle Paganzo II, Upper Beds,
Argentina 3 3035
o 270 16 54.4 57.7 Tambillos Fm., Argentina 4 6376
m 278 9 35.3 55.8
Middle Paganzo II, Huaco,
Argentina 3 3038
k 278 26 31.8 55.1
Middle Paganzo II, Lower Beds,
Argentina 4 3036
p 278 16 51.8 60.5
Tambillos, Uspallate Basin,
Argentina 4 Torsvik et al. (2012)
b 280 9 43.5 26.1 Copacabana Group Sediments, Peru 4 Torsvik et al. (2012)
i 283 1 54.1 35.8 La Colina Fm., Paganzo 4 Torsvik et al. (2012)
e 290 19 53.9 50.2
Rio del Penon Fm. sediments and
Punta
del Agua Fm. Volcanics, Argentina
4 Torsvik et al. (2012)
Late Carboniferous 2 (290310)300 Ma
l 300 4 34.4 55.4 La Colina Basalt, Argentina 4 2490
c 300 60 34.0 33.5 Santa Fé Group, Brazil 4 Torsvik et al. (2012)
j 310 57 25.3 29.3 La Colina Fm., Argentina 5 7
Late Carboniferous 1 (310330)320 Ma
n 320 18 15.7 47.4 Hoyade Verde Synfold, Argentina 4 6378
Paleozoic West Gondwana paleomagnetic poles
Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)
193
Other poles obtained from sites located near the Cordillera are also rejected due to the
limited reliability of criterion 5 as discussed below; precisely:
The poles (labels “a” and “b” in Figs 3 and 4) from the Copacabana group
(Rakotosolofo et al., 2006) and the Mitu group (Creer, 1970) were obtained in
areas affected by strong tectonics, probably including rotations, as shown by
Gilder et al. (2003).
The remaining poles (labels “e” to “s” in Figs 3 and 4) were obtained in the
Paganzo basin (Thompson, 1972; Valencio et al., 1977; Sinito et al., 1979; Geuna
et al., 2004,2010). According to Geuna et al. (2010), all the area was subjected to
a counter clockwise and southwards movement of the region with respect to the
rest of Gondwana. As shown in Fig 4, some Paganzo poles have positions
compatible with those of the north-eastern group (e.g., Embleton, 1970; Rapalini
and Vilas, 1971). These poles are presently not retained because of the proximity
of the studied sites with other sites showing disturbed data. As underlined above,
APWP determinations integrating or not these poles, provide almost the same final
result for the South America path.
Ignoring the reliability criterion 5, the “rejected” poles (south-western group, Table 1)
and the “retained” ones (north-eastern group, Table 1) have a similar Q factor (mostly
Q ~ 4). The final selection for the South American APWP was therefore based on
a complementary criterion related to the coherence of these poles with the precisely-
defined APWP for another continent, (the African one). Combined with other reliable
Gondwana data (Table S1 in Supplementary Data except rejected poles in the Table 1),
the retained South America poles yield an improved Gondwana APWP and a proposal for
Pangea reconstruction (Table S3 in Supplementary Data).
4. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE WESTERN GONDWANA
It is well-known for a long time that the western margin of South America was
affected by strong tectonics, particularly rotations (e.g., Butler et al., 1995; Macedo-
Sanchez et al., 1992; McFadden et al., 1995; Beck, 1998; Prezzi and Vilas, 1998; Somoza
and Tomlinson, 2002; Arriagada et al., 2006). Contrarily to this western area, the eastern
side of South America is a stable cratonic area. The “interference” zone between these
two areas is not everywhere clearly defined. Detailed analyzes of this zone (e.g., Carrapa
et al., 2014; Daxberger and Ritler, 2015) are key elements to better understand the
structural evolution of the South America. Paleomagnetism could provide one of the most
efficient approaches to this aim.
The present work shows that the problem is quite complex. The fact that the rejected
poles c and d, acquired in stable cratonic area, have disputable age of magnetization
acquisition shows that remagnetizations could also have had a significant effect. The
differences between paleomagnetic result within the Paganzo basin highlights the
importance of the reconsideration of these previous data (Tomezzoli, 2009; Domeier et al.,
2012; Tomezzoli et al., 2013).
B. Henry et al.
194
Stud. Geophys. Geod., 61 (2017)
5. CONCLUSIONS
The use of the new “coherence” criterion proposed by this study, yields to better
constrain the South America apparent polar wander path (APWP). It highlights a zone,
close to the eastern border of the Andes Cordillera, were paleomagnetic data are
disturbed. One of the important implications of the present work is to point out the major
interest of new paleomagnetic studies, not limited to Paleozoic formations, in this
“junction” zone. Though often difficult to publish in the present editorial context, these
studies represent in fact a key element for a better reconstruction of South America,
particularly at the limit between the deformed western and the stable eastern parts. In this
context, paleomagnetism appears as the single tool to point out possible rotations and
displacements in such areas. For the Paganzo basin, previous results have to be
reconsidered and new studies have to be developed in order to obtain a detailed picture of
its structural evolution. Similar areas along the eastern border of the Cordillera could also
be studied in order to have a more realistic understanding of the tectonic evolution in this
key part of South America, and therefore of the margin of the Western Gondwana.
Acknowledgements: We are very grateful to Jean Besse, Renata Tomezzoli and Augusto
Rapalini for constructive remarks that efficiently improved the paper, and to Diana and Neli
Jordanova, Karim Meziane and Joseph Meert for help with the manuscript.
Thanks also to Juan Jose
Vilalain and an anonymous reviewer for detailed and constructive comments.
Supplementary data can be obtained from
http://www.ig.cas.cz/sites/default/files/u241/henry_2016_0036_supplement_pdf_17554.pdf
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