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Biogenic amines: Their importance in foods
Abstract
Biogenic amines are important nitrogen compounds of biological importance in vegetable, microbial and animal cells. They can be detected in both raw and processed foods. In food microbiology they have sometimes been related to spoilage and fermentation processes. Some toxicological characteristics and outbreaks of food poisoning are associated with histamine and tyramine. Secondary amines may undergo nitrosation and form nitrosamines. A better knowledge of the factors controlling their formation is necessary in order to improve the quality and safety of food.
... Biogenic amines are found in various organisms, cells, foods, and beverages and can be classified as monoamines, oligoamines, and polyamines depending on the number of amine functions they contain. They are typically synthesized by living organisms through enzymatic decarboxylation of amino acids [1][2][3]. Biogenic aliphatic oligoamines such as spermine (4), spermidine (3), putrescine (1), and cadaverine (2) (Figure 1) are among the most important ones, which can be found in almost all living organisms. They exist within cells in protonated forms and play important roles in diverse biological processes, such as cell growth, gene regulation, nucleic acid stabilization, and cell proliferation [4][5][6]. ...
... They are typically synthesized by living organisms through enzymatic decarboxylation of amino acids [1][2][3]. Biogenic aliphatic oligoamines such as spermine (4), spermidine (3), putrescine (1), and cadaverine (2) (Figure 1) are among the most important ones, which can be found in almost all living organisms. They exist within cells in protonated forms and play important roles in diverse biological processes, such as cell growth, gene regulation, nucleic acid stabilization, and cell proliferation [4][5][6]. ...
... In vertebrates, two oligoamines, spermidine (3) and spermine (4), are present along with their precursor, the diamine putrescine (1). The absence of a normal oligoamine content can have a significant impact on cell functions including differentiation, apoptosis, motility, and resistance to oxidative and other stresses [7,8]. ...
Oligoamines in cellular metabolism carry extremely diverse biological functions (i.e., regulating Ca2+-influx, neuronal nitric oxide synthase, membrane potential, Na+, K+-ATPase activity in synaptosomes, etc.). Furthermore, they also act as longevity agents and have a determinative role in autophagy, cell growth, proliferation, and death, while oligoamines dysregulation is a key in a variety of cancers. However, many of their mechanisms of actions have just begun to be understood. In addition to the numerous biosensing methods, only a very few simple small molecule-based tests are available for their selective but reversible tracking or fluorescent labeling. Motivated by this, we present herein a new fluorescent bis(acridino)-crown ether as a sensor molecule for biogenic oligoamines. The sensor molecule can selectively distinguish oligoamines from aliphatic mono- and diamino-analogues, while showing a reversible 1:2 (host:guest) complexation with a stepwise binding process accompanied by a turn-on fluorescence response. Both computational simulations on molecular docking and regression methods on titration experiments were carried out to reveal the oligoamine-recognition properties of the sensor molecule. The new fluorescent chemosensor molecule has a high potential for molecular-level functional studies on the oligoamine systems in cell processes (cellular uptake, transport, progression in cancers, etc.).
... Biogenic amines are low-molecular-weight compounds containing N [8] and classified into aliphatic amines (putrescine, spermidine, cadaverine and spermine), aromatic amines (phenylethylamine and tyramine) and heterocyclic amines (histamine and tryptamine) according to their chemical structure [9]. The basic conditions for biogenic amine formation consist of plentiful free amino acid availability [10], microorganisms with amino acid decarboxylase activity [11,12], and a suitable environment for microorganism growth and decarboxylase activity [12]. ...
... The basic conditions for biogenic amine formation consist of plentiful free amino acid availability [10], microorganisms with amino acid decarboxylase activity [11,12], and a suitable environment for microorganism growth and decarboxylase activity [12]. In ensiled forages and fermented feeds, the precursors for biogenic amine synthesis are ornithine (putrescine), lysine (cadaverine), tyrosine (tyramine), phenylalanine (phenylethylamine), tryptophan (tryptamine), and histidine (histamine) [9,13]. Biogenic amines are produced by various microorganisms, consisting of mainly bacteria and some fungi. ...
... Biogenic amines are produced by various microorganisms, consisting of mainly bacteria and some fungi. Santos [9] reported that Enterobacter cloacae produced putrescine and Klebsiella pneumonia produced cadaverine and histamine. Similarly, Li et al. [14] found that putrescine was formed mainly by Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli and Citrobacter sp. and Escherichia coli and Klebsiella oxytoca were the key bacteria for cadaverine and tyramine production in alfalfa silage. ...
Substantial proteolysis occurs and free amino acids can be degraded to biogenic amines by decarboxylation during stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis) ensiling. High biogenic amine concentrations in silage are harmful to the health of ruminant animals. The purposes of this work were to (1) analyze the biogenic amines and amino acids concentrations, bacterial composition, and fermentation profile of spontaneously fermented stylo silage, (2) explore the effect of formic acid or sugar additive on these silage parameters, and (3) further reveal the correlations between silage amines and fermentation parameters, amino acids, and bacteria. Freshly chopped stylo was treated with distilled water (control), formic acid (4 mL/kg), and sugar (20 g/kg) and fermented for 28 days. The results indicated that putrescine (321 mg/kg dry matter), cadaverine (384 mg/kg dry matter), and tyramine (127 mg/kg dry matter) rapidly increased in concentration and become predominant in the control silage after 28 days of fermentation. Applying formic acid and sugar at ensiling, especially the acidifier, significantly decreased putrescine, cadaverine, tyramine, and total biogenic amine concentrations compared with the control treatment (p < 0.0001). Clostridium pabulibutyricum, Weissella cibaria and W. paramesenteroides were the predominant bacteria in the control silage, and the application of both additives remarkably lowered their relative abundance in comparison with the control treatment (p < 0.001). Correlation analysis showed that putrescine, cadaverine, and tyramine were positively related to pH, butyric acid, non-protein nitrogen, and ammonia nitrogen (p < 0.01). These amines also had significant correlations with C. pabulibutyricum, W. cibaria and W. paramesenteroides (p < 0.001). Putrescine, cadaverine, and tyramine were the main biogenic amines and C. pabulibutyricum was the predominant undesirable bacterium in naturally fermented stylo silage. C. pabulibutyricum, W. cibaria and W. paramesenteroides were positively related to putrescine, cadaverine, and tyramine formation. The application of formic acid or sugar significantly reduced the undesirable bacterial population and improved the fermentation and hygienic quality of the stylo silage. These findings lay the foundation for further elucidating the microbial mechanism underlying the main biogenic amine formation during fermentation of stylo silage.
... They are synthesised by microbial, plant and animal metabolism. They are produced by enzymes in the raw material or by microbial decarboxylation of amino acids in foods and beverages with high human exposure due to their possible toxic effects [12]. ...
... In terms of their chemical structure, BAs are divided into three groups: i) aliphatic BAs (putrescine, PUT and cadaverine, CAD), ii) aromatic BAs (tyramine, TYR and phenylethylamine, PHE), and iii) heterocyclic BAs (histamine, HIS and tryptamine, TRY). Another classification is based on the number of aminating groups, as follows: i) monoamines (TYR and PHE), ii) diamines (HIS, PUT and CAD) and iii) polyamines (spermidine, SPD and spermine, SPM) as showed in Figure 2 [12]. ...
... Most of them are chemically stable and withstand food processing [36]. 12 While there are hundreds of MTs identified, fewer than ten attract the most attention because of their significant impact on human health and their presence in food. According to WHO, the most frequently observed MTs of concern to human health and livestock include aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxins (OTs), patulin (PAT), fumonisins (FMs), citrinin (CIT), zearalenone (ZEA), nivalenol (NIV) and deoxynivalenol (DON) (Figure 3). ...
In this study, a critical review was carried out using the Web of ScienceTM Core Collection database to analyse the scientific literature published to date to identify lines of research and future perspectives on the presence of chemical pollutants in beer brewing. Beer is one of the world's most popular drinks and the most consumed alcoholic beverage. However, a widespread challenge with potential implications for human and animal health is the presence of physical, chemical and/or microbiological contaminants in beer. Biogenic amines, heavy metals, mycotoxins, nitrosamines, pesticides, acrylamide, phthalates, bisphenols, microplastics and, to a lesser extent, hydrocarbons (aliphatic chlorinated and polycyclic aromatic), carbonyls, furan-derivatives, polychlorinated biphenyls and trihalomethanes are the main chemical pollutants found during the beer brewing process. Pollution sources include raw materials, technological process steps, the brewery environment and packaging materials. Different chemical pollutants have been found during the beer brewing process, from barley to beer. Brewing steps such as steeping, kilning, mashing, boiling, fermentation and clarification are critical in reducing the levels of many of these pollutants. As a result, their residual levels are usually below the maximum levels allowed by international regulations.
... Biogenic amines in food and beverages are formed by the enzymes from raw material or are generated by microbial decarboxylation of amino acids (3). Prerequisites for a considerable biogenic amine formation are the availability of free amino acids, the presence of decarboxylase-positive microorganisms, conditions that allow bacterial growth, decarboxylase synthesis and decarboxylase activity (4). ...
... Prerequisites for a considerable biogenic amine formation are the availability of free amino acids, the presence of decarboxylase-positive microorganisms, conditions that allow bacterial growth, decarboxylase synthesis and decarboxylase activity (4). Biogenic amines are undesirable in all foods and beverages because if absorbed at too high concentrations, they may cause headaches, respiratory distress, heart palpitation, hypertension or hypotension, and several allergenic disorders (3). A legal upper limit of m(histamine)/m(food)=100 mg/kg and m(histamine)/ V(alcoholic beverage)=2.0 ...
Organic and non-organic wines, selected on the basis of consumers' preference towards healthy products, were produced from the grapes of Vitis vinifera varieties Semillon, Co-lombard, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Carignan and possible effects of different wine making techniques were considered. Concentrations of histamine, tyramine, putrescine, ca-daverine, ethylamine, methylamine, tryptamine, agmatine and b-phenylethylamine were quantified by HPLC fluorescence detection of o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA) derivatives. The order of analyzed parameters in all wines from the highest to the lowest quantities was determined as follows: putrescine > histamine > ethylamine > methylamine > agmatine > tyramine > cadaverine > tryptamine. One of the analyzed compounds (b-phenylethylami-ne) was not detected. The highest average values for organic and non-organic wines were found as follows (in mg/L): putrescine 5.55, ethylamine 0.825 and histamine 0.628 in organic wines, and putrescine 3.68, histamine 1.14 and agmatine 0.662 in non-organic wines. Considering the wine type (organic/non-organic), an important difference was determined for putrescine. Putrescine content in organic wines was significantly greater than in non-organic ones (p=0.008). Evaluating colour of wines (white/red), a statistically significant difference was obtained for methylamine (p=0.028). Taking into account only grape varieties, statistically significant differences were found for histamine, methylamine, tyramine and cada-verine (p<0.05). The results of principal component analysis demonstrated close relations between the following biogenic amines and wines: agmatine and non-organic Colombard; tryptamine or cadaverine and both organic and non-organic Cabernet Sauvignon wines.
... This decarboxylation process serves as an energy source for microorganisms in nutritionally deficient environments (Suzzi & Gardini, 2003). BAs can accumulate in various foods and beverages, including fish, cheeses, meat products, fermented vegetables, wine, and beer, due to microbial activity (Buňková et al., 2009;Silla Santos, 1996). While not always associated with a decline in sensory quality, the consumption of high levels of these amines can pose toxicological risks to consumers (Costantini et al., 2013;Coton & Coton, 2005;Ladero et al., 2011;Landete, de las Rivas, et al., 2007;Landete, de las Rivas, et al., 2007). ...
... Strains positive for genes related to biogenic amine production that did not exhibit positive reactions in the medium likely failed to meet the prerequisites for biogenic amine formation, such as conditions conducive to bacterial growth, decarboxylase synthesis, and decarboxylase activity (Landete, Ferrer, & Pardo, 2005;Postupolski, Stasiak, Maćkiw, Kowalska, & Kucharek, 2021;Silla Santos, 1996). Conversely, false-positive reactions may arise due to the formation of alkaline-reacting chemicals, resulting in pH indicator colour changes in decarboxylase medium (Buňková et al., 2009). ...
... Mikrobakteriyel bir enzim olan histidin dekarboksilazın, dekarboksilasyonuyla histamin oluşturan çok sayıda mikroorganizma türleri belirlenmiştir. Su ürünlerinde dekarboksilaz oluşumuna neden olan en önemli bakterilerden bazıları sırasıyla; Morganella morganii, Bacillus, Clostridium, Klebsiella cinslerine bağlı mikroorganizların neden oldukları tür ve alttürler olduğu ifade edilmiştir (Santos, 1996;Doeun et al., 2017). Gıdaların bozulmasına neden olan toksik nedenlerden en önemlisi histaminlerin oluşumudur. ...
... Gıdaların bozulmasına neden olan toksik nedenlerden en önemlisi histaminlerin oluşumudur. Bununla birlikte balıklarda histamin gibi biyojenik aminlerin oluşmasına neden olan bakterilere ek olarak Enterobacter, Proteus, Salmonella, Shigella bakterileri ile buna bağlı olan çok sayıdaki mikroorganizmalar olduğu belirtilmiştir (Santos, 1996;Akyol et al, 2015). Daha çok sucul ürünlerle birlikte et, süt ürünleri, meyve ve sebzeler, çeşitli kuruyemiş ile fermente edilmiş gıdalarda ortaya çıkan biyojen aminler, mono amin, diamin ve poliamin olarak sınıflandırılmıştır. ...
Biogenic amines (BAs) are Nitrogen-containing organic compounds that are important in aquaculture and food. BAs are formed by decarboxylation through various chemical reactions with bacterial activities in protein-rich fish and other foods. Biogenic amines are more common in sea fish such as tuna, sardines and mackerel. The presence of biogenic amines has also been found in foods such as spoiled fruits and vegetables. Bacteria-induced histamine poisoning in fish causes allergies as well as various disorders such as headache, flushing, abdominal cramps and hypertension. Many cases of fish poisoning occur due to histamines formed in fish such as Mackerel (Scrombridae) consumed in daily life. Biogenic amines, which are objectionable in terms of food safety, are also formed in cheese, dairy products, fruits and vegetables and other foods rich in protein along with fish. In general, the level of 1000 mg/kg and above in foods is considered a critical and dangerous level for public health.
Öz: BA, su ürünlerinde, gıdalarda önemli biçimde üreyen Azot bileşimli organik bileşiklerdir. BA'lar, proteince zengin balık ve diğer gıdalardaki bakteriyel faaliyetlerle birlikte çeşitli kimyasal tepkimelerden oluşan dekarboksilasyonla oluşurlar. Biyojen aminler ton balığı, sardalya, uskumru gibi deniz balıklarında daha çok rastlanır. BA'ların varlığı aynı zamanda tüketilen bozulmuş meyve ve sebze gibi besinlerde de görüldüğü belirlenmiştir. Balıklarda oluşan bakteri kaynaklı histamin zehirlenmesi alerji ile birlikte aynı zamanda baş ağrısı, kızarma, karın krampları, hipertansiyon gibi çeşitli rahatsızlıklara da yol açmaktadır. Gündelik yaşamda tüketilen Uskumrugiller (Scrombridae) gibi balıklarda oluşan histaminler nedeniyle birçok balık zehirlenmesi durumu ortaya çıkmaktadır. Gıda güvenliği açısından sakıncalı olan BA'lar, balıklarla birlikte proteince zengin olan peynir, süt mamülleri, meyve-sebze ve diğer gıdalarda da oluşur. Genel olarak besinlerdeki 1000 mg/kg seviyesi ve üzeri, halk sağlığı açısından kritik ve tehlikeli bir düzey kabul edilir. Anahtar kelimeler: Histamin, su ürünleri, putresin, spermidin, kadaverin.
... Mikrobakteriyel bir enzim olan histidin dekarboksilazın, dekarboksilasyonuyla histamin oluşturan çok sayıda mikroorganizma türleri belirlenmiştir. Su ürünlerinde dekarboksilaz oluşumuna neden olan en önemli bakterilerden bazıları sırasıyla; Morganella morganii, Bacillus, Clostridium, Klebsiella cinslerine bağlı mikroorganizların neden oldukları tür ve alttürler olduğu ifade edilmiştir (Santos, 1996;Doeun et al., 2017). Gıdaların bozulmasına neden olan toksik nedenlerden en önemlisi histaminlerin oluşumudur. ...
... Gıdaların bozulmasına neden olan toksik nedenlerden en önemlisi histaminlerin oluşumudur. Bununla birlikte balıklarda histamin gibi biyojenik aminlerin oluşmasına neden olan bakterilere ek olarak Enterobacter, Proteus, Salmonella, Shigella bakterileri ile buna bağlı olan çok sayıdaki mikroorganizmalar olduğu belirtilmiştir (Santos, 1996;Akyol et al, 2015). Daha çok sucul ürünlerle birlikte et, süt ürünleri, meyve ve sebzeler, çeşitli kuruyemiş ile fermente edilmiş gıdalarda ortaya çıkan biyojen aminler, mono amin, diamin ve poliamin olarak sınıflandırılmıştır. ...
Abstract: Biogenic amines (BAs) are Nitrogen-containing organic compounds that are important in aquaculture and food. BAs
are formed by decarboxylation through various chemical reactions with bacterial activities in protein-rich fish and other foods.
Biogenic amines are more common in sea fish such as tuna, sardines and mackerel. The presence of biogenic amines has also
been found in foods such as spoiled fruits and vegetables. Bacteria-induced histamine poisoning in fish causes allergies as well
as various disorders such as headache, flushing, abdominal cramps and hypertension. Many cases of fish poisoning occur due
to histamines formed in fish such as Mackerel (Scrombridae) consumed in daily life. Biogenic amines, which are objectionable in
terms of food safety, are also formed in cheese, dairy products, fruits and vegetables and other foods rich in protein along with
fish. In general, the level of 1000 mg/kg and above in foods is considered a critical and dangerous level for public health.
Keywords: Histamine, seafood, putrescine, spermidine, cadaverine.
... Biogenic amines are classified to (I) monoamines such as phenylethylamine and tyramine; (II) diamines such as histamine, putrescine, serotonin, cadaverine, and tryptamine; (III) polyamines such as agmatine, spermine, and spermidine depending on the number of amine groups (Santos, 1996;Shalaby, 1996;Ruiz-Capillas and Jiménez-Colmenero, 2004). Histamine (HIM), tyramine (TYM), putrescine (PUT), cadaverine (CAD), βphenylethylamine, agmatine, tryptamine, serotonin (SRT), spermidine, and spermine are the most important BAs found in food. ...
... Children, the elderly, women during pregnancy or menstruation, people with allergies or gastrointestinal diseases (gastritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and gastric ulcers), or those taking monoamine or DAO inhibitors (such as antidepressants and antidisease Parkinson's drugs) are among those at risk. Alcohol consumption and smoking were also reported (Santos 1996;McCabe-Sellers et al., 2006;EFSA, 2011;Wunderlichova et al., 2014). ...
These authors are equally contributed. Citation: Fareed et al., Biogenic amines levels in old Kareish cheese and ripened Domiati cheese, Qena, Egypt. SVU-IJVS 2022, 5(2): 55-67. Abstract Cheeses are among high-protein containing foodstuffs in which enzymatic and microbial activities cause the formation of the biogenic amines from amino acid decarboxylation. A total of 80 samples of old Kareish cheese and ripened Domiati cheese (40 samples each) were collected from local dairy shops and vendors and dairy cattle rural house in Qena city, Egypt. The concentration of biogenic amines (Tyramine, Histamine, Cadaverine and Putrescine) were assayed via using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In old Kareish cheese samples, histamine had the highest concentration followed by tyramine, cadaverine and putrescine with means of 835±32.9, 564±37.1, 556±27.4 and 537±37.5, respectively. Also, histamine (513±29.1) was the highest among the detected biogenic amines in ripened Domiati cheese followed by putrescine (492±32.2), tyramine (478×±25.3) and cadaverine (470±30). In conclusion our data showed higher levels of tyramine, histamine, putrescine and cadaverine in old Kareish and ripened Domiati cheese. The highest levels were detected in old Kareish cheese in compare with ripened Domiati cheese.
... They are synthesised by microbial, plant, and animal metabolisms. They are produced by enzymes in the raw material or by microbial decarboxylation of amino acids in foods and beverages, leading to high human exposure to their toxic effects [12]. ...
... In terms of their chemical structure, BAs are divided into the following three groups: (i) aliphatic BAs (putrescine, PUT, and cadaverine, CAD), (ii) aromatic BAs (tyramine, TYR, and phenylethylamine, PHE), and (iii) heterocyclic BAs (histamine, HIS, and tryptamine, TRY). Another classification is based on the number of aminating groups, as follows: (i) monoamines (TYR and PHE), (ii) diamines (HIS, PUT, and CAD), and (iii) polyamines (spermidine, SPD, and spermine, SPM), as shown in Figure 2 [12]. ...
In this study, a critical review was carried out using the Web of ScienceTM Core Collection database to analyse the scientific literature published to date to identify lines of research and future perspectives on the presence of chemical pollutants in beer brewing. Beer is one of the world’s most popular drinks and the most consumed alcoholic beverage. However, a widespread challenge with potential implications for human and animal health is the presence of physical, chemical, and/or microbiological contaminants in beer. Biogenic amines, heavy metals, mycotoxins, nitrosamines, pesticides, acrylamide, phthalates, bisphenols, microplastics, and, to a lesser extent, hydrocarbons (aliphatic chlorinated and polycyclic aromatic), carbonyls, furan-derivatives, polychlorinated biphenyls, and trihalomethanes are the main chemical pollutants found during the beer brewing process. Pollution sources include raw materials, technological process steps, the brewery environment, and packaging materials. Different chemical pollutants have been found during the beer brewing process, from barley to beer. Brewing steps such as steeping, kilning, mashing, boiling, fermentation, and clarification are critical in reducing the levels of many of these pollutants. As a result, their residual levels are usually below the maximum levels allowed by international regulations. Therefore, this work was aimed at assessing how chemical pollutants appear and evolve in the brewing process, according to research developed in the last few decades.
... [118] Soy sauce Biogenic amines constitute organic compounds present in fermented foods, originating from decarboxylation of amino acids or the amination and transamination of aldehydes and ketones facilitated by microbes. [119] The excessive consumption of this metabolites can induce physiological and toxicological effects, potentially leading to poisoning. Consequently, it is crucial to minimize the biogenic amine content in fermented foods. ...
... Consequently, it is crucial to minimize the biogenic amine content in fermented foods. [119] Given these considerations, investigating the microbial composition and factors influencing the microbial profile of traditional soy sauce becomes of paramount importance. In a study, the impact of incorporating coriander during soy sauce fermentation was assessed, considering both the microflora and the levels of biogenic amines. ...
Currently, there has been a growing interest in fermented foods and plant-based beverages (PBBs) by the consumers because of the benefits they provide to human health or due to restrictions in the diet associated to some pathologies or personal choices. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a versatile technique that presents many advantages for the identification and quantification of metabolites in food with a variety of one- and two-dimensional experiments. This review delves into the current applications of NMR in the fields of fermented foods and PBBs. The interest from researchers in the analysis of fermented foods by NMR in the recent literature mainly focused on three main sub-areas: characterization of exopolysaccharides (EPS) and their functional, and rheological properties; metabolomics to find discriminant markers during and after the process of fermentation for the optimization of the productive process or development of products; and characterization of traditional and novel foods. However, the area of plant-based beverages studies by NMR presented a remarkable literature gap. The opportunities for future investigations concerning food authentication, traceability, and functional food development, among others, are presented.
... Enormous quantities of it exist in fermented and deteriorated foods (fermented sausage, cheeses, vegetables, fish commodities, and liquor) as a consequence of microorganism amino acid decarboxylation. 16 Even though a modest extent of BAs is vital for living beings, BAs lead to foodborne illness at high concentrations. 17 Histamine is a uniformly existing BA as it is identified in various fruits, green vegetables, cheese, fish, beer, and red wine 8 at a quite small concentration. ...
... According to the source, there are two types of biogenic amines: endogenous amines and exogenous amines [16]. Tyramine and histamine play a role in hormone transmission. ...
Aquatic products contain a large amount of protein, which can promote the production of a variety of biogenic amines through the function of microorganisms. Biogenic amines are a broad category of organic substances that contain nitrogen and have a low molecular weight. The presence of biogenic amines can cause the deterioration and excessive accumulation of aquatic products, which can cause damage to human health. Therefore, it is essential to discover a fast, convenient, and easy to operate method for the determination of biogenic amines in aquatic products. In this paper, the function and research significance of biogenic amines are analyzed from the aspects of their formation, toxicological properties, harm to the human body, and control methods. Several common direct detection techniques and indirect techniques for biogenic amines are briefly introduced especially sensors. This review provides references for efficient detection in the future.
... Consuming foods with high levels of BAs poses a health risk, as these compounds can trigger symptoms such as headaches, heart palpitations, vomiting, diarrhea, and hypertensive crises [86]. The toxic effects of BAs, however, depend on factors such as the specific type of BA, individual sensitivity or allergies, and the concurrent use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors or alcohol, which interfere with the enzymatic detoxification of exogenous BAs by amine oxidases [87]. ...
(1) Background: Heyndrickxia coagulans, a lactic acid-producing bacterium, displays characteristics of both Lactobacillus and Bacillus genera. Clinical evidence suggests its potential health benefits. This study evaluated the safety of H. coagulans AO1167B as a candidate probiotic supplement. (2) Methods: Strain identification was confirmed through morphological, cultural, and genomic analyses, including 16S RNA and whole genome sequencing to assess antimicrobial resistance and virulence factors. Phenotypic tests, such as disk diffusion for antimicrobial resistance, and safety assays for cytotoxicity and hemolytic activity, were conducted. In a phase I, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, healthy adults were randomized into H. coagulans AO1167B and placebo groups for 60 days. Daily capsule consumption was monitored through clinical and hematological evaluations, adverse event tracking, and health surveys. (3) Results: The genome of H. coagulans AO1167B revealed no concerning features. Disk diffusion tests showed no antimicrobial resistance. The strain exhibited no cytotoxic or hemolytic activity, indicating in vitro safety. No significant differences in clinical or hematological parameters were observed between groups. The most common adverse event, gas, diminished over time. (4) Conclusions: H. coagulans AO1167B demonstrates a suitable safety profile, genetic stability, and probiotic potential for gastrointestinal health, justifying further clinical research.
... For instance, spoilage microorganisms such as Proteus, Lactobacillus, and Pseudomonas have strong decarboxylation abilities, converting amino acids into bioamines. These processes generate ketones, sulfur compounds, alcohols, and aldehydes associated with microbially mediated proteolysis in chilled meat (Santos, 1996;Wen et al., 2020). Ultimately, integrating metabolomic analysis with microbial profiling offers an exhaustive approach to understanding and enhancing meat quality during storage and processing. ...
Metabolomics is a high-throughput technology that is widely used across disciplines to identify and quantify metabolites in biological samples; however, its use has been limited in meat and animal science. The use of metabolomics, especially in these fields, is often curtailed by challenges with data processing and analysis. Improvements in data analysis platforms have broadened metabolomics applications and offer promise for determining metabolic pathways that directly influence animal health and livestock production. This review will present an overview of metabolomics concepts and current applications of metabolomics techniques in meat and animal science. Furthermore, we present evidence of the need to incorporate metabolomics in a systems biology context for the improvement of livestock production with an emphasis on animal health and production efficiency.
... Table 2. Put. Total BA concentrations in all samples of the four groups were lower than the allowable limit (1000 mg/kg) in foods (Silla Santos, 1996), even though the samples were unacceptable at the later storage according to TVC. This is strong evidence that the allowable limit of BAs in the literature is not suitable for U. unicinctus. ...
This study investigates the effect of gutting on quality characteristics of Urechis unicinctus, stored in ice and at chill temperature (4℃), in terms of sensory assessment, total volatile basic nitrogen, biogenic amines and microbial changes. The gutted and ungutted groups were kept in ice (T1-gutted, T2-ungutted) and at chill (4℃) temperature (T3–gutted, T4-ungutted). The study revealed that gutting worsened the sensory quality (as indicated by hardness, cohesiveness, springiness and chewiness) of all samples and that samples kept at 4°C scored lower than those kept in ice. Total Volatile Basic Nitrogen registered the highest values in gutted samples, exceeding the acceptable limit after 1 day for the T3, and 12 days for T1 samples, respectively. For ungutted samples the threshold value of 30 mg/L has been exceeded after 4 days for T4, and 14 days for T2 samples. In the present study, eight biogenic amines were analyzed; tryptamine and histamine were not detected all the time. The total concentration of biogenic amines in gutted U. unicinctus was significantly higher in comparison with ungutted groups starting from the 8th day, for samples stored in ice, and from the 3rd day for samples kept at 4℃ (p < 0.05). However, the concentration of biogenic amines did not reach the allowable limit, even the samples were unacceptable due to high values of total viable count. Therefore, limits of biogenic amines available for fish are not suitable for U. unicinctus. Sensory scores were significantly correlated with Total Volatile Basic Nitrogen and Total Viable Count in all four groups (p < 0.05). Combined results of this study indicated that shelf life of T1, T2, T3 and T4 were 6, 7, 1 and 4 days, respectively. Gutting had a little effect on the storage of U. unicinctus stored in ice, but obviously shortened the shelf life of samples when stored at 4℃.
... This study did not evaluate neither the occurrence of biogenic amines nor the effectiveness of salt in preventing its formation. Biogenic amines are a group of nitrogen compounds formed mainly by decarboxylation of amino acids during microbiological degradation of foods in fermentation processes (Santos, 1996). These compounds can be toxic to animals and humans if ingested at high levels. ...
This study investigated the occurrence of mycotoxins in wet brewers’ grains (WBG) treated with salt (sodium chloride) and the intake, nutrient digestibility, and nitrogen use efficiency in lamb diets. Two experiments were conducted: first, WBG was distributed in plastic boxes and treated with no additive (control), sodium formate (3 g/kg of WBG), or three levels of salt—25, 30, and 35 g/kg of WBG. The WBG were stored at room temperature (17.7±4.6 ℃) for 27 days. In the second experiment, eight six-month-old male lambs were allotted to one of four total mixed ration (TMR) diets in a 4 × 4 double Latin square: 0, 10, 20, and 30% of WBG replacing corn silage and soybean meal. In the first experiment, the concentration of mycotoxins throughout the experiment was lower than the tolerance levels accepted by the European Community and Food and Drug Administration for animal feedstuffs. However, the control and sodium formate groups showed visual fungal development on the WBG surface from the sixth day and presented an unpleasant smell from day 12. In the salt treatments, fungal growth was observed on top of the WBG from day 12 and an unpleasant smell from day 15. Salt-treated WBG showed a lower pH than the control and sodium formate groups and decreased dry matter deterioration. In the second experiment, including up to 30% WBG in the TMR did not affect dry matter, organic matter, neutral detergent fiber, and acid detergent fiber intake or digestibility in lambs. However, the N digestibility and N use efficiency increased with WBG inclusion. These results suggest that salt can be used to increase the storage time of WBG up to 15 days and the inclusion of up to 30% WBG in TMR for lambs can improve N use efficiency without negatively affecting nutrient intake and digestibility.
agroindustrial waste; digestibility; intake; mycotoxin
... Intake of low amounts of biogenic amines, produced by decarboxylation of amino acids in foods, does not harm human health [95,96]. However, when their amount in food is too high, and detoxification ability is inhibited or disturbed, biogenic amines could cause problems such as rashes, migraines, high blood pressure, and low blood pressure after ingestion [8,96]. ...
Salt-fermented fish, a typical food in many regions of the world, was classified into three types depending on the processing method. It was divided into a process of fermenting by adding fish and salt only, a method of filtering it to form a fish sauce, and a method of lactic acid fermenting by adding additional carbohydrates. The free amino acids produced in large quantities through fermentation make salt-fermented fish a valuable protein source in regions where rice is the staple food. Furthermore, they also have significant amounts of omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), making them nutritionally excellent and functional, with antioxidant, antihypertensive, and fibrinolytic activities that benefit cardiovascular health. Some lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from fermented fish products have beneficial effects on humans, including bacteriocin and probiotic effects. Looking to the future, the potential benefits of reducing naturally occurring biogenic amines and adjusting the salt content for storage stability could further enhance the health and taste benefits of salt-fermented fish, providing hope and optimism for the future of food preservation and nutrition.
... Histamine, present in foods at different concentrations, tends to escalate during ripening and fermentation processes (9,10). This upsurge in histamine levels stems from the microbial conversion of amino acids, a process influenced by several factors, including precursor amino acids in foods, freshness, salt content, processing techniques, storage conditions, environmental factors conducive to microbial growth (e.g., temperature and pH), and the activity of bacterial decarboxylases (10). ...
... Biogenic amines (BAs) are a group of potentially harmful compounds found in foods. They are naturally occurring amines generated by enzymatic decarboxylation of endogenous amino acids [1,2] or by amination and transamination of aldehydes and ketones [3][4][5]. Histamine (HIS) is a member of the family of BAs and has essential physiological functions in humans. It can be found in a wide range of foods and drinks, including fish and fish products [6,7], meat and meat products [8], fermented sausage [9], dairy products [10], and plant and fermented foods [11,12], as well as in beverages [13,14] and other fermented and non-fermented products. ...
This study is the first to focus on the preconcentration and determination of histamine (HIS) in food samples using zeolite imidazole frameworks (ZIFs) on a solid-phase microextraction (SPME) plat-form. ZIF was developed on a polypropylene hollow fiber (PPHF) substrate (ZIF@PPHF) and characterized. The extraction performance was optimized by adjusting several parameters, in-cluding pH, contact time for adsorption, and desorption conditions. Under the optimized condi-tions, a wide linear dynamic range (0.05-250 mg/L) with high R2 values (0.9989), low limit of de-tection (0.019 mg/L), and low limit of quantification (0.050 mg/L) were determined as analytical figures of merit. Additionally, a reusability study confirmed that ZIF@PPHF preconcentrated 83% of the HIS up to the fourth cycle. The developed method was used to preconcentrate HIS in fish and cheese samples. The spiked real samples confirmed the validity and accuracy of this method. The percentage mean recoveries ± relative standard deviation (% RSD, n=3) at the concentration levels of 5, 10, and 50 mg/L of HIS and the sample amount of 5 g for intra- and inter-days ranged from 97 ± 1.10 to 102.80 ± 0.90 and from 96.40 ± 1.82 to 103.40 ± 0.79, respectively. The results suggest that the analytical method validation parameters were acceptable, indicating the repeatability and sensitivity of the method.
... Molecular mechanisms mediated by microbiome on behavior, stress, memory, and nervous system development are being explored in GF and antibiotic-treated mice (55)(56)(57)(58). Tyramine production by microbiome bacteria Lactobacillus bulgaricus, E. faecalis, and Lactobacillus plantarum has been reported (29), and excessive tyramine accumulation in host organisms may lead to a variety of disorders including hypertension but has been traditionally linked to the consumption of fermented foods including wine and cheese (59,60). Future work will determine the biological effects of major metabolites produced by R. gnavus strains to understand how they may exhibit various degrees of virulence in homeostasis and disease conditions. ...
Ruminococcus gnavus is a mucolytic commensal bacterium whose increased gut colonization has been associated with chronic inflammatory and metabolic diseases in humans. Whether R. gnavus metabolites can modulate host intestinal physiology remains largely understudied. We performed untargeted metabolomic and bulk RNA-seq analyses using R. gnavus monocolonization in germ-free mice. Based on transcriptome-metabolome correlations, we tested the impact of specific arginine metabolites on intestinal epithelial production of nitric oxide (NO) and examined the effect of NO on the growth of various strains of R. gnavus in vitro and in nitric oxide synthase 2 (Nos2)-deficient mice. R. gnavus produces specific arginine, tryptophan, and tyrosine metabolites, some of which are regulated by the environmental richness of sialic acid and mucin. R. gnavus colonization promotes expression of amino acid transporters and enzymes involved in metabolic flux of arginine and associated metabolites into NO. R. gnavus induced elevated levels of NOS2, while Nos2 ablation resulted in R. gnavus expansion in vivo. The growth of various R. gnavus strains can be inhibited by NO. Specific R. gnavus metabolites modulate intestinal epithelial cell NOS2 abundance and reduce epithelial barrier function at higher concentrations. Intestinal colonization and interaction with R. gnavus are partially regulated by an arginine–NO metabolic pathway, whereby a balanced control by the gut epithelium may restrain R. gnavus growth in healthy individuals. Disruption in this arginine metabolic regulation will contribute to the expansion and blooming of R. gnavus.
... 27,28 The longer lag phases observed at lower pH values were due to initial acid stress experienced by the cells before it was circumvented, as indicated by the rapid growth after about 48 h. 29 The readiness by the cells to produce histamine increased with decreasing pH values. This followed from the fact that the hdc enzyme responsible for histamine production is activated by acidic pH, with optimum enzyme activity around pH of less than 4.8-6.0. ...
... It is mainly found in some foods such as cheese and dairy products, drinks, meat, fish and sea foods [2]. Although, tyramine does not have any adverse effect on the human health due to the presence of monoamine oxidase enzyme in body which oxidizes the tyramine molecules to p-hydroxylphenylacetic acid, but the high concentration of tyramine in blood can cause some harmful effects and diseases such as hypertension, cardiac failure, migraine and even brain hemorrhages especially in patients under treatment with antidepressant or monoamine oxidase inhibitors drugs [3][4][5][6][7]. The toxicity threshold of tyramine is 100-400 mg kg −1 of food [8,9]. ...
This paper describes the development of a carbon paste electrode based on the butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis (trifluo-romethylsulfonyl) imide ([bmim] NTF2) ionic liquid and its modification with functionalized multiwalled carbon nano-tubes (f-MWCNTs) /graphene (GR) nanocomposite film. The f-MWCNTs-GR modified carbon ionic liquid paste electrode (CILPE) was utilized for electrochemical determination of tyramine using the square wave voltammetry technique. The prepared electrochemical sensor exhibited an excellent electrocatalytic behavior for oxidation of tyramine molecules in solutions compared to the carbon paste electrode. This behavior can be assigned to the synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes, graphen and ionic liquid. The oxidation peak currents of tyramine were linear in the concentration range of 1-1000 μM with a detection limit of 0.5 μM. The obtained experimental results showed that the f-MWCNTs-GR/CILPE has a good selectiv-ity toward tyramine molecules in the presence of interfering specious and it can be used confidently for measurement the concentration of tyramine in food and biological samples.
... It is mainly found in some foods such as cheese and dairy products, drinks, meat, fish and sea foods [2]. Although, tyramine does not have any adverse effect on the human health due to the presence of monoamine oxidase enzyme in body which oxidizes the tyramine molecules to p-hydroxylphenylacetic acid, but the high concentration of tyramine in blood can cause some harmful effects and diseases such as hypertension, cardiac failure, migraine and even brain hemorrhages especially in patients under treatment with antidepressant or monoamine oxidase inhibitors drugs [3][4][5][6][7]. The toxicity threshold of tyramine is 100-400 mg kg −1 of food [8,9]. ...
... Biogenic amines (BAs) are organic bases with aromatic, aliphatic, or heterocyclic structures, commonly found in various beverages and foods. They are primarily generated by the microbial decarboxylation of precursor amino acids [14,77]. Histamine, tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine are among the BAs typically found in food and beverages. ...
Lacticaseibacillus spp. are genetically close lactic acid bacteria species widely used in fermented products for their technological properties as well as their proven beneficial effects on human and animal health. This study, the first to include such a large collection of heterogeneous isolates (121) obtained from international collections belonging to Lacticaseibacillus paracasei, aimed to characterize the safety traits and technological properties of this important probiotic species, also making comparisons with other genetically related species, such as Lacticaseibacillus casei and Lacticaseibacillus zeae. These strains were isolated from a variety of heterogeneous sources, including dairy products, sourdoughs, wine, must, and human body excreta. After a preliminary molecular characterization using repetitive element palindromic PCR (Rep-PCR), Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD), and Sau-PCR, particular attention was paid to safety traits, evaluating antibiotic resistance profiles, biogenic amine (BA) production, the presence of genes related to the production of ethyl carbamate and diaminobenzidine (DAB), and multicopper oxidase activity (MCO). The technological characteristics of the strains, such as the capability to grow at different NaCl and ethanol concentrations and different pH values, were also investigated, as well as the production of bacteriocins. From the obtained results, it was observed that strains isolated from the same type of matrix often shared similar genetic characteristics. However, phenotypic traits were strain-specific. This underscored the vast potential of the different strains to be used for various purposes, from probiotics to bioprotective and starter cultures for food and feed production, highlighting the importance of conducting comprehensive evaluations to identify the most suitable strain for each purpose with the final aim of promoting human health.
... And the concentrations pH value that guarantees the product microbiological safety. aldehydes and ketones [234]. Consuming foods high in BAs can lead to food poisoning that can manifest as altered senblood pressure [235]. ...
Food waste and by-products are generated throughout the food processing and storage chain. In a world facing climate collapse and limited space for expanding cultivable land needed to feed a growing global population, utilizing food from sustainable production chains has become a significant challenge. Additionally, there is a worldwide trend towards consuming natural and healthy foods that are as free from chemical compounds as possible during production, processing, and preparation. Gradually, eating habits have adapted to these new trends, and new foods are being introduced into diets. In this context, research into sustainable practices has emerged worldwide, promoting the increased consumption of plant-based foods. The central idea of this article is connected to global concerns regarding food sources, minimizing waste, and innovatively using every ingredient. Fermentation, a traditional and natural food preservation technique, can be a vital tool for enhancing flavours and textures while increasing nutritional value through the action of specific enzymes. This article aims to highlight the main challenges of using food processing by-products in human nutrition and explore possible strategies to improve their quality through the enzymatic action of microorganisms.
... TVB-N includes a series of biogenic amines, which are the products by the enzymatic decarboxylation and/or microbial promoted degradation of amino acids. In addition, some studies have shown that Arg is a precursor of putrescine and spermidine, while Lys is a precursor of cadaverine (Santos, 1996). Therefore, it can be concluded that free amino acids such as Arg and Lys are more likely to form TVB-N than proteins, (a) (b) Figure 3 Residual nitrite content (a) and TVB-N (b) of different sausage samples. ...
The study inquired the influences of l‐arginine and l‐lysine on the physicochemical properties (including weight loss rate, water activity, texture, colour, lipid and protein oxidation, residual nitrite content and total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB‐N) content) of low‐sodium and low‐phosphate Cantonese sausage during the 1‐ and 7‐day storage. The results showed that the addition of l‐arginine or l‐lysine reduced the weight loss rate, TBARS content, carbonyl group content and residual nitrite level, slightly decreased water activity, and enhanced L*, a* and b* values. Compared to the control, 0.3% l‐arginine or l‐lysine declined hardness and chewiness, while 0.6% l‐arginine or l‐lysine elevated these two parameters. However, the addition of l‐arginine or l‐lysine also led to an increase in TVB‐N content. Overall, l‐arginine and l‐lysine improved the qualities of low‐sodium and low‐phosphate Cantonese sausage, which might be attractive to meat product manufacturers.
... The presence of biogenic amines in fermented fish products has been documented and presents a significant safety hazard [83]. Histamine, tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine are the most prevalent biogenic amines found in fermented fish products [84]. ...
Fermentation is a traditional method of food preservation that is widely used for improving shelf life, food safety, and sensory and nutritional properties. Fermented fish are an integral part of numerous food cultures and are produced in different parts of the world. Bekasam is an Indonesian traditional fermented fish commonly used as a condi-ment in Indonesian dishes because of its umami taste. This review tries to elaborate on various aspects of bekasam. The emphasis of this work is related to cultural history, microfunctional properties, manufacturing processes, biochemical and nutritional properties, as well as their health benefits and safety concerns. Moreover, some challenges and directions for future research regarding bekasam are also discussed in this review. Further investigation into fermented fish products is not only crucial for the food industry, but also for human health. Nevertheless, comprehensive in vivo and toxicological investigations are imperative prior to the utilization of fermented fish products that are abundant in bioactive compounds for the purpose of human health benefits.
... Untuk orang dewasa, level 100-800 mg/kg bb diet tiramin dinyatakan dapat diterima, dan level > 1080 mg/kg bb sebagai toksik (Tenbrink et al., 1990). Pada individu yang menggunakan obat MAOI, konsumsi tiramin 60 mg/kg dapat menyebabkan migrain, sedangkan 100-250 mg/kg bb menyebabkan krisis hipertensi (Silla, 1996). ...
Recently, food safety issues can be affected by several bioactive compounds such as biogenic amines that can be specifically found in fermented foods due to bacterial decarboxylation of some amino acids by fermentation or spoilage bacteria. Tiramin is a biogenic amine produced through decarboxylation of the amino acid tyrosine in animals, plants and microorganisms. Tiramin can cause adverse health effects, such as histamine and tyramine poisoning, histamine and tyraminentolerance, or hypertensive crisis caused by the interaction between tyramine and monoamine oxidase inhibitor drugs. Tiramin is often found in fermented, aged, preserved, and spoiled foods where microbes with decarboxylase enzymes convert the amino acid tyrosine to tyramine. Therefore, information related to rapid and sensitive determination methods for tyramine in various types of food is urgently needed to properly monitor and control the safety of food products. The development of modern technology in food storage (e.g., temperature and pH, packaging) can decrease tyrosine decarboxylase activity and reduce tyramine levels in modern foods. The aim of this article was to review the study of tyramine compounds contained in food products, such as tyramine compounds, issues related to tyramine, the mechanism of action of tyramine in the human body, pathophysiology, clinical significance, pharmacology of tyramine, the toxicity of tyramine, methods commonly used to detect the presence of tyramine compounds, and the methods that can be performed to reduce tyramine levels in food products to tolerable limits according to applicable regulations. This article review was conducted using the narrative literature review method.
... Consequently, they exhibit high stability and assume specific three-dimensional structures responsible for their activities [74]. Amines are crucial nitrogen-containing molecules in plant, microbial, and animal cells [75]. ...
... The process of inducing fermentation in foods like Pekasam may unintendedly lead to the production of amines as well [50]. This is also supported by [53], where high concentrations of BAs can be found in fermented foods due to contamination of microflora with amino acid decarboxylase activity. ...
Hurdle technology combines several preservation methods to secure the quality of foods by eliminating or controlling the growth of pathogens, making them last longer and, most importantly, safer for consumption. The hurdle approaches used for this Pekasam is microbially derived hurdle and physico-chemical hurdles. Inoculation of starter cultures with amine oxidase (AO) activity like lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in Pekasam is proven to reduce the accumulation of harmful biogenic amines, especially histamine, for up to 59.9%. This review also involves controlling the water activity and pH of Pekasam to a state where it inhibits the growth of microbes. This can be done by adding natural, cheap, and easy to find ingredients like lime juice (Citrus aurantifolia) to the basic Pekasam recipe. The presence of organic acids in the lime juice act as acidulants; it provides a low pH environment for microbes to retard their growth and therefore reduce the total plate count (TPC) whilst enhancing the flavour of Pekasam. However, in a long- ripened Pekasam, only the water activity hurdle is strengthened with time. Hence, a proper amount of salt is needed to sustain and maintain the water activity level below 0.94. The use of affordable herbs and spices with antimicrobial properties such as garlic, ginger and onion can prevent the proliferation of some pathogenic microbes, commonly found in Pekasam; thus, this helps in increasing the stability of the product. This review aims to outline the application of hurdle technology on fermented freshwater fish quality and shelf life. It focuses on recent accessible applications when combined, providing affordable food which helps those underprivileged people, especially during flash floods and other disruptive calamities such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
Introduction
In this study, the identification and quantification of biogenic amines in 45 commonly consumed food samples in Saudi Arabia were carried out. The enzymes responsible for producing these biogenic amines include spermidine (SPD), putrescine (PUT), tryptamine (TRP), tyramine (TYR), and histamine (HIS), which are synthesized through organo-catalytic pathways.
Method
The diverse range of samples analyzed encompassed various types of beef, pickle varieties, canned fish, vegetables, chicken varieties, spices, fruits, and salad ingredients. Sample preparation involved the use of dansyl chloride after aqueous extraction, followed by isolation and analysis using reversed-phase HPLC with a UV detector. In five beef samples, mean concentrations of SPD, PUT, TRP, HIS, and TYR were identified as 9.41, 8.98, 155.8, 100.8, and 304.2 mg kg-1, respectively. Canned fish samples exhibited mean concentrations of TRP, PUT, HIS, TYR, and SPD at 71.6, 3.88, 29.2, 2.56, and 2.02 mg kg-1, respectively.
Result
Among five pickle samples, mean concentrations of TRP, PUT, HIS, TYR, and SPD were reported as 118.8, 39.12, 35.2, 27.2, and 2.56 mg kg-1, respectively. Chicken samples primarily contained TRP, HIS, and SPD as the identified biogenic amines, with mean concentrations of 87.2, 105.6, and 5.22 mg kg-1, respectively. Fruit samples generally exhibited low levels of all enzymes except for TRP.
Conclusion
It was found that vegetables, seasonings, and salad ingredients either had undetectable or low quantities of biogenic amines.
Biogenic amines are important indicators of food spoilage and quality. Food safety is significantly influenced by biogenic amines such as Putrescine and Cadaverine, produced by microbes during food spoilage. Herein, a colorimetric probe for detecting Putrescine and Cadaverine based on a chemo-dosimeter strategy has been proposed. The probe L1 irreversibly binds with Putrescine and Cadaverine through an aza-Michael addition reaction in which the cyanoethyl group of the probe is substituted by the primary amine group from the biogenic amines. This chemical reaction rapidly changes color from colorless to pale green. The probe could detect Putrescine and Cadaverine in trace levels without much interference from other common biogenic amines. The binding mechanism of probe L1 with biogenic amines was confirmed using 1H NMR, IR, and DFT studies. The detection procedure is made portable and affordable by using a smartphone camera to capture colorimetric changes and convert them into RGB coordinates. Test paper strips coated with the probe were developed to illustrate its real-world analytical application. The potential application of probe L1 in real samples was demonstrated using in-vivo models of Prawn and Beef using test paper strips. Probe L1 showed satisfactory performance in detecting Putrescine and Cadaverine in the vapor phase.
Most of the biogenic amines are naturally found in fermented foods as a consequence of amino acid decarboxylation. Their formation is ascribable to microorganisms (starters, contaminants and autochthonous) present in the food matrix. The concentration of these molecules is important for food security reasons, as they are involved in food poisoning illnesses. The most frequent amines found in foods are histamine, putrescine, cadaverine, tyramine, tryptamine, phenylethylamine, spermine and spermidine. One of the most risk-prone foods are cheeses, mostly ripened ones, which could easily accumulate amines due to their peculiar manufacturing process and ripening. Cheeses represent a pivotal food in our diet, providing for nutrients such as amino acids, calcium, vitamins and others; thus, since they are widely consumed, it is important to evaluate the presence of toxic molecules to avoid consumers’ poisoning. This review aimed to gather general information on the role of biogenic amines, their formation, the health issues and the microorganisms and processes that produce/reduce them, with a focus on their content in different types of cheese (from soft to hard cheeses) and the biotic and abiotic factors that influence their formation or reduction and concentration. Finally, a multivariate analysis was performed on the biogenic amine content, derived from data available in the literature, to obtain more information about the factors influencing their presence in cheeses.
Biyojenik Aminler (BA), su ürünlerinde, gıdalarda önemli biçimde üreyen Azot bileşimli organik bileşiklerdir. BA’lar, proteince zengin balık ve diğer gıdalardaki bakteriyel faaliyetlerle birlikte çeşitli kimyasal tepkimelerden oluşan dekarboksilasyonla oluşurlar. Biyojen aminler ton balığı, sardalya, uskumru gibi deniz balıklarında daha çok rastlanır. BA’ların varlığı aynı zamanda tüketilen bozulmuş meyve ve sebze gibi besinlerde de görüldüğü belirlenmiştir. Balıklarda oluşan bakteri kaynaklı histamin zehirlenmesi alerji ile birlikte aynı zamanda baş ağrısı, kızarma, karın krampları, hipertansiyon gibi çeşitli rahatsızlıklara da yol açmaktadır. Gündelik yaşamda tüketilen Uskumrugiller (Scrombridae) gibi balıklarda oluşan histaminler nedeniyle birçok balık zehirlenmesi durumu ortaya çıkmaktadır. Gıda güvenliği açısından sakıncalı olan BA’lar, balıklarla birlikte proteince zengin olan peynir, süt mamülleri, meyve-sebze ve diğer gıdalarda da oluşur. Genel olarak besinlerdeki 1000 mg/kg seviyesi ve üzeri, halk sağlığı açısından kritik ve tehlikeli bir düzey kabul edilir.
This study analyzed biogenic amine (BA) content in three varieties (types) of kimchi (Baechu kimchi, Baek kimchi, and Yeolmu kimchi), identified the causative bacteria, and evaluated the gene expression associated with the BA formation during kimchi fermentation at 4 °C. Histamine content exceeding the toxicity limit was detected in a single Baechu kimchi product. Tyramine content in most Baechu kimchi products was approximately half of the toxicity limit. Other varieties had relatively lower BA content. Most BA producers isolated from all kimchi varieties were identified as Levilactobacillus brevis, which prominently produced tyramine. To clarify the role of L. brevis in tyramine formation in Baechu kimchi, fermentation experiments were performed using L. brevis BC1M20. The results showed that tyramine content and tyrosine decarboxylase gene (tdc) expression were higher in the inoculated kimchi than in the control. In addition, in the inoculated kimchi, the content decreased while the expression level was almost constant.
BACKGROUND
The excessive salt intake associated with Douchi has become a topic of controversy. Addressing this concern and enhancing its market competitiveness necessitates the application of salt reduction fermentation in Douchi. Therefore, to promote the application of salt reduction fermentation in Douchi, a comprehensive study was undertaken aiming to investigate the differences in biogenic amines, volatile compounds and non‐volatile compounds in Douchi with varying salt content.
RESULTS
The findings unequivocally demonstrate that salt hampers the formation of metabolites in Douchi. As the salt content increased, there was a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in the levels of total acid, amino‐type nitrogen and free amino acids in Douchi. Notably, when the salt content exceeded 80 g kg⁻¹, there was a substantial reduction (P < 0.05) in putrescine, lactic acid and malic acid levels. Similarly, when the salt content surpassed 40 g kg⁻¹, β‐phenethylamine and oxalic acid levels exhibited a significant decline (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the results of E‐nose and principal component analysis based on headspace solid phase microextraction gas chromatography–mass spectrometry revealed notable discrepancies in the volatile compound content between Douchi samples with relatively low salt content (40 and 80 g kg⁻¹) and those with relatively high salt content (120, 160 and 200 g kg⁻¹) (P < 0.05). By employing partial least squares discriminant analysis, eight distinct volatile compounds, including o‐xylene, benzaldehyde and 1‐octen‐one, were identified. These compounds exhibited higher concentrations in Douchi samples with relatively low salt content (40 and 80 g kg⁻¹). The sensory results showed that Douchi samples with lower salt content exhibited higher scores in the soy sauce‐like and Douchi aroma attributes.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study significantly enhances our understanding of the impact of salt on metabolites in Douchi and provides invaluable insights for the development of salt reduction fermentation in this context. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.