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Background: The negative impact of perceived discrimination on health outcomes is well established. However, less attention has been directed towards understanding the effect of perceived discrimination on health behaviors relevant for the treatment of diabetes in ethnic minorities. Aim: To examine the effects of healthcare mistreatment attributed to discrimination on the continuity of Type 2 Diabetes (DM2) care among mapuche patients in a southern region of Chile. Material and Methods: A non-probabilistic sample of 85 mapuche DM2 patients were recruited from public and private health systems. Eligibility criteria included having experienced at least one incident of interpersonal healthcare mistreatment. All participants answered an instrument designed to measure healthcare mistreatment and continuity of diabetes care. Results: Healthcare mistreatment attributed to ethnic discrimination was associated with the discontinuation of diabetes care. Conclusions: Healthcare mistreatment attributed to discrimination negatively impacted the continuity of diabetes care, a fact which may provide a better understanding of health disparities in ethnic minorities.
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Rev Med Chile 2016; 144: 1270-1276
Atribución de malos tratos en
servicios de salud a discriminación y
sus consecuencias en pacientes
diabéticos mapuche
MANUEL S. ORTIZ1,2,a,b, MARÍA JOSÉ BAEZA-RIVERA1,3,a,b,
NATALIA SALINAS-OÑATE1,4,a,b, PATRICIA FLYNN5,a,b,c,
HÉCTOR BETANCOURT1,5,a,b
Healthcare mistreatment attributed
to discrimination among mapuche patients
and discontinuation of diabetes care
Background: The negative impact of perceived discrimination on health
outcomes is well established. However, less attention has been directed towards
understanding the effect of perceived discrimination on health behaviors relevant
for the treatment of diabetes in ethnic minorities. Aim: To examine the effects
of healthcare mistreatment attributed to discrimination on the continuity of
Type 2 Diabetes (DM2) care among mapuche patients in a southern region of
Chile. Material and Methods: A non-probabilistic sample of 85 mapuche DM2
patients were recruited from public and private health systems. Eligibility criteria
included having experienced at least one incident of interpersonal healthcare
mistreatment. All participants answered an instrument designed to measure
healthcare mistreatment and continuity of diabetes care. Results: Healthcare
mistreatment attributed to ethnic discrimination was associated with the discon-
tinuation of diabetes care. Conclusions: Healthcare mistreatment attributed to
discrimination negatively impacted the continuity of diabetes care, a fact which
may provide a better understanding of health disparities in ethnic minorities.
(Rev Med Chile 2016; 144: 1270-1276)
Key words: Delivery of Health Care; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; Ethnic
Groups; Healthcare Disparities; Health Care Surveys; Racism.
1Departamento de Psicología,
Facultad de Educación, Ciencias
Sociales y Humanidades,
Universidad de La Frontera,
Temuco, Chile.
2Laboratorio de Estrés y Salud.
Doctorado en Psicología, Facultad
de Educación, Ciencias Sociales y
Humanidades, Universidad de La
Frontera, Temuco, Chile.
3Facultad de Ciencias Sociales
y Humanidades, Carrera de
Psicología, Universidad Autónoma
de Chile, Temuco, Chile.
4Facultad de Ciencias Sociales,
Carrera de Psicología, Universidad
Católica de Temuco, Chile.
5Culture and Behavior Laboratory,
Loma Linda University, USA.
aPsicólogo.
bPhD.
cMPH.
Esta investigación fue financiada
por CONICYT (Comisión Nacional
de Investigación Científica y
Tecnológica, Gobierno de Chile),
Proyecto FONDECYT N° 1090660
cuyo investigador principal fue el
Dr. H. Betancourt.
Recibido el 11 de julio de 2016,
aceptado el 6 de septiembre de
2016.
Correspondencia a:
Manuel S. Ortiz.
Departamento de Psicología,
Universidad de La Frontera.
Montevideo 0830, Temuco, Chile.
manuel.ortiz@ufrontera.cl
La percepción de discriminación en salud,
entendida como la medida en que los pre-
juicios, actitudes o creencias estereotipadas
de los proveedores de salud dan como resultado
un trato injusto y desventajas sistemáticas a los
miembros de un grupo en particular1 se asocia
con peores resultados en salud2-4. Asimismo, tie-
ne consecuencias negativas para quien es objeto
de discriminación, asociándose ésta con un peor
estado de salud física y mental5-7 y disminución en
las conductas de autocuidado3,8. Específicamente,
personas que son discriminadas en salud se ca-
racterizan por una menor búsqueda de atención
y mantención del nivel de salud recomendado9,
escasa voluntad para utilizar los servicios médi-
cos10 y peor adherencia a los tratamientos11-13. En
pacientes diabéticos, la percepción de discrimi-
nación se asocia con más síntomas de la diabetes,
peor control metabólico y menor práctica de
exámenes de HbA1c5, menos visitas al médico14 y
mayor abandono del tratamiento15-17.
Personas que son víctimas de discriminación
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atribuyen este fenómeno a diferentes causas, entre
ellas, a su etnia, nivel socioeconómico, género
y/o orientación sexual18-20. Más aún, padecer una
enfermedad crónica, como la diabetes, se asocia
con mayor percepción de discriminación y es-
tigmatización asociada a tal enfermedad21. En el
caso de personas mapuches, ellas tienen mayor
probabilidad de ser discriminadas en salud, debi-
do a su etnia y a que en su mayoría se concentran
en los niveles educacionales y socioeconómicos
más bajos22-24. Los escasos estudios disponibles
en la literatura chilena confirman esta idea, re-
portándose que 82% de los adultos mapuches se
sienten despreciados y tratados como inferiores
producto de su etnia22. Más aún, en el contexto
de salud, los usuarios mapuches reconocen que
la discriminación en éste ámbito es uno de los
grandes problemas de la atención en los servicios
de salud en la Región de La Araucanía25.
Considerando que la población de diabéticos
mapuches es objeto frecuente de discriminación
en salud, es interesante preguntarse si atribuirla a
causas tales como la etnia y el nivel socioeconó-
mico se asocia con la adherencia al tratamiento
de la DM2, entendida ésta como la continuidad/
discontinuidad del tratamiento.
Para responder a esta pregunta, este estudio
utiliza el modelo Integrador de Betancourt26-28, el
cual es adecuado para investigar las conductas en
salud multicultural, puesto que permite compren-
der la forma en que se interrelacionan las variables
demográficas, los factores culturales y los proce-
sos psicológicos con las conductas de salud. Aún
cuando este modelo propone las relaciones antes
mencionadas, en la presente investigación éste fue
adaptado para investigar el efecto que tiene en la
discontinuidad del cuidado de la diabetes, atribuir
un encuentro clínico negativo a discriminación
por etnia o nivel socioeconómico, entendiendo
la discontinuidad como la intención de postergar
un encuentro clínico futuro o preferir cambiar al
médico tratante (Figura 1).
Material y Método
Participantes
Ochenta y cinco sujetos diabéticos Tipo 2
fueron seleccionados por medio de un muestreo
intencionado. Los participantes, quienes eran
parte de un programa de investigación que incluía
una serie de estudios relacionados con factores
culturales y psicológicos relevantes al control de
Malos tratos y discriminación en pacientes mapuches - M. S. Ortiz et al
Rev Med Chile 2016; 144: 1270-1276
Figura 1. Modelo teórico hipotetizado.
Experiencia negativa
atribuida a
discriminación étnica
Nivel
educacional
Nivel de
ingreso
Retraso en próximo
chequeo médico
Preferir no atenderse
más con ese profesional
Educación Ingreso
Experiencia negativa
atribuida a discriminación
socioeconómica
Discontinuidad
del tratamiento
de la diabetes
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ARTÍCULO DE INVESTIGACIÓN
la DM2, cumplieron con los siguientes criterios
de inclusión: a) ser mayor de edad; b) tener diag-
nóstico de DM2 de por lo menos un año; c) usar
fármacos prescritos; d) reportar al menos un en-
cuentro clínico negativo con un profesional de la
salud, en la Escala de Experiencias Interpersonales
Negativas en Salud29. Se excluyeron participantes
con diagnóstico de DM1. El promedio de edad de
los participantes fue 59 años (SD = 13,09 años),
siendo 70% mujeres. Un 79% de la muestra repor-
tó tener un ingreso económico mensual menor o
igual a 150 mil pesos chilenos.
Instrumentos
Ingresos y educación: Los participantes infor-
maron sus ingresos económicos familiares men-
suales y su nivel educacional en años de estudios.
Maltrato en servicios de salud: Se utilizó una
versión abreviada de 7 ítems de la escala Percep-
tions of Interpersonal Health Care Mistreatment29,
la cual presenta aseveraciones que describen en-
cuentros negativos con profesionales de la salud
como por ejemplo “el doctor/a no me dio suficiente
información”. Ante cada uno de estos reactivos
los participantes debían seleccionar sólo aquellas
situaciones que habían experimentado. De esta
manera, si marcaban al menos una de ellas, se
consideraba que cumplían con este criterio de
inclusión para enrolarse en el estudio.
Atribuciones causales de discriminación en
salud: Se utilizó la versión abreviada de 3 ítems
de la escala Causal Attributions for Health Care
Mistreatment29 en la cual los participantes deben
indicar la medida en que atribuyen el encuentro
negativo en salud, a factores tales como su nivel
educacional, nivel de ingreso y/o a su origen ét-
nico. El formato de respuesta de estos ítems es de
tipo Likert de 7 puntos (1 = “muy en desacuerdo
a 7 = “totalmente de acuerdo”). En este estudio, la
medidad de consistencia interna fue de 0,81.
Discontinuidad del cuidado de la diabetes: Se
evaluó a través de dos ítems adaptados, pertene-
cientes a la escala Continuity of Cancer Screening
Care29, cuyo formato de respuesta es tipo Likert
de 7 puntos (1 = “muy en desacuerdo” a 7 = “to-
talmente de acuerdo”), en los que los participantes
deben indicar el grado de acuerdo con las siguien-
tes conductas llevadas a cabo como consecuencia
de percibir un trato discriminatorio: “Postergó o
se demoró más en ir a la próxima consulta”y“Pre-
fería no atenderse más con ese doctor/a”. El alpha
de Cronbach fue igual a 0,64, valor aceptable,
considerando que éste fue estimado con 2 ítems.
Procedimiento
Los participantes fueron contactados por los
asistentes de investigación del proyecto, estudian-
tes de Postgrado de Psicología de la Universidad
de La Frontera, quienes informaron los objetivos
del estudio, voluntariedad, anonimato y confiden-
cialidad de la información recolectada, así como
también en qué consistiría la participación en el
estudio. Todos quienes aceptaron enrolarse en el
estudio firmaron un consentimiento informado
y posteriormente respondieron los cuestionarios
en forma escrita. A cada participante se le practicó
un examen capilar de hemoglobina glicosilada
(HbA1c), cuyos resultados fueron entregados a
los participantes, junto con $5 mil pesos chilenos,
como retribución por la participación.
Este procedimiento se ajusta a las normas éticas
de la Declaración de Helsinki y a los principios
éticos de la American Psychological Association.
Este protocolo fue aprobado por el Servicio de
Salud Araucanía Sur.
Análisis estadístico
Los datos fueron analizados con el software
EQS 6.130, basado en el análisis de ecuaciones
estructurales y el método de estimación de máxima
verosimilitud. Este análisis multivariado estudia
relaciones complejas entre múltiples variables,
algunas de las cuales son medidas u observadas
directamente (ej. indicadores) y otras no medidas
directamente pero que explican la varianza común
entre los indicadores (ej. factores latentes).
Esta técnica es similar al análisis de regresión
múltiple pero más potente, pues permite examinar
la relación causal entre diversos factores latentes
y variables, de modo simultáneo, controlando el
error de medición31. En este análisis se evalúa la
bondad de ajuste del modelo teórico a los datos,
para posteriormente examinar cargas factoriales
y coeficientes de regresión. En consecuencia, se
utilizaron los siguientes indicadores de bondad
de ajuste: chi-cuadrado (χ2) no significativo, una
proporción menor a 2 de χ2/df, el Comparative
Fit Index (CFI > a 0,95), el RMSEA (< a 0,08) y el
SRMR (< a 0,05)32.
Rev Med Chile 2016; 144: 1270-1276
Malos tratos y discriminación en pacientes mapuches - M. S. Ortiz et al
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ARTÍCULO DE INVESTIGACIÓN
Resultados
En primer lugar, es importante reportar que
el evento clínico negativo más frecuentemente
reportado por los participantes fue que el profe-
sional realizaba el examen físico apresuradamente
(41%), seguido por no proporcionar información
suficiente (35%), y no explicar los resultados de
los exámenes (32%).
El análisis del modelo causal basado en las
relaciones propuestas en las hipótesis resultó en
un óptimo ajuste de los datos. Los indicadores
de bondad de ajuste del modelo son excelentes
[CFI = 1,00, χ2
(9) = 8,40, p = 0,49, χ2/df = 0,93,
SRMR = 0,03, RMSEA = 0,00, 90% CI (0,00; 0,12)]
(Figura 2) y la varianza explicada es 37%.
En relación a las hipótesis, se ha encontra-
do evidencia sobre la relación entre el proceso
psicológico atribucional y la discontinuidad del
tratamiento. Tal como se observa en la Figura 2,
los participantes mapuches que más atribuyen
un encuentro clínico negativo a discriminación
por nivel socioeconómico presentan mayor dis-
continuidad del tratamiento (β = 0,42, p < 0,01).
Similarmente, existe una relación marginalmente
significativa entre la atribución de discriminación
por etnia y la adherencia al tratamiento (β = 0,25,
p = 0,07), sugiriendo que mientras más se atribuya
la experiencia clínica negativa a discriminación ét-
nica, mayores es la discontinuidad del tratamiento.
En adición a estos resultados, se ha encontrado
que el nivel de ingresos y el nivel educacional no
se relacionan directamente con la discontinuidad
del tratamiento, sin embargo, si se observa una re-
lación inversa estadísticamente significativa entre
nivel educacional y la atribución de discriminación
por etnia (β = -0,27, p < 0,05), es decir, mientras
menor es el nivel educacional del paciente, la ex-
periencia clínica negativa es mayormente atribuida
a su pertenencia a la etnia mapuche. Asimismo,
aunque la asociación fue marginalmente signifi-
cativa, se observó que participantes mapuches de
menor nivel educacional, atribuyen el encuentro
negativo en salud, mayormente a su bajo nivel
socioeconómico (β = -0,22, p = 0,07). En cuanto
al nivel de ingreso, se observa un patrón similar en
el cual a menor nivel de ingresos, la experiencia ne-
gativa en salud tiende a ser mayormente atribuida
a discriminación étnica (β = -0,31, p < 0,05) y dis-
criminación socioeconómica (β = -0,24, p < 0,05).
Figura 2. Atribución de malos tratos en servicios de salud a discriminación y sus consecuencias en pacientes diabéticos ma-
puche. CFI = 1.00, χ2 (9, n = 80) =8.40, p = .49, χ2/df = .93, SRMR = .03, RMSEA = 0,00; 90% CI (0,00; 0,12) +p <0,07,
*p < 0,05, **p < 0,01, ***p < 0,001.
Experiencia negativa
atribuida a
discriminación étnica
Nivel
educacional
Nivel de
ingreso
Educación Ingreso
Experiencia negativa
atribuida a discriminación
socioeconómica
Discontinuidad
del tratamiento
de la diabetes
Retraso en próximo
chequeo médico
Preferir no atenderse
más con ese
profesional
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ARTÍCULO DE INVESTIGACIÓN
Discusión
El objetivo del presente estudio fue exami-
nar el efecto que tiene en la discontinuidad del
tratamiento de la DM2 de pacientes mapuches,
atribuir un encuentro clínico negativo a etnia y
nivel socioeconómico.
En relación al proceso atribucional, es impor-
tante señalar que las personas buscan explicaciones
causales tanto de su conducta como la de otros.
La literatura disponible sugiere que quienes son
objeto de discriminación, frecuentemente tienden
a experimentar ambigüedad en su proceso atri-
bucional, es decir, incertidumbre acerca de que
tal discriminación sea producto de los prejuicios
que otras personas tienen hacia los integrantes de
su grupo de pertenencia33. Por ejemplo, personas
Afroamericanas reportan experimentar eventos
asociados a ambigüedad atribucional tales como
peores servicios o malos tratos interpersonales34.
En el caso de los mapuches, ellos se sienten des-
preciados y a tratados inferiormente, producto
de su pertenencia étnica22. En línea con estos
antecedentes, en este estudio se ha encontrado evi-
dencia que indica que pacientes mapuches DM2
que reportan algún encuentro clínico negativo en
salud, lo atribuyen a su pertenencia étnica y a su
nivel socioeconómico. Más aún, se ha encontrado
que mientras menor es el nivel educacional y el
nivel de ingresos, el encuentro clínico negativo
es mayormente atribuido a la etnia y al nivel so-
cioeconómico.
El resultado anteriormente discutido revela
que pacientes mapuches experimentan múltiples
episodios de discriminación, lo cual es consisten-
te con la Teoría del Estrés de las Minorías35, que
sugiere que miembros de grupos étnicos minori-
tarios, experimentan estresores específicos (ej. dis-
criminación por su etnia), lo cual se suma a otros
estresores (ej. bajo nivel socioeconómico), lo cual
puede generar grandes desigualdades en salud.
Otro resultado interesante de este estudio es
que pacientes mapuches que atribuyen una expe-
riencia negativa en salud a su etnia o nivel socioe-
conómico, tienden a discontinuar el tratamiento,
ya sea retrasando la próxima consulta en salud o
prefiriendo no atenderse más con el profesional
con quien se tuvo la experiencia clínica negativa.
Este resultado es consistente con otros hallazgos
obtenidos en estudios previos que han utilizado el
modelo integrador de Betancourt, en los cuales los
procesos psicológicos (ej. atribución) muestran un
efecto directo sobre diversos resultados en salud
estudiados26, tales como conductas de screening
para cáncer de mama27,29,36, cáncer cervicouteri-
no28, y adherencia a la dieta en población con
DM237.
Lo anterior, contribuye a generar desigualdades
en salud, por cuanto, las consecuencias negativas
que tiene atribuir el encuentro clínico negativo a la
etnia y al nivel socioeconómico pueden significar
un aumento considerable de las probabilidades
de que el paciente discontinúe o abandone su
tratamiento, lo cual a su vez puede repercutir en
un mayor riesgo de padecer complicaciones micro
y macro vasculares asociadas a un mal cuidado de
la diabetes, disminución en la calidad de vida del
paciente y su familia, pérdida de productividad del
paciente, y aumento de los costos para el Estado
por tratamientos no bien utilizados.
Estos resultados son particularmente impor-
tantes, si se considera que una buena relación
médico-paciente es un muy buen predictor de
la continuidad de las atenciones en salud. Por
ejemplo, con población Latina que vive en Estados
Unidos, se ha demostrado que mujeres que perci-
ben mayor empatía por parte del profesional de la
salud, tienen mayor motivación para realizarse los
exámenes preventivos para el cáncer de mama36,38.
Este trabajo tiene limitaciones. Una de ellas
es el tamaño muestral, que si bien fue suficiente
para realizar los análisis, pudo subestimar el ni-
vel de significancia de las relaciones estadísticas
encontradas. Por otra parte, haber utilizado una
versión abreviada del instrumento para identificar
encuentros clínicos negativos, pudo haber exclui-
do otras experiencias negativas vividas por alguno
de los sujetos, lo que en consecuencia pudo haber
impedido enrolarlos en el estudio.
Las limitantes anteriormente descritas deben
ser consideradas en futuros estudios, así como la
posibilidad de incluirotros indicadores o proxies
de adherencia a los tratamientos (ej. marcadores
biológicos como hemoglobina glicosilada), o el
explorar lo que ocurre con los mapuches de niveles
socioeconómicos más altos.
A modo de síntesis, este estudio contribuye a
una mejor comprensión de las desigualdades en
salud, entendiendo el papel que juegan los pro-
cesos psicológicos de los pacientes en relación a
las experiencias vividas con los profesionales de la
salud en el contexto de su tratamiento. Por otra
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ARTÍCULO DE INVESTIGACIÓN
parte, contribuye a proveer evidencia respecto
de los factores asociados a la continuidad/dis-
continuidad del tratamiento de una enfermedad
altamente prevalente en nuestro país, y para la cual
se ha puesto en marcha un andamiaje que permite
el acceso gratuito al tratamiento, sin que ello esté
siendo suficiente para combatirla.
Considerando lo anterior, enfocarse en la
interacción entre el profesional de la salud con
pacientes culturalmente diversos como son las
personas mapuches, es un punto esencial para
mejorar la adherencia a los tratamientos y contri-
buir a reducir las desigualdades en salud. Estudiar
las percepciones de trato discriminatorio en los
pacientes, independientemente de si hay intención
de parte del profesional, es importante ya que los
procesos psicológicos y conductuales asociados
a esta percepción trae consigo consecuencias tan
negativas como la discontinuidad del tratamiento
y las actividades críticas para el control de la en-
fermedad y sus consecuencias.
“La no discriminación es un compromiso que
no debe dejar de cumplir el médico bajo cualquier
condición que pueda diferenciar a un ser humano
en la atención de su salud. Debe respetar los límites
de sus obligaciones asistiendo a todos por igual, sin
tener en cuenta si son ricos o pobres, cristianos,
hebreos o musulmanes, mujer u hombre, niño,
adulto o anciano”39,p.805.
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Malos tratos y discriminación en pacientes mapuches - M. S. Ortiz et al
... however, reveals high rates of healthcare discrimination, attributed by patients to their lower levels of education and income (Ortiz et al., 2016). Moreover, these attributions of healthcare discrimination resulted in a greater likelihood that patients would discontinue their diabetes medical care. ...
... This study was part of a larger research project designed to examine the role of culture, patient-provider healthcare interactions, and psychological factors relevant to treatment adherence and outcome among T2DM patients in Chile. Previous research (Ortiz et al., 2016) examined the impact of healthcare discrimination among T2DM patients of indigenous (Mapuche) background. The present study therefore focuses on the experience of healthcare mistreatment among non-indigenous Chilean T2DM patients. ...
Article
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The aim of this research was to examine the effects of healthcare mistreatment and cultural beliefs on psychological, behavioral, and biological phenomena relevant to treatment adherence and health outcome among patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM). The study was conducted in Chile, where the prevalence of T2DM is one of the highest in Latin America and is increasing at an accelerated rate. The research was guided by Betancourt’s Integrative Model and bottom-up mixed-method cultural research approach. Consistent with the hypotheses of the study, the test of a structural equation model based on the Integrative Model, including exposure to healthcare mistreatment, diabetes-related cultural beliefs, psychological distress, and medical avoidance as determinants of HbA1c, a biological measure of diabetes control, fit the data. The fact that the analysis of structural equations accounted for significant variance in HbA1c provides supporting evidence for extending the Integrative Model, to explain biological phenomena based on cultural and psychological factors.
... • Patient-level: Lower socioeconomic group [95]; Not confident about community pharmacists [141]; Fear about medications [85]; Cultural beliefs influencing management [31]; Multimorbidity [80]; Lack of knowledge leading to misconceptions about disease management [141] • System-level: Low primary care visits [80]; Ethnic discrimination in health care settings [89]; Heavy workload [31,90]; Lack of a teamwork approach [31]; Insufficient availability of essential medicines [38]; Ambiguous and inappropriate clinical guidelines [93] • Patient-level: Female sex [80,95], high income [56,95], and high level of hypertension and diabetes knowledge [95,96]; Less negative general beliefs about medications and few concerns about medications [95] HICs • Patient-level: High cost of medication [69]; Personal and cultural beliefs [69]; Wrong understanding of a disease and its therapy among patients [93]; Lack of support from peers, family, providers, and the community [93] • [20], and low health literacy [96]; Lack of access to medical care and medications [50]; Using nonoptimal doses of antihypertensive medications [65]; Experiencing adverse events associated with medications [65] • Patient-level: Young age [52], female sex [95], high income [74], and being of White ethnicity [52,58]; High level of hypertension and diabetes knowledge [95]; Partner involvement in care [82]; Better self-perceived health status [95]; Healthy lifestyle practices: regular exercise and weight management [97] • System-level: Trust between physicians and patients [98] HICs • Patient-level: Age ≥75 years [74], male sex [15,55,59,68,100], overweight [59,66,100], low income [55,60,67], specific occupations [66], and low education level [55,68]; Coexisting chronic conditions [68,97]; Living in rural or resource-limited areas [55,60]; Unhealthy lifestyle: smoking and alcohol consumption [66,97,100]; Lack of family/social support [57]; Limited awareness of the lifelong nature of the condition [67]; Complexity of the intervention [68]; Insufficient patient education about the importance of clinical management [67]; Poor communication of treatment monitoring results [67] • System-level: Long waiting times at clinics [67]; Negative staff attitudes toward patients [67]; Weak monitoring schedules [67]; Lack of medical resources [84] • Patient-level: High income [15,54,60,74], older age [19,72], marriage [10,54], fewer complications [65], and health insurance [19,39]; Healthy lifestyle: adopting dietary modifications or engaging in regular exercise [54,99]; Receiving long prescribed medications for hypertension and diabetes [71]; Belief in treatment efficacy and having family support [67]; Timely monitoring of blood pressure and blood glucose [19] • System-level: Adequate medications [84]; High physician density [75] LMICs a HIC: high-income country. b LMIC: low-and middle-income country. ...
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BACKGROUND Hypertension and diabetes are global health challenges requiring effective management to mitigate their considerable burden. The successful management of hypertension and diabetes requires the completion of a sequence of stages, which are collectively termed the care cascade. OBJECTIVE This scoping review aimed to describe the characteristics of studies on the hypertension and diabetes care cascade and identify potential interventions as well as factors that impact each stage of the care cascade. METHODS The method of this scoping review has been guided by the framework by Arksey and O’Malley. We systematically searched MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science using terms pertinent to hypertension, diabetes, and specific stages of the care cascade. Articles published after 2011 were considered, and we included all studies that described the completion of at least one stage of the care cascade of hypertension and diabetes. Study selection was independently performed by 2 paired authors. Descriptive statistics were used to elucidate key patterns and trends. Inductive content analysis was performed to generate themes regarding the barriers and facilitators for improving the care cascade in hypertension and diabetes management. RESULTS A total of 128 studies were included, with 42.2% (54/128) conducted in high-income countries. Of them, 47 (36.7%) focused on hypertension care, 63 (49.2%) focused on diabetes care, and only 18 (14.1%) reported on the care of both diseases. The majority (96/128, 75.0%) were observational in design. Cascade stages documented in the literature were awareness, screening, diagnosis, linkage to care, treatment, adherence to medication, and control. Most studies focused on the stages of treatment and control, while a relative paucity of studies examined the stages before treatment initiation (76/128, 59.4% vs 52/128, 40.6%). There was a wide spectrum of interventions aimed at enhancing the hypertension and diabetes care cascade. The analysis unveiled a multitude of individual-level and system-level factors influencing the successful completion of cascade sequences in both high-income and low- and middle-income settings. CONCLUSIONS This review offers a comprehensive understanding of hypertension and diabetes management, emphasizing the pivotal factors that impact each stage of care. Future research should focus on upstream cascade stages and context-specific interventions to optimize patient retention and care outcomes.
... • Patient-level: Lower socioeconomic group [95]; Not confident about community pharmacists [141]; Fear about medications [85]; Cultural beliefs influencing management [31]; Multimorbidity [80]; Lack of knowledge leading to misconceptions about disease management [141] • System-level: Low primary care visits [80]; Ethnic discrimination in health care settings [89]; Heavy workload [31,90]; Lack of a teamwork approach [31]; Insufficient availability of essential medicines [38]; Ambiguous and inappropriate clinical guidelines [93] • Patient-level: Female sex [80,95], high income [56,95], and high level of hypertension and diabetes knowledge [95,96]; Less negative general beliefs about medications and few concerns about medications [95] HICs • Patient-level: High cost of medication [69]; Personal and cultural beliefs [69]; Wrong understanding of a disease and its therapy among patients [93]; Lack of support from peers, family, providers, and the community [93] • [20], and low health literacy [96]; Lack of access to medical care and medications [50]; Using nonoptimal doses of antihypertensive medications [65]; Experiencing adverse events associated with medications [65] • Patient-level: Young age [52], female sex [95], high income [74], and being of White ethnicity [52,58]; High level of hypertension and diabetes knowledge [95]; Partner involvement in care [82]; Better self-perceived health status [95]; Healthy lifestyle practices: regular exercise and weight management [97] • System-level: Trust between physicians and patients [98] HICs • Patient-level: Age ≥75 years [74], male sex [15,55,59,68,100], overweight [59,66,100], low income [55,60,67], specific occupations [66], and low education level [55,68]; Coexisting chronic conditions [68,97]; Living in rural or resource-limited areas [55,60]; Unhealthy lifestyle: smoking and alcohol consumption [66,97,100]; Lack of family/social support [57]; Limited awareness of the lifelong nature of the condition [67]; Complexity of the intervention [68]; Insufficient patient education about the importance of clinical management [67]; Poor communication of treatment monitoring results [67] • System-level: Long waiting times at clinics [67]; Negative staff attitudes toward patients [67]; Weak monitoring schedules [67]; Lack of medical resources [84] • Patient-level: High income [15,54,60,74], older age [19,72], marriage [10,54], fewer complications [65], and health insurance [19,39]; Healthy lifestyle: adopting dietary modifications or engaging in regular exercise [54,99]; Receiving long prescribed medications for hypertension and diabetes [71]; Belief in treatment efficacy and having family support [67]; Timely monitoring of blood pressure and blood glucose [19] • System-level: Adequate medications [84]; High physician density [75] LMICs a HIC: high-income country. b LMIC: low-and middle-income country. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Hypertension and diabetes are global health challenges requiring effective management to mitigate their considerable burden. The key to successful management of hypertension and diabetes requires the completion of a sequence of stages, collectively termed the care cascade. Objective: This scoping review aimed to describe the characteristics of studies on hypertension and diabetes care cascade and identify potential interventions as well as factors that impact each stage of the care cascade. Methods: The method of this scoping review is guided by Arksey and O'Malley's framework. We systematically searched Medline, Embase and Web of Science using terms pertinent to hypertension, diabetes and specific stages of the care cascade. Articles published after 2011 and included all studies that described the completion of at least one stage of the care cascade of hypertension and diabetes were included in this scoping review. Study selection was independently performed by two paired authors. Descriptive statistics were used to elucidate key patterns and trends. Inductive content analysis was performed to generate themes regarding barriers and facilitators to improving the care cascade in hypertension and diabetes management. Results: A total of 128 studies were included, with 42% conducted in high-income countries. Of them, 47 (36.7%) focused on hypertension care while 63 (49.2%) on diabetes, and only 18 (14.1%) articles reported on the care of both diseases. The majority (75%) were observational in design. Cascade stages documented in the literature were awareness, screening, diagnosis, linked to care, treatment, adherence to medication and control. Most studies focus on the stages of treatment and control while a relative paucity of studies examine the stages before treatment initiation (59% vs. 41%). A wide spectrum of interventions aimed at enhancing hypertension and diabetes care cascade were identified. The analysis unveiled a multitude of individual-level and system-level factors influencing the successful completion of cascade sequence in both high-income and low and middle-income settings. Conclusions: This review offers a comprehensive understanding of hypertension and diabetes management, emphasising the pivotal factors that impact each stage of care. Future research should focus on upstream cascade stages and context-specific interventions to optimise patient retention and care outcomes. Clinicaltrial: Not applicable.
... [32][33][34] Fortunately, research also reveals that when patients perceive their providers to be empathic and culturally competent, they are less likely to avoid medical care and more likely to adhere to provider recommendations. [35][36][37] Given the similarity between the medical literature on implicit bias and the present study findings relevant to pharmacy practice, it is likely that interventions designed to improve the empathy and cultural competence of pharmacists and pharmacy students could help tackle the noted implicit biases in pharmacy practice and provide similar beneficial outcomes for patients. ...
Article
Introduction: Implicit biases can contribute to unfair treatment in healthcare and exacerbate healthcare disparities. Little is known about the implicit biases that exist within pharmacy practice and their behavioral manifestations. The purpose of this study was to explore pharmacy student perspectives about implicit bias in pharmacy practice. Methods: Sixty-two second-year pharmacy students attended a lecture on implicit bias in healthcare and engaged in an assignment designed to explore their thoughts about how implicit bias manifests or may manifest within pharmacy practice. Students' qualitative responses were content analyzed. Results: Students reported several examples in which implicit bias may emerge in pharmacy practice. Various forms of potential bias were identified including bias associated with patients' race, ethnicity, and culture, insurance/financial status, weight, age, religion, physical appearance and language, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning and gender identity, and prescriptions filled. Students identified several potential implications of implicit bias in pharmacy practice including unwelcoming non-verbal behavior on the part of providers, differences in time devoted to interacting with patients, differences in empathy and respect, inadequate counseling, and (un)willingness to provide services. Students also identified factors that could precipitate biased behaviors such as fatigue, stress, burnout, and multiple demands. Conclusions: Pharmacy students believed that implicit biases manifested in many different ways and were potentially associated with behaviors that resulted in unequal treatment in pharmacy practice. Future studies should explore the effectiveness of implicit bias trainings on reducing the behavioral implications of bias in pharmacy practice.
... 42 At the university stage, students are highly vulnerable and they encounter new personal challenges in life that may be accompanied by different risk behaviors, such as eating habits that may negatively impact QOL. 43 In our study we found a high prevalence of unhealthy eating habits, such as consuming sugary drinks (53.6%), adding salt to food before trying it (46.4%) and fried food consumption (34.8%). ...
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Objective: To estimate the association between eating habits and quality of life (QOL) in Chilean university students. Participants: 1,212 students from the Universidad de La Frontera, Chile (mean age 18.7 ± 2.15) were surveyed in January–March 2018. Methods: Participants completed a cross-sectional self-report survey to evaluate QOL using the WHOQOL-BREF scale and eating habits with a food habits survey. Results: Students reporting a better healthy eating habits score also presented a higher QOL. Eating breakfast and eating home-cooked meals is a protective factor for QOL in each domain. The consumption of sweet snacks was shown to be a risk factor for the physical health and environment domains. The consumption of fast food is shown as the greatest risk factor in the physical domain. Conclusion: Healthy and unhealthy eating habits are associated with different dimensions of QOL. University authorities should develop new policies to improve the QOL of the entire university community.
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This study investigated the role of fatalism as a cultural value orientation and causal attributions for past failure in the academic performance of high school students in the Araucania Region of Chile. Three thousand three hundred and fourty eight Mapuche and Non-Mapuche students participated in the study. Consistent with the Culture and Behavior model that guided the research, the test of causal models based on the analysis of structural equations show that academic performance is in part a function of variations in the level of fatalism, directly as well as indirectly through its influence in the attribution processes and failure-related emotions. In general, the model representing the proposed structure of relations among fatalism, attributions, and emotions as determinants of academic performance fit the data for both Mapuche and non-Mapuche students. However, results show that some of the relations in the model are different for students from these two ethnic groups. Finally, according to the results from the analysis of causal models, family SES appear to be the most important determinant of fatalism.
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Negative health care encounters have implications for preventive medical services and continuity of health care. This study examined cultural and interpersonal psychological factors involved in health care interactions that may ameliorate the detrimental effects of negative encounters. A mixed-methods approach was implemented to examine the relations among positive cultural beliefs about health professionals, perceived professional empathy, interpersonal emotions, and continuity of cancer screening among 237 Latin American (Latino) and non-Latino White (Anglo) American women who reported a negative health care encounter. Multi-group structural equation modeling revealed that for Latino and Anglo women, positive cultural beliefs about health professionals in general were associated with higher perceptions of empathy regarding a professional involved in a negative encounter. In addition, for Latino women, perceptions of higher professional empathy and less negative emotions were associated with better continuity of cancer screening. Interventions designed to improve professionals’ empathy skills and diverse patients’ perceptions of professionals could improve patient–professional relations.
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Ethnic minority and lower socioeconomic status (SES) populations report less positive health care encounters and lower continuity of health care compared with higher SES and non-Latino White (Anglo) Americans. This study examined similarities and differences concerning the influence of patients’ causal attributions for health care mistreatment and related emotions on continuity of health care among 335 Latin American (Latinas) and Anglo American women in Southern California. A mixed methods research approach was implemented to identify and assess perceptions of health care mistreatment, causal attributions for mistreatment, negative emotions, and continuity of cancer screening care. Multigroup structural equation modeling revealed that causal attributions for health care mistreatment and related emotions explained continuity of care above and beyond what was explained by patients’ exposure to health care mistreatment alone, for both ethnic groups. Still, the improvement in variance accounted for by including attributions and emotions was considerably more for Latinas (194%) than Anglo women (109%). Compared with attributions having to do with the health care environment (e.g., time constraints), attributions to the health care professional (e.g., uncompassionate) were related to higher levels of negative emotions for both Latinas and Anglo women and lower continuity of care, particularly for Anglo women. Results also suggest that for Latinas continuity of care was more a function of the attribution–emotion process, particularly the negative emotions associated with attributions concerning mistreatment, whereas for Anglo women it was more a function of mistreatment and the attribution itself. Interventions designed to improve professionals’ communication and interpersonal skills may help enhance continuity of health care and reduce health disparities.
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Past research has identified a link between discrimination and health outcomes among people of color. Perceptions of the cause of discrimination (racial versus other) seem to be important for mental health; however, this relationship has not been fully examined for physical health. Using data from the National Survey of American Life, we find that, among African-Americans, racial discrimination and overall discrimination regardless of attribution are associated with negative health outcomes while non-racial discrimination is not. The results suggest that racial discrimination has a unique adverse effect on physical health for African-Americans that practitioners need to better understand.
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People of color who attribute rejection to racism and women who attribute rejection to sexism are perceived as troublemakers. Women of color may encounter racism and sexism simultaneously; however, it is unclear how compound discrimination claims are perceived. We examined interpersonal judgments of claimants and perceptions of the credibility of compound discrimination claims. In contrast to the double jeopardy perspective, which predicts that the consequences of multiple stigmas are cumulative, a Black woman (Study 1) was not perceived as a bigger troublemaker when she attributed rejection to compound discrimination versus either racism or sexism. Instead, racism and compound discrimination claims incurred similarly high interpersonal costs. Likewise, an Asian woman (Study 2) was not perceived as less credible when she attributed rejection to compound discrimination versus either racism or sexism. Instead, compound discrimination was the only discrimination attribution reliably judged as more credible and appropriate than baseline.
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This study investigated lung cancer stigma, anxiety, depression, and quality of life (QOL) and validated variable similarities between ever and never smokers. Patients took online self-report surveys. Variable contributions to QOL were investigated using hierarchical multiple regression. Patients were primarily White females with smoking experience. Strong negative relationships emerged between QOL and anxiety, depression and lung cancer stigma. Lung cancer stigma provided significant explanation of the variance in QOL beyond covariates. No difference emerged between smoker groups for study variables. Stigma may play a role in predicting QOL. Interventions promoting social and psychological QOL may enhance stigma resistance skills.