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A history of metallurgy
... In practical terms, the testers were using a series of techniques so as to find out if a coin was a counterfeited one or not. Below we describe these techniques based on the important findings of authors who are experts on the topic, such as [1,13,25,30,33,34,37,38]. ...
... According to Ober (2008, 237), although it cannot be verified, it is possible that the testers were engaged in tests by cupellation, when they were not on duty at their tables. The truthiness of Ober's claim is further supported by [38], an expert on ancient metallurgy, who argues that the processing and melting of various types of metal, such as iron, was already known to the Ancient Greeks, at least from 900 BCE. More specifically, [38] provides evidence (i) regarding how coins from silver or other material were made; (ii) that cupellation regarding silver ores from Laurion mines was a common practice. ...
... The truthiness of Ober's claim is further supported by [38], an expert on ancient metallurgy, who argues that the processing and melting of various types of metal, such as iron, was already known to the Ancient Greeks, at least from 900 BCE. More specifically, [38] provides evidence (i) regarding how coins from silver or other material were made; (ii) that cupellation regarding silver ores from Laurion mines was a common practice. The silver mines of Laurion were worked, from very early times, even since the Mycenaean times, that is, before 1100 BCE [38]. ...
In this paper, by performing an intertemporal comparison, we investigate two monetary policy regimes where a central bank is absent, and we further refer on the mechanisms they developed so as to ensure the reliability of transactions between the parties involved. In particular, we mainly focus on the economic–monetary institutions of Athens during the Classical period (508–322 BCE) and we argue that (in principle) there are inter-temporal similarities between the Athenian and the current digital currencies regimes regarding the auditing principles with which the reliability of financial transactions is ensured. We found that in both cases, what is crucial for the success of the system is to achieve trust on the currency. By focusing on Classical Athens, we analyze the nature of the mechanisms and the auditing techniques used to ensure reliable commercial transactions. We also briefly analyze the modern cryptocurrency techniques. We found that the success of both financial regimes was based on achieving: low transactional costs, speed in commercial transactions, and what we characterize as security regarding the commercial transactions.
... The earliest metal to be intensively exploited across the continent appears to be copper (e.g. Branigan 1974;Shepherd 1980;Tylecote 1986Tylecote , 1987Tylecote , 1992Wertheim and Muhly 1980). Copper metallurgical technology appears earliest in southeastern Europe, beginning in the local Late Neolithic of the Balkans (ca. ...
... Most of the evidence for the origins and spread of metallurgy derive from the few metal artifacts occasionally recovered from archaeological contexts (e.g. Branigan 1974;Chernykh 1992;Kadrow 1995;Kristiansen 1987;Kruk and Milisauskas 1999;Shepherd 1980;Tripathi 1988;Tylecote 1986Tylecote , 1987Tylecote , 1992Wertheim and Muhly 1980). This approach, however, is fraught with problems. ...
The origin of metallurgy is usually monitored via the appearance and frequency of various types of metal items. Quantifying the distribution of metal versus stone tool types over time and space can provide insight into the processes underlying the introduction and diffusion of a functional metallurgical technology for subsistence activities, but is a very limited approach. By quantifying the relative frequency of metal versus stone tool slicing cut marks in butchered animal bone assemblages, it becomes possible to identify and map the introduction and spread of metallurgy into and across a region. Prehistoric data from central Poland (from the Early Neolithic, ca. 5400 b.c., through the Early Iron Age, ca. 450 b.c.) are used to calculate the frequency of use and relative importance of stone and metal implements over time. The results clearly demonstrate that metal tools are adopted slowly throughout the entire length of the Bronze Age and that the advent of the Bronze Age did not entail the wholesale disappearance of lithics for butchering animals.
... The widespread use of bimetallic materials started way back in the Bronze Age when it was discovered that combining Cu with another metal can lead to considerable enhancement of mechanical properties. 1 With their superior durability, bimetallic alloys (e.g., Cu−Sn alloy) have replaced stone as the material of choice in the fabrication of tools and weapons and as building and structural materials. In the succeeding centuries, an extensive range of bimetallic systems has been produced and this has led to the realization of new properties and applications. ...
... 3−6 For bimetallic systems, the nanostructure composition (elemental ratio) and configuration (atom arrangement) are two additional parameters that can be adjusted to achieve optimal performance for the intended applications. 7−18 The different configurations that are possible for bimetallic nanostructures can be categorized into two main types: (1) alloy and (2) heterostructure. The distinction between them is based on the relative arrangement of metal atoms in the nanostructure, as schematically illustrated in Figure 1. ...
Bimetallic nanostructures are emerging as a significant class of metal nanomaterials due to their exceptional properties that are useful in various areas of science and technology. When used for catalysis and sensing applications, bimetallic nanostructures have been noted to exhibit better performance relative to their monometallic counterparts owing to synergistic effects. Furthermore, their dual metal composition and configuration can be modulated to achieve optimal activity for the desired functions. However, as with other nanostructured metals, bimetallic nanostructures are usually prepared through wet chemical routes that involve the use of harsh reducing agents and hazardous stabilizing agents. In response to intensifying concerns over the toxicity of chemicals used in nanomaterial synthesis, the scientific community has increasingly turned its attention toward environmentally and biologically compatible reagents that can enable green and sustainable nanofabrication processes. This article aims to provide an evaluation of the green synthetic methods of constructing bimetallic nanostructures, with emphasis on the use of biogenic resources (e.g., plant extracts, DNA, proteins) as safe and practical reagents. Special attention is devoted to biogenic synthetic protocols that demonstrate controllable nanoscale features, such as size, composition, morphology, and configuration. The potential use of these biogenically prepared bimetallic nanostructures as catalysts and sensors is also discussed. It is hoped that this article will serve as a valuable reference on bimetallic nanostructures and will help fuel new ideas for the development of more eco-friendly strategies for the controllable synthesis of various types of nanostructured bimetallic systems.
... Until very recently, the assumed metallurgical activities at Çatalhöyük had stimulated scholarly debates due to an unusually early date of c. 6500 BC for a find that appeared to contain features of a metallurgical 'slag' (Cessford 2005;Mellaart 1964;Neuninger et al. 1964). The argument that the Neolithic Çatalhöyük communities were possibly smelting metal has since been discussed in the literature and found both support (Hauptmann 2000;Hauptmann et al. 1993;Strahm 1984) and open caution (Birch et al. 2013;Craddock 2001;Muhly 1989;Pernicka 1990;Radivojević et al. 2010a;Roberts et al. 2009;Tylecote 1976). A full re-analysis of the original metallurgical 'slag' from Çatalhöyük and revised contextualisation showed that this sample was a burnt copper mineral, probably deposited as a green pigment in a burial and subsequently baked during a destructive fire event in the dwelling in which it was discovered . ...
As outlined in Chapter 2, three key lines of enquiry shaped The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project and underpinned the research questions. Firstly, there are competing views about whether metallurgy in Eurasia had a single origin or arose in multiple places. There are also different perspectives regarding the ways in which pre-existing technical knowledge influenced and inspired the emergence of this new technology. Further discourse relates to the manner in which this early metallurgy was organised across the chaîne opératoire of metal production and use and developed across a range of metals and alloys. Each of these three themes are fundamental to early metallurgy across the world (see papers in Roberts and Thornton 2014). These are areas of investigation with a deep history of scholarship and a wide range of competing explanatory models.
... This usually contains Ni content approximately 10 wt % and is thus much harder and more difficult to work. The nickel content varies between 4 wt % and 26 wt % and can be easily detected, while there appear to be no ores that can homogenize nickel by direct melting [23]. Although Egypt has some remarkable iron ore deposits, but there is no evidence that these deposits were ever worked before the late or Graeco-Roman periods. ...
... In the area of Mesopotamia, 5.000 years ago, copper extraction techniques were first mastered using smelting, casting and forging, and about 1.000 years later, copper smelting from complex copper ores with arsenic, antimony and lead began. Production of bronze, copper alloy with tin, started during 2500 -2200 BC [1]. The application of copper during the industrial revolution took an abrupt upward trajectory, where it found a wide range of applications, only to be later suppressed by new cheaper materials such as plastic, tempered glass, aluminium and steel. ...
Copper has long been known as a metal with outstanding antimicrobial properties. Although ancient healers were not familiar with the mechanisms of its influence on microorganisms, they had empirically established its effectiveness in sterilizing drinking water, disinfecting wounds, treating skin diseases, various infections and other maladies. Recently, there has been renewed interest in investigating copper and its alloys as possible materials that can limit the spread of bacteria and viruses, given that humanity is often facing various local epidemics, and rarely pandemics, as ongoing Corona virus, SARS CoV-2, first detected in March 2020. This paper reviews the recent literature in the research field of antimicrobial properties of metallic copper, its alloys and other copper - based materials, with the aim to promote their future implementation on contact surfaces, primarily in hospitals and institutions with a high frequency of people where the probability of spreading infection is increased.
... L'élaboration de l'acier existe depuis des millénaires et semble être apparue comme un coproduit de la fusion du cuivre à l'âge du bronze. Des vestiges archéologiques ont permis de prouver l'utilisation de fours pour la fusion de minerais de fer en Afrique subsaharienne et en Chine dès la fin du II ème millénaire avant J.-C.(Myler et Van Der Merwe, 1994 ;Tylecote, 2013). L'emploi de techniques empiriques ne permettait pas d'obtenir les matériaux contrôlés que sont nos aciers actuels. ...
Les laitiers sont des déchets générés par les industries métallurgiques. Il s’agit de matières minérales artificielles particulièrement riches en métaux. La capacité des procédés de phytostabilisation à réduire les flux de contaminants vers les environnements adjacents est fortement dépendante de l’efficacité avec laquelle le substrat est colonisé par les végétaux. Ainsi, l’installation durable d’un couvert végétal sur les technosols que constituent les dépôts de laitiers sidérurgiques nécessite l’initiation d’une pédogenèse favorable à son développement et à sa résilience. L’utilisation de MIATE (Boues de stations d’épuration compostées avec des déchets verts) en tant qu’amendement constitue en cela une approche prometteuse. En dehors du fait qu’il confère au substrat la capacité de retenir l’eau tout en apportant les éléments nutritifs et la matière organique indispensable au développement des plantes, il permet d’ajuster le pH dans une gamme limitant la mobilité des éléments métalliques toxiques, tout en augmentant celle des macro et des micro-nutriments essentiels. Lorsque cette gamme de pH favorable est atteinte (< 8,6), l’inoculation de la souche d’AMF R. irregularis (DAOM197198) permet d’améliorer la nutrition des plantes rapidement après leur implantation, notamment en abaissant d’autant plus le pH du substrat que par apport de MIATE seul. La bioprospection de PGPB (Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria : bactéries promottrices de la croissance végétale) sur des parcelles de phytostabilisation implantées sur le site d’étude a conduit à l’identification de souches potentiellement utiles pour la conduite de projets de végétalisation de décharges de laitiers d’acier.
... Later, human communities learned to exploit and process the underground ores and people were able to see the benefits that these activities bring. To simplify the quotidian activities and increase productivity, people began to alloy the subterranean materials discovered and developed metallurgy-an important contribution for humankind [1,2]. ...
The continuous development of society has increased the demand for critical raw materials (CRMs) by using them in different industrial applications. Since 2010, the European Commission has compiled a list of CRMs and potential consumption scenarios with significant economic and environmental impacts. Various efforts were made to reduce or replace the CRM content used in the obtaining process of high-performance materials. Complex concentrated alloys (CCAs) are an innovative solution due to their multitude of attractive characteristics, which make them suitable to be used in a wide range of industrial applications. In order to demonstrate their efficiency in use, materials should have improved recyclability, good mechanical or biocompatible properties, and/or oxidation resistance, according to their destination. In order to predict the formation of solid solutions in CCAs and provide the optimal compositions, thermodynamic and kinetic simulations were performed. The selected compositions were formed in an induction furnace and then structurally characterized with different techniques. The empirical results indicate that the obtained CCAs are suitable to be used in advanced applications, providing original contributions, both in terms of scientific and technological fields, which can open new perspectives for the selection, design, and development of new materials with reduced CRM contents.
... Until very recently, the assumed metallurgical activities at Çatalhöyük had stimulated scholarly debate due to an unusually early date, set at c. 6500 BC, for a find that appeared to display features of a metallurgical 'slag' (Cessford, 2005;Mellaart, 1964;Neuninger et al. 1964). The argument that the Neolithic Çatalhöyük communities were possibly smelting metal has since been discussed in the literature, and been both supported (Hauptmann, 2000;Hauptmann et al. 1993;Strahm, 1984) and called into significant question (Birch et al. 2013;Craddock, 2001;Muhly, 1989;Pernicka, 1990;Radivojević et al. 2010b;Roberts et al. 2009;Tylecote, 1976). A full re-analysis of the original metallurgical 'slag' from Çatalhöyük and revised contextualisation showed that this sample was a burnt copper mineral, probably deposited as a green pigment in a burial and subsequently baked during a destructive fire event in the dwelling in which it was discovered ). ...
This paper analyses and re-evaluates current explanations and interpretations of the origins, development and societal context of metallurgy in the Balkans (c. 6200–3700 BC). The early metallurgy in this region encompasses the production, distribution and consumption of copper, gold, tin bronze, lead and silver. The paper draws upon a wide range of existing archaeometallurgical and archaeological data, the diversity and depth of which make the Balkans one of the most intensively investigated of all early metallurgical heartlands across the world. We focus specifically on the ongoing debates relating to (1) the independent invention and innovation of different metals and metal production techniques; (2) the analysis and interpretation of early metallurgical production cores and peripheries, and their collapses; and (3) the relationships between metals, metallurgy and society. We argue that metal production in the Balkans throughout this period reflects changes in the organisation of communities and their patterns of cooperation, rather than being the fundamental basis for the emergence of elites in an increasingly hierarchical society.
... Tylecote 1976;de Jesus 1980. 14 de Jesus 1978, 1980.15 ...
The earliest metal finds in central and eastern Anatolia are small copper and malachite beads dating from the 9th millennium BC onwards. However, the presence of metallic finds in Neolithic contexts from western Anatolia are rarely known. An analysis of metallic finds from Ulucak Höyük shows that galena was used at the site from the early 7th millennium BC to the early 6th millennium BC. Objects made of galena from initial phases at the site are considered personal ornaments, while an increasing number of galena lumps in relation to ovens were found in later phases. Thus, galena finds from Ulucak Höyük suggest that at first this raw material seemed to have been perceived as an exotic “stone”, while a full understanding of its properties may have been developed later.
... The first evidence for the exploitation of copper ore comes from the region of Anatolia and Iran, where copper objects date from the 9th to the 7th millennium B.C. During the 4th millennium B.C., the practice of alloying became widely known and used during the Early Bronze Age (EBA), unlike the earlier Copper Age (or Chalcolithic period), when copper (Cu) predominated in metalworking [1][2][3]. ...
A multi-analytical non-destructive testing (NDT) methodology was applied to copper-based artifacts originated from various archaeological sites of Greece. X-ray fluorescence (XRF), fiber optics diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) and scanning electron microscopy coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray detector (ESEM-EDX) were used for the characterization of the alloys and the corrosion products. The key elements of the artifacts belonging to the Early Bronze Age (2700–2300 BC) were copper and arsenic, while tin bronze was used for the fabrication of the Late Bronze Age (1600–1100 BC) artifacts. The effectiveness of XRF for the determination of the bulk composition was confirmed by comparative study with the previously applied atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and inductively coupled plasma–atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) destructive techniques. Significant differences between the artifacts were revealed through the spectral measurement of their surface corrosion products color by FORS. ESEM-EDX provided information on the microstructure, the elemental composition of the corrosion layers and bulk, as well as the distribution of the corrosion products on the surface. Conclusively, the combined NDT methodology could be regarded as a valuable and appropriate tool for the elemental composition of the bulk alloy, thus leading to the classification of their historical period and the corrosion products, contributing significantly to their conservation–restoration.
... A lot of information can be obtained from written sources. For instance, it is known that part of copper for the Teutonic Grose Bochse from 1408 came from Banská Bystrica (Besztercebánya) in Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) ( [46], p. 33) (on Upper Hungarian copper ore mines see, e.g., [77], p. 88]). Numerous impurities that are present in the metal of the Grodno gun (Sb, Ag and others) may be of use in selecting possible ore sources of which the cannon's metal may have been smelted. ...
The paper discusses a recent find of a copper alloy light cannon discovered at the Old Castle in Grodno, Belarus. The research aim was to analyse the artefact in all its possible aspects, including archaeological and historical contexts, possible analogies, and the gun's technology of manufacture. This latter was done against a broad comparative background of what is known on manufacturing technologies of late medieval and modern period copper alloy firearms. First, the archaeological and historical contexts of the discovery are dealt with. Then, the morphology and typochro-nology of the cannon are discussed and relevant analogies are proposed. Next, the technology of manufacture of the cannon is studied on the basis of metallographic examinations and EDS analyses of the metal's elemental composition. It was found out that the artefact had been made of leaded copper. The cannon can be dated with reasonable certainty to the late 14th c., as implied both by the find context, the morphology and the chemical composition of the artefact. Its deposition can be related to fights over the Old Castle in Grodno in this period, waged by Teutonic, Polish and Lithuanian forces. It can tentatively be proposed that the cannon was manufactured in a Teutonic Order's workshop, but further research is necessary to verify this supposition.
... However, these compounds may not be the optimal forms to be directly employed in industries. Metallurgical operations have been thus developed, by which pure metals can be finally obtained [149]. But for the same reason, the state of these final products is not "final". ...
*Full text is available in the database* Metallic copper has been widely proved as a promising antibacterial surface. This work aims to investigate the copper corrosion phenomena mostly observed in a certain type of antibacterial efficiency test, the so-called droplet method. By performing various ex-situ metallurgical methods, chemical and morphological changes on copper surfaces were characterised, with which the copper ion content and antibacterial activity were correlated. All these findings not only help to understand the origin of the antibacterial copper ion release, but also shift the research focus back on the copper surface itself, suggesting how materials research can function in antibacterial surface design.
... 1: Römischer Doppelspitzschlägelausdem Marmorsteinbruchrevier Spitzelofen. a Gesamtansicht, b, c beide Schnittflächen nach dem Trennen mittels Hochdruckwasserstrahls on selbst erfolgte in sogenannten Rennfeuern, dessen Wirkungsweise bereits ausführlich in der Literatur beschrieben wurde [12,13]. Aus dem Rennfeuer wurde eine sogenannte Luppe erhalten, welche einem Eisen mit variablem Kohlenstoffgehalt entspricht, wobei aber die Eigenschaften von Stahl gewünscht waren [14,15]. ...
Ein Doppelspitzschlägel aus dem römerzeitlichen Marmorsteinbruchrevier Spitzelofen in Kärnten wurde untersucht, um dessen Herstellung und Einsatz bei der Marmorbearbeitung beurteilen zu können. Das Eisen wurde in Form von Luppen aus Rennfeuern erhalten. Inhomogene Kohlenstoffverteilungen im Schlägel können auf die Eisenherstellung im Rennfeuer sowie die Verarbeitung durch Schmieden zurückgeführt werden. Das Eisen des Doppelspitzschlägels besteht weitgehend aus Stahl mit eutektoidem (0,8 % C) Kohlenstoffgehalt, wobei vor allem an der Spitze ein Gradient zu fast reinem Ferrit beobachtet wurde. Es wurden die erwarteten Stahlgefüge, wie Perlit, Zwischenstufe, Widmannstättscher Ferrit und Ferrit, gefunden, jedoch kein Martensit. Um dies abzuklären, wurden Spitzen nachgeschmiedet und gehärtet, wobei auch hier kein Martensit an den Oberflächen der Spitzen nachgewiesen werden konnte.
Versuche zur Marmorbearbeitung mit einem nachgeschmiedeten Doppelspitzschlägel zeigten, dass eine regelmäßige Nachbearbeitung der Werkzeuge notwendig war, was auch die im Steinbruchrevier gefundenen Schmiedeplätze erklärt. / A double-pointed pick (a so-called quarry pick) from the Roman marble quarry zone of Spitzelofen in Carinthia was examined in order to be able to assess its production and use in the marble block extraction. The iron was obtained in the form of a bloom from the bloomery process. Inhomogeneous carbon distributions in the pick can be traced back to iron production in the bloomery and processing by forging. The iron of the pick consists mainly of steel with a eutectoid (0.8% C) carbon content, with a gradient to almost pure ferrite being observed, especially at the point. The expected steel structures like pearlite, bainite, Widmannstätten ferrite, and ferrite, were found, but no martensite was detected. In order to clarify this, points were forged and hardened, but no martensite was found on the surfaces of these points. Attempts to extract and carve marble with a forged pick showed that regular reworking of the tools was necessary. It explains the forging locations which were found in the quarry zone.
... Moreover, metallic Pb and Zn are practically immiscible liquids, whereas Ag and Zn are partially miscible, thus the zinc partitioned preferentially into metallic silver, rather than into lead. Zinc can be easily removed from a Zn-Ag solution if it is heated until the zinc vaporizes, leaving nearly pure silver, but this process (known as the Parkes process) was only patented in 1850 [45,46]. ...
Archaeological investigations of the Colline Metallifere district (Southern Tuscany, Italy) have highlighted several Medieval sites located close to the main Cu-Pb-Fe (Ag) ore occurrences. This study is focused on the investigation of late-medieval slags from Cugnano and Montieri sites using both geochemical and mineralogical methods to understand slag heterogeneities as result of ore differences and technological processes. Matte-rich slags present in both sites (with abundant matte ± speiss and frequent relict phases) represent waste products related to primary sulphide ore smelting to obtain a raw lead bullion. The distribution of slags between the Ca-rich or Fe-rich dominant composition, and the consequent mineralogy, are tracers of the different ore–gangue association that occurred in the two sites. Silver is present only in very small matte-rich slags and ores enclosed within the mortar of the Montieri site; wastes derived from silver-rich mineral charges were probably crushed for the recovery of silver. Matte-poor slags found at Montieri represent a second smelting; raw lead bullion obtained from matte slags (both Fe- and Ca-rich) was probably re-smelted, adding silica and Al2O3-phase-rich fluxes, under more oxidizing conditions to reduce metal impurities. This second step was probably employed for Zn-rich lead ores; this process helped to segregate zinc within slags and improve the quality of the metal.
The diffuse presence of small copper ore deposits in the Alpine area, mostly exploited since Late Medieval times, led most scholars to assume that these deposits may actually be active much earlier and that many of the circulating prehistoric metal objects found in the area were produced with local copper sources. This assumption was recently validated for the Recent Bronze Age through the use of lead isotope tracers, and well supported by the archaeometallurgical evidences found in the South-Eastern Alps. However, the scarcity of available lead isotope data for pre-Bronze Age metals precluded to date the reconstruction of the metal flow through the Eneolithic (or Copper Age). Based on 49 new artefact analyses, here we show that the Northern Italian Copper Age (approximately 3500 − 2200 BC) includes three major periods of metal production, each related to specific ore sources. The Alpine copper was massively used only starting from the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, in connection or slightly earlier than the Beaker event.
This paper discusses the origin of early use and production technology of iron in Tibet through the analysis of the iron objects and slags excavated from the Kaji cemetery at the Piyangdongga site, Xizang, China. The results of metallographic and elemental studies provide the first and earliest evidence of bloomery smelting technology in Tibet as early as the third century AD. The iron smelting technology and excavated iron objects belong to the “Northwest System” and are related closely to Xinjiang.
Le verbe tremper vient du latin « temperare » qui contient la notion de tempérer, modérer, très éloignée de l’action, plutôt violente, de plonger dans l’eau une pièce d’acier porté au rouge, ce qui est aujourd’hui la définition de « tremper l’acier ». Par contre, dans les siècles passés, « tremper l’acier » a eu différentes significations, allant jusqu’au processus complet de chauffage, durcissement à l’eau et revenu, avec de nombreuses variantes. L’objectif était d’obtenir un état optimisé entre la dureté et la fragilité, ce que contenait le verbe « temperare ». Ce premier article présente les différents traitements appelés « trempe », puis les anciens moyens de contrôler les températures, les bains de trempe aux compositions parfois magiques et les défauts induits par la trempe. Le dernier paragraphe déroule l’historique du vocabulaire de ces traitements depuis Homère, jusqu’à l’apparition de « temperare » dans les écrits du 12 e siècle et à la normalisation du langage à la fin du 19 e siècle. Un deuxième article analysera la lente évolution, depuis le Moyen Âge, des descriptions des mécanismes de la trempe, largement fondées sur les conceptions de la matière par Aristote, jusqu’à l’apparition des nouveaux concepts cristallographiques et atomiques de la constitution des métaux, au début du 20 e siècle, exposés dans un troisième article.
The Neolithic–Chalcolithic site of Belovode covers approximately 40 ha (Figure 1). In the two fieldwork campaigns of 2012 and 2013, only 31.5 m2 was excavated due to the archaeometallurgical focus of the project. The trench was positioned on the eastern platform of the settlement, where previous excavations had uncovered significant metallurgical evidence in Trenches 3 (Šljivar and Jacanović 1997c, Radivojević et al. 2010a) and 17, which are located to the north and the south of Trench 18 respectively. A 5 x 5 m area was opened in the 2012 season and then, based on the preliminary spatial analysis of metallurgical finds, in 2013 the trench was slightly expanded with a 2 x 3 m extension on the eastern side.
This chapter summarises the macroscopic and microscopic analyses of pottery sherds from the sites of Belovode and Pločnik, presented in Chapters 14 and 31, and provides insight into different technological traits in order to aid reconstruction of pottery making recipes in these two Vinča culture communities. Using a multi- pronged scientific approach, we reconstructed routines of raw material acquisition and processing, techniques of forming and finishing vessels, firing conditions and organisational aspects of pottery production. The possible non-local production identified in this research is also considered in order to understand the dynamics that shaped pottery circulation in these prehistoric communities (e.g. Quinn et al. 2010). These results also contribute significantly to the previous technological studies carried out on Neolithic pottery from sites in the central Balkans (Figure 1) (e.g. Dammers et al. 2012; Kaiser 1984, 1989, 1990; Kaiser et al. 1986; Kreiter et al. 2009, 2011, 2013, 2017a, 2017b, 2019; Spataro 2014, 2017, 2018; Szakmány et al. 2019).
The 2012 and 2013 excavations and subsequent post- excavation analyses by The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project team at the site of Belovode built upon two decades of earlier work led by the National Museum of Belgrade and the Museum in Požarevac (Jacanović and Šljivar 2003; Šljivar 2006; Šljivar and Jacanović 1996b, 1996c, 1997c; Šljivar et al. 2006). This earlier work across 17 trenches had identified four building horizons (Belovode A–D), the presence of the entire Vinča culture ceramic sequence from Vinča Tordoš (A–B1) to the Gradac Phase (I–III) as well as stone tools, figurines, obsidian blades, animal bone and, most importantly for the current research, evidence for the smelting of copper ores. As detailed in Chapter 5, it was the archaeometallurgical analysis of five small copper slags from Trench 3 together with the radiocarbon dating of the excavated horizon in which they were found that provided evidence for copper smelting at c. 5000 BC (Radivojević et al. 2010a) and the foundation for The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project. However, in the absence of any detailed publication on these earlier excavations at Belovode, further questions relating to broader context of the earliest evidence for copper smelting could not be explored.
This chapter reviews the archaeological evidence for the Vinča culture, the broader archaeological context for the majority of the metal production and metal artefacts extensively explored in Chapter 3, as well as for the sites of Belovode and Pločnik, whose investigation forms the core of The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project. The chapter will provide a lengthy introduction to the current data and interpretations of the Vinča culture that are subsequently developed in far greater detail in the thematic overviews by many of the leading specialists in later chapters (Chapters 39–52). This monograph seeks to address, at least in part, the absence of a dedicated synthesis of the Vinča culture since Chapman’s (1981) monograph (see Chapman 2020b for a critical reflection). The concept of archaeological cultures remains problematic in European prehistory in terms of definition and interpretation, yet extremely resilient in the absence of comparable empirically orientated alternatives (Roberts and Vander Linden 2011). Due to competing national traditions of scholarship, the culture history groupings and terminologies are strikingly complex in the later prehistoric Balkans (Gori and Ivanova 2017; Tsirtsoni 2016a). As such, the chapter explores the historiography and complex debates that surround the archaeological and temporal definitions of the Vinča culture. The importance of the Vinča culture lies not only in the evidence of early metallurgy but also in the evidence for the expansion of material culture production and circulation, the intensification of agriculture and increase in sedentism and settlement growth, which are all subsequently reviewed. The chapter concludes by examining past and present interpretations of the communities who lived and died within what we now term the Vinča culture.
The chronology of the sites of Belovode and Pločnik has been discussed several times in the past two decades since excavations were renewed at each site (Arsenijević and Živković 1998; Šljivar 1996; Šljivar and Jacanović 1996a; Šljivar and Kuzmanović Cvetković 1997a), though not in detail and rarely integrating the relative and the absolute chronological sequences. Chronologies from both sites have been published (Whittle et al. 2016), drawing upon eight radiocarbon dates from the two trenches then existing for Belovode (Trenches 7 and 8) and nine radiocarbon dates from three trenches for Pločnik (Trenches 14, 15 and 16). These dates were allegedly focussing on the dating of metallurgical finds, however, the nature of those finds was not known at the time, so the best guess was to date materials from the spits, which only adds to the doubt on the chronological precision achieved. The seriation and ceramic sequences of both sites resulting from this project are discussed in detail elsewhere in this volume (see Chapters 12, 13, 27 and 28) and in this chapter will be used only to illustrate relative chronology compared to other chronologies used for Vinča culture (see Chapter 4). The identical spit and context excavation methodology employed on both sites enables us to compare chronologically sensitive pottery forms to other relevant sites of the period. This chapter presents 29 new radiocarbon dates from throughout the excavated sequences: 17 from Trench 18 at Belovode and 12 from Trench 24 at Pločnik. The systematic excavations, relative ceramic sequences and the intensity of radiocarbon dating enables a far more precise modelling of dates for the identifiable activity horizons at both sites.
This chapter reviews the pre-existing evidence and interpretations for early mineral use and metallurgy in the Balkans from the earliest use of copper minerals at c. 6200 BC (Late Mesolithic-Early Neolithic) to c. 3700 BC (end of the Chalcolithic). It presents the empirical and intellectual foundations upon which the data, analyses and interpretations of The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project builds. The early metallurgy in this region encompasses the production, distribution and consumption of copper, gold, bronze, lead and silver, all being either pure metals or a natural alloy (tin bronze)1. The chapter initially defines the geographical and temporal scope under consideration before evaluating the archaeological and metallurgical evidence in relation to: mineral exploitation; mining; smelting, metals and metal artefacts; and metal circulation. Following each of these sub-sections is a summary of how The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project oughtto contribute to this aspect of metallurgical activity, setting this in relation to the project’s six research questions as presented in Chapter 2. The chapter concludes by highlighting the dominant interpretative narratives relating to early metallurgy, metallurgists and societies in the Balkans that The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project will evaluate, against all the available and relevant archaeological and metallurgical data.
The study of early metallurgy has many aspects and has, accordingly, taken many forms and foci (Rehren and Pernicka 2008 and literature therein). Some scholars have documented the morpho-typological evolution of artefact types and some have explored the role of metals in creating social hierarchies, in storing and displaying wealth, or the more transcendent role of metals in a variety of rituals. Other researchers are fascinated by the skills and technical achievements of the metalworkers and their intangible heritage as expressed in intricate castings, ingenious manufacturing methods and elaborate surface decorations. Yet others study the transformation of rocks and ores to metal as documented in the slags and furnace fragments or try to trace the geological origins of metal objects, as a proxy for the movement of people, materials, and ideas. The investigation of ancient mining extends well beyond the field of archaeometallurgy, with mines for flint, pigments, precious stones and salt all pre-dating metal smelting, and quarrying for building stone exceeding metal mining both in scale and value generation (e.g. Schauer et al. 2020). This range of interests inevitably implies the application of a multitude of methods, borrowed from a host of mother disciplines, adjusted and refined to form the interdisciplinary field of archaeometallurgy. It also makes any holistic project both a daunting prospect and an exercise in interdisciplinary diplomacy.
Metallurgical materials recovered during the excavation campaigns of 2012 and 2013 in Pločnik show similar characteristics to samples already studied and published previously (Radivojević 2012, 2015; Radivojević and Kuzmanović Cvetković 2014; Radivojević and Rehren 2016; Radivojević et al. 2013). They include, as for Belovode (Chapter 11), predominantly malachite minerals and ores (Table 1), that occur as roughly beneficiated pieces and without a distinct spatial patterning in Trench 24. In comparison to Belovode, they occur less frequently across all five horizons, partially explained by the fact that most of Trench 24 is a large rectangular feature – a house (F1=F2=F4=F5=F6=F10), and there is very little economic area surrounding it.
The results and experiences gained from the multidisciplinary and holistic approaches underlying the Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project provide an opportunity, not only to reflect on programmes of further research in the Balkans, but also on scholarship in early metallurgy across the world. This chapter outlines what might be usefully taken forward from this project, but also seeks to highlight gaps in our understandings that could be addressed. It is by no means a comprehensive agenda for global early metallurgy studies but is instead intended to stimulate further debate and discussions that lead to new programmes of research.
Metal production evidence yielded during the excavation campaigns 2012 and 2013 in Belovode shows similar characteristic to the samples from the site studied and published previously (Radivojević 2012, 2013, 2015; Radivojević and Kuzmanović Cvetković 2014; Radivojević and Rehren 2016; Radivojević et al. 2010a). These are predominantly malachite mineral and ore samples, most likely roughly beneficiated (no samples larger than 2–3 cm in length, see Appendix B_Ch11), and very importantly, without any significant spatial pattern in the excavated area of Trench 18 or its extension (T18ext henceforth). These minerals were discovered in all areas, whether in living or economic spaces, inside the dwellings and other features, and across the excavation spits, which is why they have also been found by previous excavation campaigns (Šljivar 1993–2009).
Metallic pieces from the archaeological site of the Mapuche Cemetery of Montaña Mesa de Malargüe, located in the southern region of Mendoza, Argentina, were studied. These pieces were made of raw and alloyed copper and can be described as a notched quadrangular ring, three cones, and the hemisphere of a spherical rattle. This study allows us to glimpse that a developed society was inserted south of the Salado River before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers. The studies consisted of metallographic analyzes with the help of a portable microscope, analyzes of the chemical composition carried out with portable X-ray fluorescence equipment and the evaluation of microhardness. The samples were further characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray energy dispersion spectrometry (EDS). There was evidence of changes in metal working methods, as well as in the use of raw materials, and this can be linked to the processes of social transformation that occurred within Mapuche society. These historic metal pieces were studied as part of the Border Archeometallurgy Project carried out between 2016 and 2017.
Technological knowledge of the use of metals is inseparable from human knowledge in the processing pyrotechnics of fire as a power in high temperature processes for producing objects. The fire is used for smelting and casting in melting furnaces. Metal smelting furnace is a heat production device, which is used to purify the metal, in this case iron. This paper aims to determine the development of ferrous metal smelting furnace technology in Indonesia with the library research method from the results of previous studies. Based on the results of the analysis, there are four technologies for smelting iron, namely pit kiln, bloomery furnace, blast furnace, and induction furnace. Of the four technologies, three are in use in Indonesia, namely bloomery furnace, blast furnace, and induction furnace.
SADRŽAJ – CONTENT
Milica Preradović, Saša Papuga
Third generation biofuels – cultivation methods and technologies for processing of microalgal biofuels ........................................................................ 249
Mihailo Mrdak, Časlav Lačnjevac, Marko Rakin, Đorđe Janaćković, Darko Veljić, Darko Bajić
Characterisation of biocompatible layers of ZrO28%Y2O used in combination with other ceramics to modify the surface of implants ............. 262
Slobodan Cvetković, Mirjana Kijevčanin
Balancing of energy flows in a life cycle of thermal energy production from biogas ................... 269
Josephath Jeyabal Maria Praveena, Jeyaraj Angelin Clara, Susai Santhammal Rajendran, Antony John Amalraj
Inhibition of corrosion of mild steel in well water by an aqueous extract of soapnut (Sapindus Trifoliatus) ................................................................... 277
Slađana Tanasković, Mirjana Antonijević-Nikolić, Branka Dražić
Thermal behavior and biological activity of [Co2(Cl)2 tpmc](BF4)2 complex ................................... 291
Aleksandra Mitovski, Vesna Grekulović, Nada Štrbac, Sanja Milutinović Jovanović, Kristina Božinović, Milica Zdravković
Antimicrobial properties of copper and its alloys through the prism of the current SARS CoV-2 pandemic ..................................................................... 297 Victor David Arockiaraj Mallika Jeslina, Suyambulingam Jone Kirubavathy, Abdulhameed Al-Hashem, Susai Santhammal Rajendran RM Joany, Caslav Lacnjevac
Inhibition of corrosion of mild steel by an alcoholic extract of a seaweed Sargassum muticum ....................................................................... 304
Abd El-Aziz S. Fouda, Safaa Eldin H. Etaiw, Essam El-Waseef
Synthesis of two supramolecular coordination polymers and electrochemical evaluation of their corrosion inhibition performance on corrosion of Carbon Steel in Acidic medium ................................. 316
Imo Ejeagba Okorie, Nwokorie Romanus Chukwudi
A review of fungal influenced corrosion of metals . 333
Leonid Dvorkin, Lyudmila Nihaeva
Modified supersulfated cements ............................... 340 Manuscript preparation - Uputstvo za pripremu rada..... 349
Advertisements - Reklame ................................................ 353
'The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia' is a landmark study in the origins of metallurgy. The project aimed to trace the invention and innovation of metallurgy in the Balkans. It combined targeted excavations and surveys with extensive scientific analyses at two Neolithic-Chalcolithic copper production and consumption sites, Belovode and Pločnik, in Serbia. At Belovode, the project revealed chronologically and contextually secure evidence for copper smelting in the 49th century BC. This confirms the earlier interpretation of c. 7000-year-old metallurgy at the site, making it the earliest record of fully developed metallurgical activity in the world. However, far from being a rare and elite practice, metallurgy at both Belovode and Pločnik is demonstrated to have been a common and communal craft activity. This monograph reviews the pre-existing scholarship on early metallurgy in the Balkans. It subsequently presents detailed results from the excavations, surveys and scientific analyses conducted at Belovode and Pločnik. These are followed by new and up-to-date regional syntheses by leading specialists on the Neolithic-Chalcolithic material culture, technologies, settlement and subsistence practices in the Central Balkans. Finally, the monograph places the project results in the context of major debates surrounding early metallurgy in Eurasia before proposing a new agenda for global early metallurgy studies.
Crucible steel production at Ghattihosahalli in the nineteenth century has been the subject of detailed study, based both on the contemporary historic record and the physical survival of the mounds of production debris at the village. The published reports have been based on the scientific study of samples collected from the mounds but left questions that could only be resolved by archaeological excavation. Preliminary excavations had already taken place which revealed the remains of a crucible steel smelting installation. Unfortunately the instigator of these investigations, Prof. K.P.N. Rao, died before these could be worked up for publication. This has now been done and the results published here. With the vital information provided by the excavation of the smelting site, it is now possible to give a much more complete description of the operations, not just at Ghattihosahalli, but of the production of crucible steel by the ‘Mysore’ in-situ carburisation process in general.
The manifestations of ancient metals’ embrittlement, cracking and fracture, are challenging problems for restorers and conservators, yet the scientific understanding of these problems is limited. In particular, the study and interpretation of fracture surfaces, fractography, is a minor or non-existent consideration for most archaeometallurgical investigations. This paper presents a survey of fractographic analyses, in combination with the more widely used disciplines of microstructural studies, metallography, and chemical analyses for some Old-World copper alloy (bronzes) and high-silver alloy artifacts that have undergone long-term corrosion and embrittlement damage. We show that fractography, as an adjunct to metallography, can improve the interpretation of these types of damage and assist in selecting the best methods for restoration and conservation of the objects made from these alloys.
The paper discusses a recent find of a copper alloy light cannon discovered at the Old Castle in Grodno, Belarus. First, the archaeological and historical contexts of the discovery are dealt with. Then, the morphology and typochronology of the cannon are discussed and relevant analogies are proposed. Next, the technology of manufacture of the cannon is dealt with on the basis of metallographic examinations and EDS analyses of the metal’s elemental composition. It was found out that the artefact had been made of leaded copper. The cannon can be dated to the late 14 th c., as implied both by the find context, the morphology and the chemical composition of the artefact. Its deposition can possibly related to fights over the Old Castle in Grodno in this period, waged by Teutonic, Polish and Lithuanian forces. It can tentatively be assumed that the cannon was manufactured in a Teutonic Order’s workshop, but further research is necessary to verify this supposition.
The world production of nickelNickel at 2.36 million tonnes in 2019 ranks fifth in the output of non-ferrous metals after aluminum, copper, zinc and lead. Nickel is produced from both sulphide ores—representing ~30% of world nickel production—and oxide ores—representing ~70% of world nickel production, with nickel now a vital component in batteries which will power much of the new electric transportation age. The top ten nickelNickel smelter producing countries (2019) include in order: China, Indonesia, RussiaRussia, CanadaCanada, Australia, New Caledonia, Brazil, Finland, Philippines and Japan. The present paper takes the reader on a virtual tour of most of the nickelNickel sulphide and nickel lateriteNickel laterite plants throughout the world with a focus on smelter facilities. Operations and technology employed at each plant visited on the virtual tour are discussed including a brief historical sketch. Future trends identified during the world tour are also discussed with respect to technology and products. The present authors considered that enough time was required for a thorough study tour and settled on eighty days—the same as that for the celebrated fictional story of world circumnavigation in the 1870s—a time when nickelNickel was in its infancy and considered a rare metal.
A guide to the archaeology of the Ironbridge Gorge, site of the first bridge made completely of iron and of many innovations during the industrial revoluion. The gorge is now a World Heritage site. This book was part of the English Heritage archaeology series. It was based on the Nuffield Survey of the Ironbridge Gorge which I undertook with Judith ALfrey in the late 1980s, taking an integrated landscape approach to the study of a place.
Conclusive evidence has surfaced for the production of iron objects in urban workshops in the Southern Levant during the early Iron Age. While nearly a dozen sites with metallurgical debris and technical ceramics dating to the 10th–8th c. BCE have contributed to the visibility of the craft, in situ high-temperature installations remain enigmatic in the archaeological record. Our ability to reconstruct the chaîne opératoire of iron production processes within each working context is restricted by the lack of this critical data. In this study we employ methods of experimental archaeology in order to investigate and interpret an assemblage of vitrified technical ceramics found in an early Iron Age metal workshop at the site of Tell es-Safi/Gath situated on the border between the southern coastal plain and the Judean foothills of Israel.
As part of a broader research framework, iron smelting experiments were carried out in a simple, clay-built bowl furnace. Materials analogous to the archaeological ceramics were employed to address high temperature alterations occurring in a single installation. Using structural mineralogical and chemical analyses (FTIR, pXRF and SEM-EDS) we characterize the experimental and archaeological technical ceramics to identify the processes that affect and transform these materials during iron production activities. Results were then utilized to interpret production processes and the implementation of technical ceramics in ironworking at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Based on our observations, we address the specialized preparation of technical ceramics in early ironworking, possible reasons for the alteration and preservation of metallurgical installations following their abandonment and attempt to improve the interpretation and classification of vitrified ceramic waste from ancient metallurgical contexts.
The copper-using cultures of North America’s Archaic Period (10,000–3000 BP) have long been an archaeological enigma. For millennia, Middle and Late Archaic hunter-gatherers (8000–3000 BP) around the Upper Great Lakes region made utilitarian implements out of copper, only for these items to decline in prominence and frequency as populations grew and social complexity increased during the Archaic to Woodland Transition. From a cultural evolutionary perspective, the trajectory of North America’s copper usage presents a conundrum, as it is generally assumed that “superior” tools, i.e., metals, will replace inferior ones, i.e., stone. For well over a century, scholars have pondered the reason for the demise of copper technology that was once a wide-spread phenomenon. To address this question, an extensive archaeological experimental program was conducted which compared replica copper tools (spear points, knife blades, and awls) to analogous ones made of stone or bone to assess whether relative functional efficiency contributed to the decline of utilitarian copper implements. Here, the results of this three-part research program are presented in concert with population dynamics and ecological change to paint a broader picture of the complex interrelationships between the social, ecological, and technological spheres of past human behaviors. The synthesis of these approaches reveals that functional explanations—derived from experimental archaeology placed in an evolutionary framework—can shed much light on the trajectory of metal use in the North American Great Lakes.
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