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Local or Global Image? The Role of Consumers' Local–Global Identity in Code-Switched Ad Effectiveness Among Monolinguals
Journal of Advertising
Abstract
Local and global brands alike have increasingly used code-switching to enhance advertising persuasion. Although this tactic is widely used, previous studies have focused on bilinguals but not monolinguals. Because of the emerging use of code-switching in advertisements in monolingual markets, more research efforts are required to understand its effectiveness and boundaries among monolinguals. This study investigated whether the consumers' local–global identity plays a moderating role in the effectiveness of code-switched advertisements among monolinguals. The consumers' local–global identity refers to the combination of local and global identities possessed by individuals that affect how they define themselves in relation to the social environment. Study 1 (manipulating consumers' local–global identity) demonstrated that the local–global identity moderated the effect of code-switched advertisements. The results indicated that the congruence between code-switching and the consumers' local–global identity enhanced persuasiveness, and that advertising involvement mediated this effect. Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1 by using a local–global identity measure. These findings provide implications for branding and advertising strategies.
... Lin and Wang, 2016a, b). The results of the above literature show the positive effects of code-switching in marketing (Luna and Peracchio, 2005b;Lin and Wang, 2016b). Unlike prior code-switching application mostly focus on the switching between languages of countries such as English and Spanish, netizen language code-switching is between the formal language and the netizen language, which belongs to language style switching. ...
... According to previous research, code-switching ads can effectively evoke consumers' cognition and evaluation of the embedded language (Eckhardt, 2005;Lin and Wang, 2016b;Luna and Peracchio, 2005b;Zhou and Belk, 2004). According to social identity theory, this study infers that when the individuals classify themselves as part of a group of netizens, they will generate feelings of the identification group and belongingness. ...
... Without Negative 3.667 Note(s): *: p < 0.05, **: p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001 Using netizen language codeswitching 5. Discussions and conclusion 5.1 Discussions First, the findings of Study 1 indicate that advertising posts on Facebook with netizen language code-switching have a more significant positive effect on netizens' attitude toward the ad and purchase intention than those without netizen language code-switching. This finding echoes a similar finding of the previous research that when the congruence between code-switching and the consumers' identity enhanced the evaluation toward the ad (Lin and Wang, 2016b), which suggests that if netizen characteristics can be used well, the netizen language terms identified by netizens can be employed in the ads to significantly enhance the attitude toward the ad and increase the purchase intention of netizens. Second, the results of Study 2 point out that with a negative brand image, netizen language code-switching can remedy negative brand images and improve the advertising communication effectiveness at the same level of positive brand images. ...
Purpose
Netizens refer to citizens of the internet, and code-switching refers to the use of more than one language, style or form of expression to communicate. This study explores the advertising communication effectiveness of using netizen language code-switching in Facebook ads. Moreover, if a brand is with negative brand images, using positive brand images as a control group, this study investigates not only the advertising communication effectiveness of netizen language code-switching but also its effectiveness of remedying the negative brand images.
Design/methodology/approach
Online experiments were conducted, and data were analyzed using independent sample t -test, MANOVA and ANOVA.
Findings
The results indicate that netizen language code-switching can enhance advertising communication effectiveness in Facebook ads. Furthermore, under a negative brand image, netizen language code-switching has significant effects on improving Facebook advertising communication effectiveness.
Originality/value
This study takes netizens as the research subjects to explore the advertising communication effectiveness of netizen language code-switching in Facebook ads. This study provides further insight into the effect of netizens' culture on Facebook advertising and enriches the existing literature on social media advertising, as well as expanding the application of code-switching. The results of this study provide enterprises a new perspective on the copywriting content design of Facebook ads.
... Consequently, the purchase of luxury goods requires advertisements that resonate with the identity of consumers and thus attract their attention. Accordingly, SL can be reminiscent of a high value and trust level (Lin and Wang, 2016), however, internet slang is timeliness, brisk and civilian that more consistent with style of necessity goods, could make necessity goods vivid and brisk; these features may increase consumers' evaluations for brand and product. On the other hand, advertisement using internet slang for luxury brands may not be very appropriate, internet slang's brisk and civilian style do not match with nobility and credibility of luxury goods, thus may not be better than SL which is meet the expectation of high value and credibility (Lin and Wang, 2016). ...
... Accordingly, SL can be reminiscent of a high value and trust level (Lin and Wang, 2016), however, internet slang is timeliness, brisk and civilian that more consistent with style of necessity goods, could make necessity goods vivid and brisk; these features may increase consumers' evaluations for brand and product. On the other hand, advertisement using internet slang for luxury brands may not be very appropriate, internet slang's brisk and civilian style do not match with nobility and credibility of luxury goods, thus may not be better than SL which is meet the expectation of high value and credibility (Lin and Wang, 2016). Moreover, overusing internet slang may result in frivolous feeling that would compromise the high quality which luxury goods state. ...
... In contrast to the level of information processing necessary for necessity goods, information on luxury goods requires in-depth processing. When a product becomes a luxury good, the use of SL in advertisements prompts consumers to associate the advertised products with high quality because SL is associated with high value and credibility (Lin and Wang, 2016) and serves as the principal language with rigor and reliability (Yip and Matthews, 2006). Therefore, appropriately embedding internet slang can increase attention to a brand. ...
Internet slang is a new language with innovative and novel characteristics, and its use can be considered a form of creative advertising. Embedding internet slang into advertisements can thus enhance their creative quality and increase the attention paid to them. In this study, we examined the effect of the characteristics of internet slang on attention to advertisements, brand awareness, product evaluation, and attitudes toward advertising by conducting two empirical studies, one utilizing eye-tracking experiments and the other utilizing questionnaires. We found that using internet slang in advertising significantly increased audience attention compared with standard language but did not necessarily improve product evaluation and brand awareness for various types of goods. We discovered code-switching effects of psycholinguistics existed in standard language and its variant (internet slang). Our findings can guide advertisers in selecting the embedded language that can be effective in achieving their desired advertising effect. Our findings also indicate that the excessive use of internet slang may have a negative effect on brand and product evaluation.
... The prior research used various indicators to measure advertising effectiveness, most of which focused on subjective metrics of ad effectiveness (e.g., Celik et al., 2022;Wang et al., 2020). Scholars used constructs such as attitude toward the ad (e.g., Cheng & Zhou, 2017;Grewal et al., 2016;Lin & Wang, 2016), attitude toward the brand (e.g., Belanche et al., 2017b;Hegner et al., 2016;Zhang et al., 2020), brand recall (Cheng & Zhou, 2017), loyalty (Grewal et al., 2016), satisfaction (Grewal et al., 2016), and purchase intention (Cheng & Zhou, 2017). In this vein of research, surveys are adopted as the main method due to the unobservability and invisibility of these constructs. ...
... An individual's traits have a significant effect on the framing effect (Cesario et al., 2013;Gerend and Shepherd, 2013;Chatterjee et al., 2014). As an important trait, global-local identity has received increasing attention in recent years and has been introduced into the research fields of brand management, resident behavior, marketing strategies, and donation behavior (Lin and Wang, 2016;Gao et al., 2017;Yang et al., 2019;Ng et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2021), among others. As for proenvironmental behavior, to the best of our knowledge, there is no research on household low-carbon behavior from the perspective of global-local identity. ...
Introduction: Compared to carbon emission reduction from production, reduction from households is more required. This study explores the mechanism and boundary conditions of the effect of goal framing on household low-carbon behavior by drawing on the framing effect and social cognitive theory. The central questions posed in this research are whether, how, and under what circumstances goal framing affects household low-carbon behavior.
Methods: We tested the hypotheses in two studies. Study 1 investigated the main effect of whether the framing effect of climate change has a different influence on household low-carbon behavior. Study 2 further confirmed the main effect of this study and verified the mediating role of environmental self-efficacy and the moderating role of global–local identity.
Results: Across two experiments, we discovers: 1) Goal framing of climate change messages affects household low-carbon behavior. In particular, loss framing elicits a greater persuasive impact on household low-carbon behavior than gain framing. 2) Environmental self-efficacy plays a mediating role between the framing effect and household low-carbon behavior. Specifically, loss framing of climate change messages is more likely to increase residents' environmental self-efficacy than gain framing, which increases their household low-carbon behavior. 3) Residents' global-local identity moderates the effect of the framing messages on household low-carbon behavior. Among residents with a local identity, loss framing has a more powerful influence on household low-carbon behavior compared to gain framing. Among residents with a global identity, a significant difference between the effects of loss and gain framing on household low-carbon behavior is not found.
Discussion: The theoretical and managerial implications of the study are also discussed.
... Third, this research explores an interdisciplinary topic by examining Internet slang and its influence on marketing communications. In such a field that bridges linguistics and marketing theories, most research focuses on the code-switching effect (e.g., Lin and Wang, 2016;Ahn et al., 2017), or impacts of concrete linguistic elements (e.g., pronouns, phonetics, rhyme) (e.g., Hung and Guan, 2020;Liebrecht et al., 2021). Few studies have examined Internet slang individually as an essential phenomenon. ...
As an emerging language variant, practitioners have extensively used Internet slang in advertising and other communication activities. However, its unique characteristics that differ from standard language have yet to be explored. Drawing upon interdisciplinary theories on schema and communication styles, this research makes the first attempt to conceptualize and measure these characteristics by introducing a new multi-dimensional construct, “Internet slang style,” in the marketing context. It develops and validates a new scale to measure Internet slang style along the dimensions of amiability, overtness, candor, and harshness through a series of in-depth interviews, two surveys, and one experiment with consumers. In addition, this research investigates the impact of Internet slang styles on brand personality and brand attitude. The results indicate that different Internet slang style dimensions positively correspond to different brand personality dimensions but exert no influence on brand attitude. Practically, the scale provides an easy-to-use instrument to evaluate Internet slang styles from a consumer perspective to help companies appropriately employ Internet slang in marketing communication activities.
... In two follow-up studies, Lin and Wang (2017) examined the effect of language use (English and the local language Chinese versus the local language Chinese only), type of firm (global versus local), and consumers' local-global identity. Following Arnett's (2002) argument that every person has a local and a global identity, Lin and Wang (2017, p. 484) define a local identity as 'mental representations that cause individuals to appreciate local traditions, be interested in local events, and feel a part of and identify with the local community' and a global identity as 'mental representations that prompt individuals to adopt positive attitudes toward globalization, be interested in global events, and feel a part of and identify with the global community'. ...
This chapter deals with the second language strategy distinguished in this book: the use of English to highlight globalness. It presents content analyses showing that English is widely used in advertising across the world, and experiments and surveys showing that English evokes globalness associations, relating to three subdimensions: modernity, success, and internationalness. Finally, the chapter systemically reviews experiments testing the effects of using English in advertising on consumer perceptions of modernity, success, and internationalness.
... Including a foreign language in advertisements is a well-known tactic that helps to generate a multinational brand image (Bishop & Peterson, 2015). Advertisements that include two or more languages are referred to as code-switched advertisements (Lin & Wang, 2016). Use of an additional language may enhance brand and product appeal, thereby increasing perceived quality and social status. ...
This research focuses on the nascent advertising industry in British Mandatory Palestine and how it was influenced and transformed by German Jewish immigrants, who arrived between 1933 and 1939, in a wave of immigration known as the Fifth Aliyah. At the time, local advertising was rather small and undeveloped until the mass wave of immigrants (over 200,000), many highly skilled and educated, came from Central Europe, mainly from Germany. These immigrants played a vital role in the local advertising industry. Their contributions were evaluated using a theoretical model consisting of primary analytical factors—mass communication, economy, technology, society, and international transfer. These factors influenced and continue to influence the form of Israeli advertising industry to this day. German immigration demonstrates a hybrid set of influences that played an instrumental role in the development of the local advertising industry in the Land of Israel. Functional-rational and creative aspects in the advertising industry were radically transformed by these new arrivals. Rethinking media history and centering the immigrant’s unique contribution is an important scholarly objective. This is achieved by shifting the discussion from dominant institutions to the local advertising history and focusing on the functional practices and creative methods imported by immigrants.
Purpose: The study intends to expand the current literature on Italian consumers’ brand preferences between local vs. global alternatives in the specific Italian food sector.
Design/methodology/approach: This study draws on concepts largely investigated like cultural identity theory, consumer ethnocentrism, and product category involvement to examine the mechanisms that drive Italian consumers to prefer alternative local or global brands in the food sector. A non-hierarchical cluster analysis represents the core part of the quantitative research that involved 412 participants.
Findings: By confirming the validity of existing studies, the present paper contributes to the food consumption literature by testing a conceptual model that integrates previous research concepts, thus deepening the analysis of the factors affecting Italian consumers’ food brand preferences. The cluster analysis allowed for dividing Italian consumers into two distinguished groups with characteristics coherent inside the same group.
Research limitations/implications: This study emphasizes the key relevance of the investigated variables in the implementation of positioning and communication strategies aimed at meeting the needs of specific markets in which firms operate, and it highlights the importance of analyzing those variables together. The sample composed of Italian consumers did not allow the generalizability of the results. Furthermore, this study focuses on the narrow category of chocolate bar products. Therefore, this does not permit the results to be generalized to other food products.
Originality/value: The novel research is based on signaling theory that contributes to the local and global branding domains from the Italian perspective. This work is also the first to analyze the food sector and the importance that Italians attribute to their food products and traditions through a cluster analysis approach.
This study aimed to examine the effects of content characteristics (i.e., informational and emotional characteristics), language, and nonverbal information on social media engagement (SME) (i.e., likes, shares, and comments) in the context of global brands operating in an emerging market and implementing TikTok as a tool for social media marketing. The dataset comprised 680 posts, 1,527,340 likes, 58,529 shares, and 18,743 comments collected from global smartphone brands’ TikTok accounts, specifically targeting Indonesian consumers. The findings confirm that informational content mainly generates higher SME than emotional content. English and code-switched languages generally improve SME, while nonverbal information mostly has no significant effects. Furthermore, English and code-switched languages mainly have negative moderating effects on the relationship between content characteristics (both informational and emotional characteristics) and SME. Theoretically, this study provides a preliminary understanding of effective SME enhancement strategies for global brands targeting consumers on TikTok in emerging markets. Practically, the results of this research can provide guidelines for global brands engaging with consumers in emerging countries. These insights can also assist global brands in creating “TikTok famous” content.
Advergame is important as a new form of digital marketing and few studies have shown a complete model structure along with understanding the antecedents of online purchase intention. Based on the hierarchy of effective and relevant behavioral theories, we propose a research model with four components: consumer beliefs, advergame attitude, brand attitude, and purchase intention. The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) is used as a complementary lens to define three game beliefs: advergame design, psychological state, and advergame content. A comprehensive literature review is further classified to define their comprised elements. Brand familiarity is shown as a moderator for the link of advergame and brand attitude due to a connection to behavioral theories. Empirical study consists of an online survey of 477 consumers who had recent experience of advergame playing. Most variables for game beliefs, including game-brand fit, perceived interactivity, involvement, entertainment, and receptiveness, show significant, positive effects on advergame attitude. Besides, advergame attitude reports an important, direct link with purchase intention. Brand familiarity indicates importance as the moderator.
Foreign Languages in Advertising: Linguistic and Marketing Perspectives Jos Hornikx and Frank van Meurs (2020) Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. Pp. 253 ISBN: 9783030316907 (hbk) ISBN: 9783030316938 (pbk) ISBN: 9783030316914 (ebook)
In the context of global English, children are an interesting target group both from a marketing and a linguistic perspective, yet the use of English in advertising for children has so far received little research attention. Investigating English in a corpus of 3566 free morphemes (smallest independent linguistic elements) in 98 TV product advertisements aimed at Dutch‐speaking children in Flanders, Belgium, this study addresses the methodological question of what counts as ‘English’ before inquiring into: (1) the overall amount of English; (2) which parts of the adverts are susceptible to English; and (3) the types of English used. Results show 80% of the adverts contain English, but English accounts for only 13% of the total free morphemes in the adverts. 70% of adverts contain English in the product or company name, which suggests that even in advertising language, the use of English is limited to specific functions in the Dutch‐speaking Belgian context.
The outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic (Covid-19) has profoundly affected the food systems, leading to consumer concerns about the lack of reliability and safety of global foods and a growing trend towards consuming local foods. Consumers have formed multicultural identities, such as global identity and local identity, under the influences of global and local consumer culture. This study develops a conceptual model to examine the impact of consumer global-local identity, locavorism, and consumer xenocentrism on consumer attitudes towards and intentions to buy local foods during Covid-19 crisis. We conducted an online survey in China that measured the constructs using established scales. Using structural equation modelling to test the proposed hypotheses, we find that: a higher degree of global identity will lead to a higher degree of consumer xenocentrism, whereas a higher degree of local identity will lead to a lower degree of consumer xenocentrism; local identity significantly and positively predicts locavorism; contrary to the prediction, the impact of global identity on locavorism is not significant; a higher degree of consumer xenocentrism will lead to a lower degree of attitude towards buying local foods. Theoretically, our findings contribute to the understanding of literature on local food consumption, consumer global-local identity, and consumer xenocentrism. Local food marketers can obtain practical insights based on our findings.
Companies often use aesthetics or salient visual attributes to differentiate their products from those of their competitors and to appeal to customers. However, consumers may make unfavorable inferences about highly aesthetic products due to concerns about the products’ functionality. To address the issue of how retailers can most effectively engage in the deployment and promotion of product aesthetics, the present research proposes that consumers will respond more favorably (i.e., enhanced choice of product, enhanced product and advertisement evaluations, and a heightened willingness to pay) to a highly aesthetic product when they are in an abstract, rather than a concrete, mindset. Five studies using multiple product categories and applying various mindset manipulations provide convergent evidence to support the proposed hypothesis. The findings hold true for utilitarian, but not hedonic, products, and the focus of attention on product functionality accounts for the results. With the insight that the mindset consumers are in is critical in determining their response to highly aesthetics products, retailers can capitalize on selected situations in which to promote product aesthetics.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between country-of-origin (COO) and brand positioning in the context of the high-involvement service of health care. This paper compares and analyzes different positioning strategies used in Europe, North America and the Middle East.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper uses content analysis of promotional materials for a sample of 168 health-care organizations located in 14 countries to identify brand positioning strategies used, such as foreign, local and global consumer culture positioning. A chi-square analysis and post hoc testing is used to examine how positioning strategies differ among regions.
Findings
The findings indicate that European and Middle Eastern health-care organizations most frequently use foreign consumer culture positioning, while North American institutions tend to use global consumer culture positioning. The findings indicate that health-care organizations in countries with a better reputation for care use different positioning strategies than in countries with a lesser reputation for quality care.
Practical implications
The findings are of value to international advertising and marketing professionals and hospitals seeking to attract patients globally in a competitive marketplace. Hospitals must consider their positioning relative to both domestic and international competitors and the COO of their target audience.
Originality/value
COO is important in high-involvement service industries because consumers lack the information needed to evaluate service quality. Consumers may rely on COO and brand positioning signals more heavily relative to goods or low-involvement services. However, little prior research exists examining COO effects and brand positioning for high involvement services and for health care specifically. This paper makes a unique contribution by filling this gap.
Although pictures have been shown to enhance the impact of persuasive communications, little is known about the robustness of such effects. This study examines how involvement moderates the process by which pictures affect brand attitudes and purchase intentions. The results show that involvement's moderating role depends on whether pictures convey product-relevant information. Whereas the impact of affect-laden pictures devoid of product-relevant information declines as involvement increases, involvement exerts the opposite effect for product-relevant pictures. The results also demonstrate that the images evoked by pictures and thoughts about a picture's appropriateness play an important mediating role in the persuasion process underlying peripheral pictures.
The key to any marketing strategy is finding a way to reach and appeal to the consumer. In the case of a diverse consumer pool, marketers must strive to direct their promotional efforts to appeal to a global customer base. Analyzing the Cultural Diversity of Consumers in the Global Marketplace explores the strategies associated with promoting products and services to a culturally-diverse target market. Providing innovative solutions for global brands, this publication is ideally designed for use by marketing professionals, executives, students, as well as researchers.
"Code switching" in advertising refers to the alternation between two languages in a single advertisement. This research investigates (1) how the direction of code switching and the placement of a code-switched advertisement in an English or Spanish medium influence bilinguals' attitudes toward code-switching (A(cs)) and (2) how A(cs) influence common advertising objectives. An experiment was performed among 107 Mexican-American young adults. Path analysis using structural equation modeling disclosed that placing a code-switched print advertisement in an all-English medium resulted in more positive A(cs) than placing it within an all-Spanish medium. Additionally, A(cs) positively influenced advertisement involvement and, subsequently, service-quality expectations and patronage intentions.
While previous research has examined code-switched ads viewed in isolation (Luna and Peracchio 2005a, 2005b), this study makes a unique contribution by investigating the crucial role that medium context plays in responses to Spanish/English code-switched ads among bilingual consumers. A model is developed based on neuroscience and sociolinguistic theories of information processing. Among 122 bilingual Mexican Americans, path analysis showed that when a code-switched ad primarily written in Spanish (English) was placed within an all-Spanish (all-English) medium, increased ad recall and perceptions of advertiser cultural sensitivity occurred. In turn, increased perceptions of advertiser cultural sensitivity led to greater cognitive ad involvement and persuasion. Based on these findings, the main language of a code-switched ad should match that of its medium to increase favorable advertising responses.
By studying consumer samples in an emerging market, Turkey, and two mature markets, Singapore and Denmark, the author tests the chain of relationships that drive consumers' likelihood of purchasing the global brand in the presence of a local brand in a linear structural relations framework. The results indicate that perceived brand globalness is positively related to local iconness in an emerging market, but the relationship is negative in advanced markets. Developing local iconness helps build the perception of prestige in all three markets. Furthermore, local iconness is positively related to local brand quality perceptions in the culturally grounded categories of food in an emerging market, whereas in nonfood categories, local iconness has no connection to quality. In terms of cross-effects, as expected, the perceived quality of the local brand is negatively associated with global brand purchase likelihood in all markets and categories studied. In contrast, local brand prestige dampens global brand purchase likelihood for older consumers in an emerging market. The article concludes with implications for global and local brand managers.
The development and validation of an 8-item scale for assessing consumers’ local–global identity are described in this paper. Based on six studies of student and non-student samples from three countries, we demonstrate the psychometric properties of this scale, its reliability, and discriminant and convergent validity with related constructs, such as consumer ethnocentrism, nationalism, and global consumption orientation. We also test the scale's ability to predict consumers’ preference between local and global products.
Although the influence of identity on consumer behavior has been documented in many streams of literature, the absence of a consistent definition of identity and of generally accepted principles regarding the drivers of identity-based behavior complicates comparisons across these literatures. To resolve that problem, we propose a simple but inclusive definition of identity. Identity can be defined as any category label with which a consumer selfassociates that is amenable to a clear picture of what a person in that category looks like, thinks, feels and does. Building from this definition, we propose the following five basic principles that can help researchers model the process of identity formation and expression: (1) Identity Salience: identity processing increases when the identity is an active component of the self; (2) Identity Association: the non-conscious association of stimuli with a positive and salient identity improves a person’s response to the stimuli; (3) Identity Relevance: the deliberative evaluation of identity-linked stimuli depends on how diagnostic the identity is in the relevant domain; (4) Identity Verification: individuals monitor their own behaviors to manage and reinforce their identities; and (5) Identity Conflict: identity-linked behaviors help consumers manage the relative prominence of multiple identities. To illustrate the potential usefulness of these principles for guiding identity research, we discuss new avenues for identity research and explain how these principles could help guide investigations into these areas.
This article identifies important cognitive processes associated with processing narrative ads (comprehending narratives and generating mental imagery of depictions in the narratives) and related subjective experiences (perceptual/conceptual fluency, comprehension, and imagery fluency). In line with the idea that perceptual/conceptual fluency facilitates comprehension fluency and further improves imagery fluency, this study presents a model in which factors influence imagery fluency either indirectly through influences on perceptual/conceptual and comprehension fluency or directly. Findings from two experiments support the model; picture type (narrative versus product picture) and narrative type (highly versus less accessible) indirectly alter imagery fluency through their influence on comprehension fluency, whereas individual characteristics (experiential versus rational processing orientation) directly alter it, which further affects ad and brand attitudes. Click here to get a free e-print (only 50 copies available): http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/E2f74Sk4HU2dvmP5cgty/full
This paper explores the effectiveness of repetition variation strategies for narrative advertising and argues that repetition strategies that involve varying plots will be more difficult to comprehend, and thus less persuasive than fixed plot strategies. Experiment 1 compared three strategies: using the same plot twice, using different plots, and using one continuous plot. As expected, the different plots strategy resulted in less favorable ad attitudes than the other two strategies. Experiment 2 compared the same three strategies, except that this time the character sets were kept the same in the different plots strategy. Results indicated that it was more difficult for participants to comprehend ads using the different plots/same characters strategy than those employing the other two strategies, and ad attitudes and brand attitudes were less favorable with that strategy as well. The role that ease of comprehension plays in mediating the relationship between variation strategies and ad/brand attitudes was also established. Experiment 3 compared all four strategies. Results showed that it was more difficult to comprehend ads that used different plots, regardless of whether characters were altered or not, than those that used the same or continuous plots strategies. The two different plots strategies also resulted in less favorable ad and brand attitudes than the same or continuous plots strategies.
As the inclusion of foreign languages in advertisements is a growing global trend, this research examines how language choice may influence important advertising outcome measures within a South Korean advertising context. Specifically, the study aims to explore how foreign and local languages influence recall and recognition for brand name and body copy messages. The interaction of using two languages in an advertisement, to convey different elements of the ad may secure varied levels of attention and comprehension. The findings suggest that recall and recognition are significantly affected by the language presented. An ad presenting a brand name in the foreign language (English Roman alphabet) with the body copy message in the local language (Hangul) is an effective strategy to enhance recall and recognition of the brand name and the ad message within the Korean youth market. The results of this study expand linguistic theory within an advertising context while also providing international advertisers with useful tips when operating in a multinational marketplace. Future research avenues are discussed.
Adopting a global look has been an important strategy for marketing in multinational and local markets. This research explored the use of two global-look strategies in Taiwanese advertising: the use of Western models and English brand names. First, a content analysis revealed that Western models were used to promote products in 46.81 percent of magazine advertisements, whereas English brands were featured in 53.90 percent of the advertisements. Variables such as distribution area and product categories were shown to influence the use of these strategies. Second, an experiment examined the advantages and disadvantages of adopting global-look strategies in advertising. The use of Western models and English brand names enhanced the perceived globalness of the brand and encouraged participants to infer that the product originated from a developed Western country. However, a global look is not always persuasive. On the one hand, using Western models enhanced the perceived quality of the product. On the other hand, participants showed an "in-group bias" by rating products with Chinese brand names, as opposed to English brand names, higher on brand friendliness, brand trust, self-brand connections, and brand liking. The findings are discussed in terms of the implications for marketing.
ABSTRACT: This paper examines a specific group of English users in Germany: students studying English at the Freie Universität Berlin. The first section outlines the various domains in which these students encounter English in their daily lives, both within and outside university, as they make and maintain intercultural connections. This analysis suggests that, at least among these university students, English-German bilingualism seems to be the norm. The second section of this paper shows how students' proficiency in English plays a role in their creation, or re-creation, of local, national, European and global identities. What is more, in this small community of students, it seems that the ability to use English is intricately tied in with the (re)definition of what it means to be German, or at least an educated, urban German. Although they constitute a small community, these students' uses of and attitudes towards English highlight some general trends of globalization and provide some insights into the evolving role of English in Europe.
Purpose
The purpose of this study investigates the asymmetric effects of brand origin confusion (BOC) on consumer preference and the purchase of local versus foreign brands in China. Drawing on the general country‐of‐origin (COO) literature and recent developments in brand‐origin studies and the emerging market phenomenon globally, it proposes and test a model of the asymmetric effects of BOC on consumer preference and the purchase of local versus foreign brands in China. This study intends to help to explain from a new angle the decreasing competitiveness of foreign brands in emerging markets, such as China.
Design/methodology/approach
The study pretest on nationally distributed brands across seven product categories resulted in a final set of 67 brands: 35 foreign and 32 local. Four hundred respondents evaluated measures related to brand origin, brand awareness, brand value, brand preference, and brand purchases in the previous six months. Hierarchical regression analysis was used in data analysis.
Findings
The hypotheses on the asymmetric effects of BOC between local and foreign brands in China were mostly supported. Specifically, the results showed that local brands are likely to be in an advantageous position when there is a high level of BOC. However, as the brand knowledge of consumers increases, the effects of BOC decrease.
Originality/value
This study provides evidence of the asymmetric effects of BOC between local and foreign brands and the moderating role of brand knowledge for local brands in China. It fills a gap in the international branding and marketing communication literature, and offers meaningful managerial insights for both local and international companies to formulate effective branding and marketing communication strategies in China and possibly in other emerging markets.
An implicit assumption in advertising content analysis, as well as in studies of advertiser intent, is that what an ad says, or what its creator intends for it to convey, is also what it means to consumers. The presence of global images and foreign appeals in advertising is thus often incorrectly taken as evidence that local culture is becoming globalized, and that consumer values are changing accordingly. Using a reader-response approach to analyze upscale Chinese consumers' understandings of global and local television and print advertising, we find that this is not the case. Instead, we find two dialectic reactions by Chinese consumers. One side is largely driven by the desire for global cosmopolitanism and status goods for the sake of mianzi (prestige face), whereas the other side is motivated by a more nationalistic desire to invoke Chinese values that are seen as local in origin. These opposing advertising meanings and preferences have important implications for understanding how international advertising affects local cultures.
Marketers have increasingly employed positioning strategies to appeal to either global or local consumer cultures. How-ever, little is known about the characteristics of consumers most likely to respond to such positioning. The authors find that the collective identities of global and national identification are strongly related to responsiveness to global and local consumer culture positioning (GCCP and LCCP, respectively). The results also show that personality predisposes people to adopt collective identities. The personality traits of openness to experience and agreeableness are significantly related to global and national identity, respectively. On the basis of these findings, the authors present implications with regard to developing GCCP and LCCP strategies that are congruent with consumers' personality and associated collec-tive identity. Keywords: global and local consumer culture positioning, global identity, national identity, attitude toward the ad, five-factor theory of personality, self-verification theory
Many personality trait terms can be thought of as summary labels for broad conceptual categories that are used to encode information about an individual's behavior into memory. The likelihood that a behavior is encoded in terms of a particular trait category is postulated to be a function of the relative accessibility of that category in memory. In addition, the trait category used to encode a particular behavior is thought to affect subsequent judgments of the person along dimensions to which it is directly or indirectly related. To test these hypotheses, undergraduates first performed a sentence construction task that activated concepts associated with either hostility (Exp I, 96 Ss) or kindness (Exp II, 96 new Ss). As part of an ostensibly unrelated impression formation experiment, Ss later read a description of behaviors that were ambiguous with respect to hostility (kindness) and then rated the target person along a variety of trait dimensions. Ratings of the target along these dimensions increased with the number of times that the test concept had previously been activated in the sentence construction task and decreased with the time interval between these prior activations and presentation of the stimulus information to be encoded. Results suggest that category accessibility is a major determinant of the way in which social information is encoded into memory and subsequently used to make judgments. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Through three studies, we investigated the impact of consumers’ global versus local identities on the evaluation of global products (products with the same specifications and packaging for consumers from around the world) versus local products (products with specifications and packaging tailored for local markets). The results show that consumers with an accessible global identity prefer a global (more than a local) product and consumers with an accessible local identity prefer a local (more than a global) product. Of note, this effect was reversed, either by an explicit instruction about accessible identities being nondiagnostic (study 1) or implicitly by inducing a differentiative (vs. integrative) processing mode (study 2).
When does rationality favor making an unmarked choice versus a marked choice in codeswitching and vice versa? Within the framework of rational actor models (e.g., Elster 1979, 1989) and Lessig's (1995) examination of the regulation and construction of social meaning, the paper shows how the potency of unmarked choices is derived from existing norms and how selecting the marked choice is an attempt to construct new norms. Rational actor models (including the markedness model of Myers-Scotton, 1993, 1998) take account of large-scale societal factors, but not as directly determining linguistic choices. Rather, selection is located with the individual, and rationality itself is the mechanism by which choices are made. To act rationally means that a choice reflects a goal to enhance rewards and minimize costs - to optimize one's returns, given the prevailing circumstances. To engage in codeswitching at all is an instance of speakers acting rationally because codeswitching makes optimal use of the resources in their linguistic repertoires. When the switch is a marked choice, the message is that the speaker is attempting to construct a new social meaning for the speaker's own persona or the import of the ongoing discourse, thereby negotiating a new norm.
Five experiments are reported in which the picture naming performance of bilingual speakers in a language-switching task was explored. In Experiment 1, Spanish learners of Catalan and Korean learners of Spanish were asked to perform a switching task between their first and dominant language (L1, Spanish or Korean) and their second language (L2, Catalan or Spanish). For these two groups switching from the weaker language (L2) to the more dominant language (L1) was harder than vice versa. This asymmetrical switching cost was not present when highly proficient Spanish–Catalan bilinguals performed the task either in their two dominant languages (Experiments 2 and 3) or in their dominant language (L1) and in their much weaker language (L3 English; Experiment 4). Furthermore, highly proficient bilinguals showed faster naming latencies in their weaker languages (L2 and L3) than in their dominant language (L1). Experiment 5 tested whether a bias in the triggering of lexicalization is at the basis of such a difference. Together these results reveal that the switching performance of highly proficient bilinguals does not seem to be subject to the same mechanisms as that of L2 learners.
This research contributes to the current understanding of language effects in advertising by uncovering a previously ignored mechanism shaping consumer response to an increasingly globalized marketplace. We propose a language-specific episodic trace theory of language emotionality to explain how language influences the perceived emotionality of marketing communications. Five experiments with bilingual consumers show (1) that textual information (e.g., marketing slogans) expressed in consumers' native language tends to be perceived as more emotional than messages expressed in their second language, (2) that this effect is not uniquely due to the activation of stereotypes associated to specific languages or to a lack of comprehension, and (3) that the effect depends on the frequency with which words have been experienced in native- versus second-language contexts. (c) 2008 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
In this study, the authors examine the emergence of brand positioning strategies in advertising that parallel the growth of the global marketplace. A new construct, global consumer culture positioning (GCCP), is proposed, operationalized, and tested. This construct associates the brand with a widely understood and recognized set of symbols believed to constitute emerging global consumer culture. Study results support the validity of the new construct and indicate that meaningful percentages of advertisements employ GCCP, as opposed to positioning the brand as a member of a local consumer culture or a specific foreign consumer culture. Identification of GCCP as a positioning tool suggests one pathway through which certain brands come to be perceived by consumers as "global" and provides managers with strategic direction in the multinational marketplace.
Undergraduates expressed their attitudes about a product after being exposed to a magazme ad under conditions of either high or low product involvement. The ad contained either strong or weak arguments for the product and featured either prominent sports celebrities or average citizens as endorsers. The manipulation of argument quality had a greater impact on attitudes under high than low involve- ment, but the manipulation of product endorser had a greater impact under low than high involvement. These results are consistent with the view that there are two relatively distinct routes to persuasion.
In this study, the authors examine the emergence of brand positioning strategies in advertising that parallel the growth of the global marketplace. A new construct, global consumer culture positioning (GCCP), is proposed, operationalized, and tested. This construct associates the brand with a widely understood and recognized set of symbols believed to constitute emerging global consumer culture. Study results support the validity of the new construct and indicate that meaningful percentages of advertisements employ GCCP, as opposed to positioning the brand as a member of a local consumer culture or a specific foreign consumer culture. Identification of GCCP as a positioning tool suggests one pathway through which certain brands come to be perceived by consumers as “global” and provides managers with strategic direction in the multinational marketplace.
This study investigates the influence of brand origin and foreign language familiarity in code-switched (CS) ad effectiveness for monolingual consumers. CS ads refer to ads containing foreign words or phrases in an advertising copy (e.g., headline and slogan), resulting in a mixture of native and foreign languages. In this research, we conducted a pilot study to show the increasing trend of using code-switching in ads, regardless of whether the brands are local or foreign, in a monolingual market. We further examine if the effectiveness of CS ads is contingent on the brand origin among monolinguals. Study 1 showed that non-CS ads were perceived more favorably than CS ads for advertising a local brand. However, not all of the CS ads were perceived more favorably than non-CS ads when a foreign brand was advertized. The results of Study 2 showed that when a foreign brand was advertized, CS ads using a high-exposure foreign language were evaluated more favorably than CS ads using a low-exposure foreign language. Foreign language familiarity played a mediating role in the observed effects. We provide evidence that the research findings on CS ads among bilinguals cannot be applied to monolinguals. We discuss implications for international marketing and suggest advertising strategies for practitioners.
This research involved conducting two studies to investigate whether the asymmetric language effects observed by Krishna and Ahluwalia (2008) among bilinguals can be replicated among monolinguals. In Study 1, we observed asymmetric language effects for local firms but not for multinational corporations (MNCs), which differs from Krishna and Ahluwalia's observations. Based on Study 1's results, Study 2 further proposes and tests two routes (language expectation and language-based association) that lead to consumer slogan evaluations. The findings of Study 2 suggest that slogan evaluations for MNCs were determined via the language expectation route, whereas evaluations for local firms were determined via the language-based association route. This research provides evidence that monolinguals have different responses to language choices in advertising than bilinguals do. Possible explanations and implications are discussed, and future research directions are outlined for this underexplored area.
The authors conducted an empirical study to test McGuire's (1984) distinctiveness theory within an advertising context. First, following the distinctiveness theory postulate, they found that members of minority groups were more likely than majority groups to have their ethnicity salient. Furthermore, in applying distinctiveness theory to persuasion, they found that members of minority (versus majority) groups find an ad spokesperson from their own ethnic group to be more trustworthy and that increased trustworthiness led to more positive attitudes toward the brand being advertised. The authors draw implications for both advertising to ethnic/minority groups as well as for further research applications of distinctiveness theory.
This study experimentally examines consumers’ reactions to culturally incongruent images in advertising, which are characterized by a mix of global and local cultural elements and symbols featured in product advertisements. Drawing on the persuasion knowledge perspective, the authors argue how advertising image incongruence in the globalized marketing communication context of China may lead to consumers' use of persuasion knowledge (i.e., beliefs about the agent’'s persuasive tactics) and result in unfavorable attitudes toward the advertisements. This research contributes to a better understanding of the interplay between global and local consumer cultures in a globalized marketplace.
The purpose of the present study is to investigate how consumers' national and global identities relate to a reluctance to purchase foreign products, in favor of domestic alternatives. The authors assume that consumers' universal–diverse orientation (UDO), a three-dimensional conceptualization of attitude toward cultural diversity, functions as a mediator variable in these relationships. The results show that reluctance to purchase foreign products, as mediated by the three UDO dimensions, increases with national identity but does not decrease with global identity. The three UDO dimensions account for this asymmetry and can effectively explain the underlying psychological processes. The theoretically predicted relationships hold across four global consumer segments, suggesting that UDO functions as a robust predictor of behavior.
One of the techniques advertisers use to target language minorities (e.g., U.S. Hispanics) is the use of code-switching, or mixing languages within one ad. This paper investigates the consequences of code-switching for ad persuasiveness. The results of two studies suggest that code-switching results in the activation of associations relevant to the language the slogan switches to. Those associations influence the valence of consumers' elaboration such that if the language a slogan switches to possesses positive (negative) associations, consumers engage in positive (negative) elaboration, resulting in higher (lower) evaluations. Attitudinal and contextual variables interact with the effect of code-switching on ad responses.
Despite increasing attention to consumers in developing markets, few studies explicitly explore the psychological mechanisms underlying their attitudes toward global brands from developed versus developing countries. The author proposes that global orientation, including global consumption orientation and global identity, are key factors accounting for the attitude variance. The results of Studies 1 and 2 in China show that consumers' global orientation positively influences their attitudes toward global brands of developed-country origin. In addition, ethnocentrism negatively influences their attitudes toward these brands, but this effect diminishes for consumers with high global identity. Study 3 strengthens these findings by ruling out the alternative explanation that imports, not global brands, drive such results. Finally, Study 4 indicates that Indian consumers yield a similar pattern to Chinese consumers with regard to the global orientation effect, but the study reveals a relatively weak influence of ethnocentrism.
This research investigates how ad content influences which language should be used in advertisements targeting bilingual individuals. The authors argue that the influence of ad content on language appropriateness is due to processing fluency: Some concepts are more accessible in one language than in the other, which leads to more positive ad evaluations when the ad is written in that language. The results of three studies provide the basis for a Word Accessibility/ Fluency framework to study the interaction of language and ad content with respect to ad evaluations. This framework operates at the nonconscious level. Once conscious attention is brought to language, other factors such as language schemas take over ad evaluations.
Drawing on cultural identity theory, global consumer culture theory, and sustainability research, we examine the “green” side of materialism in emerging BRIC markets and developed (U.S. and Australian) markets. We assess the moderating effect of global cultural identity on the relationship between materialism and environmentally friendly tendencies using three different conceptualizations and measures of global cultural identity — the lifestyle and brand dimensions of global consumption orientation and global connectedness. In emerging markets, we observe strong positive effects of materialism on the concern for environmentally friendly products, the willingness to pay extra for environmentally friendly products, perceptions of global companies as environmentally friendly, and the likelihood to engage in environmentally friendly tendencies for the global segment across all three conceptualizations of global cultural identity; in addition, for individuals with a glocal cultural identity, we observe a significant positive relationship between materialism and these measures of environmentally friendly tendencies. In developed markets, significant effects are observed only for the global segment, but specific effects depend on the conceptualization of a global cultural identity. Therefore, our results indicate that multinational companies focused on combining materialistic appeals with their green positioning in the emerging markets must carefully target consumers with a strong global cultural identity.
How do bilingual consumers process bilingual information? Prior research indicates that stimulus-related concepts (type of name translation and language emphasis) play a critical role. We extend this research by including language proficiency as a key person-related concept. When asking Chinese-English bilinguals to evaluate dual brand names, we find that proficient consumers prefer sound translation when the English name is emphasized but meaning translation when the Chinese name is emphasized. In contrast, less proficient bilinguals engage in semantic processing of the dual names. These results suggest that proficiency must be added as a key concept to a framework that addresses bilingual consumer environments.
It is unclear how local brands competing in product categories that consumers perceive as foreign should be managed in emerging markets. An interpretive research approach investigating consumer perceptions and managerial development of a local pizza brand in India reveals that consumers experience these brands as foreign. The author discusses implications for brand management.
This study examines the extent to which Western cultural influence is visible in the print advertising of four Asian countries: Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. To measure the level of Westernization of print advertising, two indicators were used: The presence of Western models and/or celebrities and the inclusion of Western language or words. It was found that English was the dominant Western language contained in the sampled ads and Western females were the most frequently portrayed Western models. Judicious use of Western words and of Western models is called for in order to minimize possible cultural backlash against overt foreign influences.
Mfost of social psychology's theories of the self fail to take into account the significance of social identification in the definition of self. Social identities are self-definitions that are more inclusive than the individuated self-concept of most American psychology. A model of optimal distinctiveness is proposed in which social identity is viewed as a reconciliation of opposing needs for assimilation and differentiation from others. According to this model, individuals avoid self-construals that are either too personalized or too inclusive and instead define themselves in terms of distinctive category memberships. Social identity and group loyalty are hypothesized to be strongest for those self-categorizations that simultaneously provide for a sense of belonging and a sense of distinctiveness. Results from an initial laboratory experiment support the prediction that depersonalization and group size interact as determinants of the strength of social identification.
The
Journal of Consumer Research receives manuscripts on an almost daily basis in which researchers have dichotomized a continuous independent variable. From the
Journal of Consumer Research's perspective, the relatively small investment in appropriately analyzing and presenting data involving a continuous independent variable is certainly justified compared to the costs of not doing so. I hope this editorial illustrates how easy it can be to present analyses that are performed appropriately. I hope that this editorial will help hasten a death to dichotomizing continuous independent variables-its day, I hope, is behind us. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter provides a comprehensive introduction to multiple regression analysis (MR), a highly flexible system for examining the relationship of a collection of independent variables (predictors) to a single dependent variable (criterion). The independent variables may be quantitative (e.g., personality traits, family income) or categorical (e.g., ethnic group, treatment conditions in an experiment). The present chapter explores ordinary least squares (OLS) regression, which requires a continuous dependent variable. The chapter emphasizes: (a) testing theoretical predictions through multiple regression, and (b) identifying problems with implementation of regression analysis. First the structure of MR is described, including the overall regression equation, estimation of partial regression coefficients for individual predictors, effect size measures for both overall model fit and for the contribution of individual predictors and sets of predictors to prediction accuracy. Treatment of categorical predictors through effects, dummy, and contrast coding is explained. Polynomial regression for capturing curvilinear relationships is explored. The specification, testing, and posthoc probing of interactions between continuous variables and between a continuous and a categorical variable are explicated. Second, detection of violations of MR assumptions is addressed, as this helps to identify problems with regression models. Regression diagnostics (case statistics) that are used to identify problematic cases which bias results are explained. Graphic displays for regression analysis that characterize the overall nature of the regression model, curvilinear, and interactive relationships among variables, and checking of assumptions are provided. An empirical example illustrates the interplay between theory and empirical findings in the specification, testing, and revision of regression models.
This article examines the impact of processing motivation on language processing by bilingual consumers. The article begins by outlining the revised hierarchical model (Dufour & Kroll, 1995), which implies that second-language conceptual processing is more challenging and less likely to be successful than first-language processing. Then two empirical studies are conducted to investigate whether intrinsic and/or extrinsic motivation can be moderators of the impact of first- and second-language processing on cognitive measures of advertising effectiveness. Study 1 finds that need for cognition, an intrinsic measure of motivation, fulfills this moderating role. Consistent with the revised hierarchical model, for low-need-for-cognition individuals, first-language processing is superior to second-language processing. By contrast, high-need-for-cognition individuals remember first- and second-language ads equally well. Study 2 finds a significant interaction between need for cognition and an extrinsic manipulation of processing motivation, indicating that first language leads to greater memory under conditions that include both high motivation and low need for cognition. Our results are interpreted using consumer-behavior models. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
This article addresses a growing dilemma surrounding the strategic value of perceived brand foreignness (PBF) among consumers in emerging economies. Building on recent research evidence from the brand origin literature, we introduce the concept of confidence in brand origin identification (CBO) and theorize its moderating impact on the value of PBF in explaining and predicting brand evaluation. Using a multi-level modeling technique, this study provides evidence showing that CBO moderates the effect of PBF on consumer evaluations of brand value. Moreover, the moderating influence of CBO is found to be more profound for local than for foreign brands. Managerial implications for building both global and local brands in emerging markets are discussed.
KeywordsPerceived brand foreignness-Confidence in brand origin identification-Brand value-Emerging market
Building on earlier evidence showing a beneficial effect of bilingualism on children's cognitive development, we review recent studies using both behavioral and neuroimaging methods to examine the effects of bilingualism on cognition in adulthood and explore possible mechanisms for these effects. This research shows that bilingualism has a somewhat muted effect in adulthood but a larger role in older age, protecting against cognitive decline, a concept known as 'cognitive reserve'. We discuss recent evidence that bilingualism is associated with a delay in the onset of symptoms of dementia. Cognitive reserve is a crucial research area in the context of an aging population; the possibility that bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve is therefore of growing importance as populations become increasingly diverse.
In this research, I examined how biculturals, or individuals who have been equally influenced by an East Asian and Western cultural orientation, respond to various types of persuasion appeals that promote values unique to a particular culture. In the first experiment, I found that biculturals, relative to monoculturals, tend to react favorably toward both individually and interpersonally focused appeals due to their having 2 equally developed and accessible cultural dispositions. In the second experiment, I identified boundary conditions under which having relatively equal access to both cultural dispositions leads to favorable responses. Results indicate that biculturals who tend to compartmentalize each culture react less favorably toward appeals that are both individually and interpersonally focused than biculturals who tend to integrate the 2 cultures. In other words, the former type of bicultural prefers appeals that activate one cultural disposition, whereas the latter type of bicultural favors appeals that activate both cultural dispositions. These findings are discussed in light of the growing trend toward multiculturalism and the increasing need for researchers to understand the impact of this trend on various consumer behavior issues.
This article examines a psycholinguistic model of bilingual concept organization and extends it to the processing of advertisements by bilingual consumers. The model suggests that second-language (L2) messages result in inferior memory as compared with first-language (L1) stimuli. These language asymmetries in memory are thought to occur because processing an L2 message at a conceptual level is less likely than processing an L1 message conceptually. Applying this notion to advertisements, this research examines picture-text congruity as a potential moderator of language effects in memory. The results suggest that a high level of congruity between picture and text facilitates conceptual processing of L2 messages, increasing memory for second-language ads and thereby reducing the impact of language asymmetries on memory. Copyright 2001 by the University of Chicago.