The Game Transfer Phenomena framework: Investigating altered perceptions, automatic mental processes and behaviors induced by virtual immersion

Abstract

An increasing number of studies have examined the effects of video game contents (e.g. violence) or excessive playing (e.g. addiction). Recently, a multimodal and holistic framework was developed, the Game Transfer Phenomena (GTP) framework. It investigates the relation between in-game elements (e.g. structural characteristics, in-game phenomena) involved in everyday involuntary phenomena or intrusions with game contents, and the subsequent implications of these phenomena on gamers’ well-being. This paper aims to overview research on GTP for explaining the development of the framework and discuss its potential applications. The GTP framework was developed based on studies conducted with over 3,500 gamers collected via interviews, online forums and surveys. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the factorial structure and demonstrated good reliability and validity of the items in the scale used for assessing GTP. The GTP experiences were classified in three main modalities: (i) altered sensorial perceptions comprising perceptions and/or sensations in all sensorial channels, cross-sensory or multisensory. These were further subdivided into: altered visual perceptions (e.g. visual hallucinations), altered auditory perceptions (e.g. auditory imagery), and altered body/other perceptions (e.g. illusion of body motion). (ii) Automatic mental processes comprising thoughts, urges and automatic mental actions, and (iii) behaviors and actions comprising simple actions or more elaborate behaviors (e.g. verbal outburst). The GTP framework can assist in identifying an underlying mechanism of the virtual immersion either for reducing potential unwanted effects or for promoting desirable cognitions and behaviors with educative, therapeutic and entertainment means.

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Contents
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Brenda K. Wiederhold, Giuseppe Riva and Mark D. Wiederhold, Gráinne Kirwan
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Section I. Editorial
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Giuseppe Riva, Brenda K. Wiederhold, Andrea Gaggioli 
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Section II. Critical Reviews
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ngelica B. Ortiz De Gortari 
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lexander Voiskoun
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Claude L. Normand, Dany Lussier-Desrochers, Stéphanie-M. Fecteau, Valérie
Godin-Tremblay,
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arie-Ève Dupont,
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eannie Roux and Alejandro Romero 
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ise Haddouk and Brice Gouverne
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Section III. Evaluation Studies 
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Carlo Galimberti, Alice Chirico, Eleonora Brivio, Fabiana Gatti, Elvis Mazzoni,
Giuseppe Riva ,, Luca Milani, Carla Mazzoleno, Elisa Albertini, and Andrea
Gaggioli 
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leonora Brivio, Silvia Serino,, Carlo Galimberti and Giuseppe Riva 
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udrey Stenson and Irene Connolly 
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Angelica B. ORTIZ DE GORTARIa,1
a Nottingham Trent University; University of Hertfordshire
Abstract. An increasing number of studies have examined the effects of video
game contents (e.g. violence) or excessive playing (e.g. addiction). Recently, a
multimodal and holistic framework was developed, the Game Transfer Phenomena
(GTP) framework. It investigates the relation between in-game elements (e.g.
structural characteristics, in-game phenomena) involved in everyday involuntary
phenomena or intrusions with game contents, and the subsequent implications of
WKHVHSKHQRPHQDRQJDPHUV¶ZHOO-being. This paper aims to overview research on
GTP for explaining the development of the framework and discuss its potential
applications. The GTP framework was developed based on studies conducted with
over 3,500 gamers collected via interviews, online forums and surveys.
Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the factorial structure and demonstrated
good reliability and validity of the items in the scale used for assessing GTP. The
GTP experiences were classified in three main modalities: (i) altered sensorial
perceptions comprising perceptions and/or sensations in all sensorial channels,
cross-sensory or multisensory. These were further subdivided into: altered visual
perceptions (e.g. visual hallucinations), altered auditory perceptions (e.g. auditory
imagery), and altered body/other perceptions (e.g. illusion of body motion). (ii)
Automatic mental processes comprising thoughts, urges and automatic mental
actions, and (iii) behaviors and actions comprising simple actions or more
elaborate behaviors (e.g. verbal outburst). The GTP framework can assist in
identifying an underlying mechanism of the virtual immersion either for reducing
potential unwanted effects or for promoting desirable cognitions and behaviors
with educative, therapeutic and entertainment means.
Keywords. Game Transfer Phenomena, non-volitional phenomena, implicit
cognitions, effects of playing video games
1 Corresponding author, angelica.ortizdegortari@gametransferphenomena.com

10 A B..Ortiz De Gortari / The Game Transfer Phenomena framework: Investigating altered
perceptions, automatic mental processes and behaviors induced by virtual immersion
1. Introduction
Besides the numerous benefits of playing video games [1], adverse effects have been
observed [2]. As a result, an increasing volume of research has examined the
psychosocial and psychophysiological effects of the virtual immersion in three related
but distinctive areas of research: (i) studies focusing on understanding the effects of
video game content (e.g. violence), (ii) studies focusing on the effects of excessive
playing (e.g. gaming addiction), and (iii) studies focusing on the psychophysiological
effects of the immersion using highly immersive technologies such as VR and
simulators. This last area has mainly been confined to therapeutic and military settings,
but the recent mass-market introduction of VR devices may broaden the research in this
area [3]. Recently, the Game Transfer Phenomena (GTP) framework, a holistic and
multimodal framework, was developed to investigate the psychosocial and health
effects of video game playing [4]. The GTP framework was based on the analysis of
experiences of over 3,500 gamers collected via interviews, online forums and surveys.
Research in this area is not limited to particular video game content or genre, platform,
online/offline gaming, excessive use or psychophysiological markers. This paper aims
to overview the research on GTP for explaining the development of the GTP
framework and discuss its potential applications.
2. Overview of research on GTP
No gender differences have been found between those that have and have not
experienced GTP [5], or between those that experienced different levels of GTP (mild,
moderate and severe levels) [6]. GTP have been reported with new and old video
games and in over 400 unique titles [4]. In most of the cases those that reported GTP
did not suffer from any underlying medical condition, had never consumed drugs or
been under the influence of some substance when GTP occurred [5, 7]. Sensorial
experiences occurred either triggered by external cues or not, while spontaneous
thoughts and behaviors appear to be mainly triggered by game-related cues [8-10].
The first GTP study consisted in interviews with 15- to 21-year-old Swedish
frequent gamers (n=42). It investigated the influence of video games on gamers¶
fantasies, dreams, perceptions of the real world and behaviors. In that study the gamers
reported seeing video game images with open eyes (e.g. seeing power bars above
SHRSOH¶VKHDGs) and approaching objects simulated in the game without awareness [11].
Follow-up qualitative studies analyzed  JDPHUV¶H[SHULHQFHVIURP JDPHUV
on 60 online video game forums [8-10]. The aim of these studies was to identify,
classify and operationally define the experiences in different modalities (sensory
perceptions, mental processes and behaviors), (see Figure 1 for the main GTP
modalities/sub-modalities) [8]. Analysis of an online survey with a self-selected sample
(n=2,362) provided the following insights:
Prevalence of GTP ± Almost all (97%) of the participants reported having
experienced GTP at some point in their lives. Most had experienced GTP more than
once (95%). The GTP types with highest percentages were: (i) visualized/seen video
game images with closed eyes, (ii) heard the music from a video game when not

A B..Ortiz De Gortari / The Game Transfer Phenomena framework: Investigating altered 11
perceptions, automatic mental processes and behaviors induced by virtual immersion
playing, (iii) felt bodily sensations of movement as if being in a video game, (iv)
wanted or felt the urge to do something in real life triggered by a game-related cue, and
(v) sang, shouted or said something from a video game unintentionally [7].
GTP characteristics ± Most GTP were short-lived (seconds/minutes) but
occurred recurrently and more likely as post-play phenomena (directly after
playing/hours after playing) and usually when doing daily chores rather than as
nighttime phenomena (e.g. falling asleep).
Factors associated with GTP ± The factors significantly associated comprised:
(i) having a pre-existing medical condition, (ii) session length, and (iii) motivations that
implied focusing on the game world and elements in the game such as immersion,
exploration, customization and escaping from the real world rather than motivations for
socializing while playing [5].
Severity levels of GTP ± The majority (58%) of the participants had mild levels
of GTP. Those with severe levels of GTP (i.e. experience GTP frequently and various
types) were significantly more likely to (i) be students and be 18- to 22-years-old, (ii)
have played sessions of 6 hours, or more (iii) played to escape, (iv) have a sleeping
disorder, and (v) considered themselves as having dysfunctional gaming. Lastly, more
than half in the severe level experienced distress or dysfunction due to GTP compared
to the other levels. The predictors for the severity levels of GTP were: session length
and frequent playing, distress due to GTP, positive appraisal of GTP, and a tendency to
recall dreams [6].
3. Theories and perspectives related to GTP
Different theoretical models have been applied to understand the transfer of effects of
cognitions and behaviors, and these have been used in research with video games.
Some of the most relevant to GTP are: (i) Pavlovian conditioning ± where responses
given to certain stimulus can be generalized to another stimulus via conditioning, (ii)
priming effect ± where the previous exposure to certain information or stimulus affects
the interpretation of a subsequent stimulus, (iii) schema theory ± where prior
knowledge schemas or templates are activated on response to environmental input
which provide context for interpreting experience and assimilating new knowledge, (iv)
social learning/social cognitive theory ± which posits that social behavior is acquired
by watching the behavior of another person (vicarious learning), (v) cultivation theory
± which posits that media constantly portray an unrealistic picture of the real world
which over time influences the perception of the real world. Hypnagogic images have
been induced by playing video games in a few experimental studies for understanding
the continuity between awake and sleep states [12-14]. Also, a variety of research has
investigated attentional biases in gaming addiction via cognitive tasks [15]. However,
studies on involuntary phenomena with game content in non-laboratory settings are
rare. Only a few studies have investigated the transfer of experiences from a learning
oriented perspective [16, 17] while others have investigated dreams, associations and
game-biased perceptions in a Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game [18].

12 A B..Ortiz De Gortari / The Game Transfer Phenomena framework: Investigating altered
perceptions, automatic mental processes and behaviors induced by virtual immersion
4. Framing Game Transfer Phenomena
Research concerning GTP is interested in examining involuntary phenomena or
intrusions (e.g. earworms, mind popping, slips of the tongue, hallucinations), which
arise spontaneously, without control and that manifest as sensorial perceptions,
cognitions or behaviors, and in understanding the subsequent effects of these
SKHQRPHQD RQ JDPHUV¶ ZHOO-being. However, research on GTP also pays attention to
cognitions and behaviors deliberatively initiated by gamers. This is done in order to
establish differences between voluntary and involuntary phenomena, endogenous and
exogenous phenomena and, self-generated and non-self-generated phenomena since
research suggests that the psychological and potential risks of the GTP depend
thereupon [8, 9].
The GTP framework proposed examines the relation between structural
characteristics of the game world and phenomena inherent to the virtual immersion that
lead to GTP in different modalities (altered sensorial perceptions, mental processes and
behaviors). Four core elements of the virtual world have been suggested to be related to
GTP: (i) sensory stimulation (e.g. sensorial effects ± visual, aural, and haptic,
monotonous play, sensorial discrepancies), (ii) high cognitive load (e.g. pairing
between stimuli, repetitive problem-solving), (iii) dissociative states (e.g. immersion,
subjective sense of presence facilitated by sensory realism, simulation of body
movements), and (iv) high emotional engagement (e.g. rewarding and punitive
features) [19]. Research on GTP relies on the premise that previous experiences
influence ± at least temporarily and to a certain degree ± the way we perceive, interpret
and respond to the world around us. A theoretically eclectic approach is taken to
explain the interplay of physiological, perceptual, and cognitive mechanisms involved
in GTP, mainly informed by cognitive and behavioral theories. The term ³*DPH
TUDQVIHU3KHQRPHQRQD´*73ZDV initially used by Ortiz de Gortari [20] to describe
dreams, automatic thoughts, altered sensory perceptions and automatic behaviors
transferred from the video game world to real life context, paying particular attention to
associations established between video game elements and real life stimuli that acted as
triggers of GTP. Game-related cues as triggers are central to most GTP, but they are
not always present or they are not always identified, therefore GTP have been re-
defined as following: GTP are involuntary phenomena manifesting as altered sensorial
perceptions, automatic mental processes, actions and behaviors as a result of the
transfer of experiences from the virtual to the real world.
The main theory-driven modalities proposed were the following: (i) altered
sensorial perceptions, (ii) automatic mental processes, and (iii) behaviors and actions.
x Altered sensorial perceptions modality. This comprises perceptions and/or
sensations in all sensorial channels, cross-sensory or multisensory (daytime or
nighttime phenomena). This modality was further subdivided to investigate
the manifestation of GTP in different sensory channels into: altered visual
perceptions sub-modality (e.g. visual hallucinations) [9], altered auditory
perceptions sub-modality (e.g. auditory imagery) [10], and altered body and
other altered perceptions sub-modality (e.g. body motion, time distortion) [9].
x Automatic mental processes modality. This comprises thoughts, urges and
automatic mental actions. Cognitions are elaborated and in some cases lead to
behaviors [8].
x Behaviors and actions modality. This comprises both simple actions and
more elaborate behaviors (e.g. verbal outbursts, reactivity toward game-

A B..Ortiz De Gortari / The Game Transfer Phenomena framework: Investigating altered 13
perceptions, automatic mental processes and behaviors induced by virtual immersion
x related cues that end up in actions such as involuntary movements of limbs)
[8] (See Figure 1 for a full overview of the GTP framework).
Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine 20 items in the
modalities/sub-modalities of GTP to develop the GTP Scale [21]. The analysis
confirmed the factorial structure of the five factors investigated and demonstrated good
reliability and validity [21]. The GTP items were categorized based on how gamers
experienced GTP, as perceptions, thoughts or behaviors, independently of the evident
interplay between physiological, perceptual and cognitive mechanisms involved in the
variety of GTP.
Figure 1. Initial descriptive framework of GTP. It shows the core elements of the virtual world (e.g. sensory
stimulation) and the transfers of experiences identified in the GTP modalities. (Based on Ortiz de Gortari,
2015).
5. Conclusions and implications
The GTP framework has been developed based on mixed method studies with over
3,500 participants, and although still being under development it has demonstrated its
effectiveness for examining involuntary phenomena provoked by virtual immersion.
Potential applications of the GTP framework:
x Identify potential risks of the use of virtual technologies ± Assess the effects of
virtual features/ in-JDPHSKHQRPHQDRQXVHUV¶HYHU\GD\Oives.

12 A B..Ortiz De Gortari / The Game Transfer Phenomena framework: Investigating altered
perceptions, automatic mental processes and behaviors induced by virtual immersion
x Promote desirable behaviors ± Identify what and how game elements are
transferred. Useful for therapeutic, educative and entertainment means.
x Understand symptoms of medical conditions ± mimicking pathological states
in the non-clinical population for understanding underlying mechanism of
symptoms.
x Provide a tool in therapeutic interventions ± Evaluate the effects of the
intervention in the everyday life of the patient for enhancing the treatment,
x identifying factors that hinder their efficacy or for avoiding unwanted effects
derived from interventions using virtual tasks or technologies.
x Understand the brain choreography by inducing GTP - since playing video
games activate multiple sensorial channels at once and induce trance states.
x Assist with dysfunctional gaming ± understanding its underlying mechanism.
Being aware of the impact of virtual elements on perceptions, cognitions and
behaviors can help in taking informed decisions on their use in virtual products either
to promote education, health or entertainment, or to avoid unwanted effects. This has
become even more crucial due to the recent commercialization of VR technologies that
may lead to more and stronger impact of GTP.
References
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LQYHVWLJDWLQJYLGHR JDPHV¶ HIIHFWV 'RFWRUDOGLVVHUWDWLRQ 1RWWLQJKDP 7UHQW8QLYHUVLW\: Nottingham,
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perceptions, automatic mental processes and behaviors induced by virtual immersion
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