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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Mathematics practice without feedback: A desirable
difficulty in a classroom setting
Emily R. Fyfe
1
•Bethany Rittle-Johnson
2
Received: 19 October 2015 / Accepted: 21 November 2016 / Published online: 28 November 2016
Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016
Abstract Recent research highlights the potential benefits of practice without feedback on
learner’s strategy knowledge. However, most prior work has been conducted in one-on-one
settings with short retention intervals. We compared the effects of mathematics practice
with and without correct-answer feedback on immediate and 1-week delayed performance
in a classroom setting. In a randomized experiment, 243 second- and third-grade children
received strategy instruction and then practiced solving relevant problems in small groups
within their classroom. During practice, children received immediate feedback (after each
problem), summative feedback (after all the problems in the set), or no feedback. During
the practice task, immediate feedback led to the best performance. However, practice
without feedback led to higher levels of mastery on the 1-week knowledge retention test.
Thus, instructional practices that seem less effective at first can, for some children, ulti-
mately result in more desirable learning.
Keywords Feedback Problem solving Mathematics learning Mathematical
equivalence
There are some instructional practices that seem less effective at first, yet ultimately result
in desirable learning. These practices are often called ‘‘desirable difficulties’’ (Bjork 1999);
they create difficulties at first (e.g., high error rates, slow acquisition), but these difficulties
often trigger deep processing of target problems in a way that enhances later retention. For
example, interleaving different problem types during practice can take longer and result in
less accurate performance than blocking the same problem types together, but it often
&Emily R. Fyfe
efyfe@indiana.edu
1
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 1101 E. 10th Street,
Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
2
Department of Psychology and Human Development, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
123
Instr Sci (2017) 45:177–194
DOI 10.1007/s11251-016-9401-1
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