Challenges for mitigating Mediterranean soil erosion under global change

Full text

311
Sub-chapter 2.3.3
Challenges for mitigating
Mediterranean
soil erosion
under global change
Damien RACLOT
IRD, UMR LISAH, France
Yves LEBISSONNAIS
INRA, UMR LISAH, France
Mohamed ANNABI
INRAT-LSTA,Tunisia
Mohamed SABIR
ENFI, Morocco
Introduction
Soil is an essential resource that provides a wide range of ecosystem services
(Dominati et al. 2010). Its formation is slow, but its destruction can be rapid. Soil
erosion by water is a natural phenomenon that is impacted by human activities
and global change. The long history of intense cultivation and a unique combination
of relief, parent material and climate conditions makes Mediterranean soils and
soil patterns very different from those in other regions in the world. Several studies
have shown that, in the Mediterranean basin, current soil loss rates drastically
exceed soil formation rates (Kosmas et al. 1997). In addition, an increase in intense
precipitation events due to climate change is expected in the 21st century. For these
reasons, suitable adaptive managing strategies for Mediterranean soils cannot be
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simply transposed from experiments conducted in other regions of the world. This
paper presents the main lessons to be drawn and challenges involved in preventing
soil erosion in the Mediterranean region under global change reported in the
literature, plus results obtained in several research projects1.
Soil erosion in the Mediterranean basin
Mediterranean soils are particularly prone to erosion (García-Ruiz et al. 2013)
because of (i) marked relief, 45% of the region has slopes greater than 8%, (ii)
the high frequency of intense rainfall events (> 100 mm h-1) in fall and winter,
(iii) the presence of poor, shallow and skeletal soils, and (iv) sparse natural
vegetation subjected to severe summer droughts. In addition to these natural drivers,
intense cultivation even on steep slopes, burning, overgrazing and deforestation
can greatly accelerate soil erosion, which, on the other hand, is limited by the
many soil and water conservation measures (SWC) such as terracing in hilly areas.
The impacts of soil erosion can be divided into on-site and off-site effects. On-site
effects are due to soil loss at field scale which, in certain extreme conditions, can
lead to a net loss of cultivated area. This quantitative soil loss impacts agricultural
production through the loss of nutrients, soil water reserves, and alterations to soil
properties. Soil erosion also has significant off-site effects through the delivery
of sediments to rivers, which affects the mobilization of water by siltation of
reservoirs, and reduces the quality of water destined for irrigation and drinking.
Higher sediment yields (SY) than in many other regions have been measured in
the Mediterranean basin (Woodward, 1995). These were often explained by the
high contribution of gully and riverbank erosion processes (Vanmaercke et al.
2012). Gullies and especially badlands have been identified as a major source of
sediments involved in siltation of reservoirs in the Mediterranean region (De Vente
et al. 2006). The majority of SY occur during a few extreme rainfall events (“time
compression”, González-Hidalgo et al. 2007). However, these generalities mask
huge variability across the basin as a whole. Based on a dataset containing 104
cumulated years of continuous SY measurements in eight small catchments ranging
from 0.15 to 1.3 km2in size (Figure 1), Smetanova et al. (submitted) show that
(i) the annual SY varied between 0 and ~27100 t·km-2·yr-1; (ii) catchments display
two main contrasted patterns of SY seasonality; (iii) time compression is highly
variable from one catchment to another. Ben Slimane et al. (2015) demonstrated
that the predominance of gully and riverbank erosion processes in the Mediterranean
basin was site dependent and not as widespread as previously thought.
1. http://www.agence-nationale-recherche.fr/?Projet=ANR-06-VULN-0012, http://www.obs-omere.org/, http://
jeai-vecteur.org/, http://www.sicmed.net/#/projets-projects/3778554https://sites.google.com/site/rosmedsicmed/,
http://jeai-vecteur.org/
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Challenges for mitigating Mediterranean soil erosion under global change
Rainfall (mm) Runoff (mm)
Sediment yield (t km-2) Sediment concentration (g l-1)
Figure 1
Range of intensity of erosion processes in the Mediterranean basin illustrated
through inter-annual variability of rainfall (mm), runoff (mm), sediment yield (SY) (t·km-2)
and sediment concentration (g·l-1) observed in 8 catchments of the R_Osmed network:
KAM (Kamech, Tunisia), ROU (Roujan, France),VIL (Can Vila, Spain),
MAC (Macieira de Alcôba, Portugal), CAN (Cannata, Italy), C AU (El Cautivo, Spain),
LAV (Laval, France), BRU (Brusquet, Spain). Inter-annual means are plotted as red circles.
Expected future changes in Mediterranean
soil resources under global change
Climate change will have both direct and indirect effects on soil erosion. Direct
effects are due to changes in the amount, erosive power and spatio-temporal
pattern of rainfall. Global change model projections indicate that longer
droughts and more frequent extreme precipitation events are likely to occur.
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Because of the high degree of SY time compression, the increased frequency
and intensity of the largest events will increase soil erosion. The soil system
reacts non-linearly to such changes, so even small increases in rainfall amount
or intensity can dramatically increase soil loss rates. Climate change could
also lead to a temporal shift in both the vegetation cover and the rainfall pattern
that could positively or negatively indirectly affect erosion rates: the decline
in surface runoff (which triggers erosion) could be partly counterbalanced by
reduced biomass growth. Soil erosion could also be strongly affected by
changes in land use and management due to human drivers (e.g., technological
changes, demographic and socioeconomic trends and governance structures).
Indeed, land use and management controls both soil characteristics and the
distribution of overland flows. Some widespread crops, including vineyards
and olive groves, and practices such as extensive overgrazing in mountain
areas are known to encourage erosion. An increase in land abandonment and
forest fires because of global change could also increase erosion in young
fallows and post-fire conditions.
In the MESOEROS212project, the impact of changes in rainfall characteristics
and land cover on the risk of soil erosion in the Mediterranean basin was
evaluated using a set of erosion models on (i) small and medium size gauged
watersheds in France, Tunisia and Morocco, and (ii) the Mediterranean basin
as a whole. The models were parameterized using measurements from highly
gauged catchments and applied to the largest basins to calculate present and
future conditions. Climate changes were estimated from global general
circulation simulations and adapted to local conditions. Several land use change
scenarios were built, including an «Accentuation » scenario in which both
cultivated and natural vegetation are degraded, and a « Protection » scenario in
which natural vegetation and good practices in cultivated area are favored. Two
main results of the project (Paroissien et al. 2015; Simonneaux et al. 2015,
Cerdan et al. 2011) were:
1) Simulating soil erosion rates is difficult because of the marked spatial and
temporal variability of the processes involved and the uncertainty associated
with the input parameters;
2) Land use is the main driver of changes in erosion risk and soil vulnerability
in the Mediterranean basin.
2. Mediterranean Soils EROsion and vulnerability to global change during the 21st century
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Challenges for mitigating Mediterranean soil erosion under global change
Main challenges for the future
of Mediterranean soil resources
Toward a better knowledge
of the factors and processes involved in soil erosion
Despite the increased availability of spatially distributed data, model application
is still hampered by the low quality of input data. We therefore need to make
better use of recent techniques to complete the too sparse legacy soil data to
capture short scale soil variations in the Mediterranean basin and to improve
our knowledge of future conditions to design efficient adaptation techniques.
Long-term catchment erosion monitoring systems and Mediterranean networking
initiatives are ideal ways to obtain a good picture of the variability of erosion
processes and to explore the specific role of major/extreme events or
sedimentological connectivity involved in sediment yield (SY) variability.
Toward the evaluation of soil risk
There is a need for a scientifically sound yet simple index of the risk of soil erosion
that combines erosion rates and vulnerability and can be readily understood by
decision makers. When assessing soil erosion vulnerability, it is important to
consider the soil as a patrimonial resource that combines several basic soil functions
(e.g., soil fertility and carbon storage) but also cultural and civilizational values
related to religion, livelihood and health (Minami, 2009). The choice and valuation
of criteria to be used for SE vulnerability are however complex issues, especially
in the Mediterranean basin where for example, vineyards or olive trees can grow
in soils that would be considered as very degraded using standard criteria. Even
when the focus is on a very simple criterion such as soil depth as in Paroissien
et al. (2015), soil vulnerability to erosion is difficult to estimate because soil depth
is neither a standard, nor an easy, measurement.
Toward site specific conservation strategies
Mediterranean civilizations have successively developed or improved a wide range
of techniques to improve water conservation and management, increase agricultural
production, and reduce soil erosion. These techniques mainly concern correcting
the slope/ reducing water velocity (e.g. through terraces), increasing ground cover
(e.g. through the use of cover crops), restoring rangelands, and/or improving soil
quality (e.g. through amendments). Recently SWC techniques have extended to
sustainable land management or conservation agriculture that favor less soil
disturbance, using crop residues as mulch, continuous ground cover, and crop
rotations or associations. The efficiency of no-till conservation agriculture in
increasing topsoil soil organic content and improve the soil water storage is widely
recognised in the Mediterranean basin (Mrabet, 2011). However, these techniques
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Box 1
Challenging issues for mitigating Mediterranean soil erosion under global change
Brice BOUDEVILLAIN, Cédric LEGOUT et Guillaume NORD
UMR LTHE, France
Raindrops control detachment directly through their impact on the soil matrix and indirectly
through runoff, which is generally related to the decrease in infiltrability as a direct consequence
of the degradation of the superficial structure under the action of rain (Moore and Singer,1990).
Rain also plays a role in particle transport: either in transport caused by the impact of drops,
or in transport flow caused by raindrops (Kinnel, 2005).Looking at detachment by raindrops in
more detail, it turns out that the rain actually controls two distinct successive processes:1) the
disintegration of particles at the surface and 2) the motion of the fragments produced by
disaggregation by splash effect. Rain therefore plays an important role both in the total mass of
eroded soil and in the size of the particles set in motion (Legout et al., 2005). Rainfall is usually
directly measured by rain gauges but these only provide local and partial information for the
scientific issues we want to address.
The first issue concerns the appropriate descriptors for rain (the diameter and number of
drops, rain intensity and kinetic energy, and so on) that influence the erosion processes: they
are not yet well defined and no consensus has yet been reached in the scientific community. It
is consequently necessary to diversify measurements of rain to identify which factors concern
erosion. A disdrometer is an instrument used to measure droplet size distributions and the
values of other descriptors of rain.This instrument was used during laboratory experiments of
detachment with rainfall simulators generating different intensities and energies. These
experiments confirmed that the strongest kinetic energies were associated with the largest
detached masses. It was also demonstrated that the strongest energies detached the largest
proportions of fine particles (that are more easily mobilized by runoff). These observations
were confirmed on 120 m² erosion plots under natural rainfall.
The second issue concerns the spatio-temporal structures of rainfall that lead to significant
hydro-sedimentary responses.To address this issue, access to spatialized information with high
temporal frequency is required. Although weather radar provides indirect measurements, it
fulfils this requirement. It is a complementary observation tool that is all the more useful as
Mediterranean rainfall can be very localized and last only a very shor t time (often a few
minutes).
Several observation systems are available to deal with these issues including “ORE Draix”in the
Southern Alps,“SNO OHMCV” in the Cevennes and “ORE OMERE” for Kamech watersheds
in north eastern Tunisia. These observatories have hydro-sedimentary devices for the
measurement of suspended sediments, sometimes sediment traps, and precipitation devices
(rain gauges, disdrometers, sometimes radar) in various hydro-climatic and soil-use contexts.
References
KINNELL, P. I. A., 2005
RAINDROP IMPACT INDUCED EROSION PROCESSES AND PREDICTION:AREVIEW.HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES,
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MOORE D.C.,SINGER M. J., 1990
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Challenges for mitigating Mediterranean soil erosion under global change
have varying degree of success depending on the environmental and societal contexts
(García-Ruiz, 2013). Maintaining a continuous land cover may for instance have
positive impacts on soil protection but negatives ones on production because of
competition for water in semi-arid areas (Marques et al. 2010). In the end, the benefit
of each technique needs to be checked in site-specific conditions, especially in
Mediterranean areas where the complexity of the landscape results in significantly
diverse contexts. Lessons from past changes in the Mediterranean environment
through a review of adaptation techniques already experimented and a site by site
evaluation of their soil protection efficiency and acceptability by local farmers will
be helpful. Many mitigation strategies cited above are based on profound changes
in agricultural practices. The massive introduction of such strategies in existing
Mediterranean agrosystems is a challenge, and will have to take the specificities of
each agrosystem into account, along with its socio-economic and environmental
dimensions, and be supported by local or national policies.
Conclusions
Mediterranean soil resources are crucial for the social and economic development
of the region but their sustainability is threatened by intense erosion processes,
which have severe on-site and off-site effects. However, the nature and intensity
of active erosion processes are as varied as the mosaic of Mediterranean landscapes.
Realistic maps of soil erosion risk, vulnerability and sustainability cannot be
produced without knowledge of erosion factors and processes acquired in
awareness of this diversity.
When we modeled future soil degradation and catchment sediment delivery, the
direct impacts of climate change alone were found to be lower than the impacts
of changes in land use or in land management. The first challenge is thus to
better forecast future changes in land use/management changes, whether or not
driven by climate. The second challenge is to propose a strategy to anticipate
projected changes and to mitigate their impacts. A wide range of adaptation or
mitigation techniques exists and many have already been tested in the
Mediterranean basin. It is now important to evaluate their efficiency and
acceptability in the wide range of site-specific conditions. This will require new
integrated approaches able to combine (i) quantitative and qualitative impacts
of soil erosion; and (ii) natural and anthropogenic factors and processes.
Acknowledgments
This work benefited from the financial support of several institutions through research
projects MESOEROS21 (ANR-06-VULN-012 funded by the French National
Research Agency), ORE OMERE (funded by INRA, IRD, INAT and INRGREF),
MISTRALS/Sicmed R_Osmed and Lebna (funded by CNRS, INRA, IRD, IRSTEA),
JEAI Vecteur (funded by IRD) and MASCC (funded by ARIMNET2).
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