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Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 1
This is the word draft of the chapter now published in the Wiley-Blackwell
Handbook of the Psychology of Positivity and Strengths-based approaches at
work edited by Lindsay Oades, Michael Steger, Antonelle Delle Fave and
Jonathan Passmore.
Positive Relationships at Work
Introduction
Healthy, positive relationships are one of the five pillars of authentic wellbeing identified by Seligman
(2011). Reis and Gable (2003) consider that relationships may be the most important source of life
satisfaction and wellbeing. The quality of our relationships at work matters not only for our ability to
flourish personally, but is also likely to enhance our sense of achievement. What is also becoming
clear in the research is that pro-active intervention to promote high levels of social capital across all
levels of an organisation can add value to business outcomes and embed the economic success of
enterprises.
Our lives at work have changed dramatically, especially since the advent of digital communications.
What people do, how they do it, the influence of technology, globalisation and female education, have
altered both our relationship with work and consequently relationships at work. The first section of
this chapter sets the scene by addressing this changing nature of work: what does work now mean in
the context of people’s lives? There are cultural differences but also many global similarities. We then
look at the multiple relationships people have at work - with colleagues, clients and management, and
how the changing relationship with work is influencing a new paradigm for relationships at work.
Section one concludes with a summary of wellbeing in the workplace and how positive psychology
research is defining practices that enable people to flourish at work.
Section two explores these in more detail and gives a rationale for the development of positive
practices. Why is it valuable for both individuals and for the organisation? What motivates people to
give of their best, to work collaboratively with others? What is the place of positive relationships in
the bigger picture of productivity?
Section three brings us to the practices of positive relationships. How can we grow social capital in an
organisation and what is the place of relational values and emotional literacy. What enables people to
feel they belong and their contributions are valued? How do people learn to work effectively together
and deal constructively with difference and conflict?
Finally we look at what still needs to happen to enable people from all walks of life to find meaning,
purpose and satisfaction in their working lives. What research is needed to help us better understand
this aspect of psychology at work.
In writing this chapter I have explored the research literature on promoting the wellbeing of employees
and increasing social capital across all levels. What are the inter-related outcomes of a positive and
pro-active relational approach and what does this mean?
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 2
Setting the scene
People’s relationship with work
Since the industrial revolution many individuals in the ‘developed’ world would have been defined by
what they did to earn a living. You were perhaps a miner, a policeman, a teacher or a banker - and that
is what you did for most of your working life. You entered a certain profession and for the most part
stayed put. Your workmates were a fixed feature and there was a clear delineation between work and
home. Before the middle of the 20th century you were only likely to be in paid professional
employment if you were a man; women certainly worked, but rarely with the status afforded by a
higher education. What many people do every day and the conditions under which they do it has
changed almost out of recognition in the last fifty years. There has been a significant decline in both
agriculture and manufacturing jobs in many western countries. Between 1940 and 2002 the percentage
of the US working population in manufacturing declined from 48% to 28% (Employment Policy
Foundation, 2003) and in Australia between 1983 and 1999 it dropped from 18.1% to 12.8% (Pusey
2003). This is, however, the opposite of other countries such as Korea where it has increased by
similar margins and China now has the highest number of employees in manufacturing across the
world.
The decrease in manufacturing and agricultural employment in Europe, the US and Australasia has
been replaced by a need for more professional, technical and administrative work together with service
related occupations such as tourism, education and hospitality. Unskilled work is still needed but these
jobs are particularly vulnerable to shifting demand.
The changing balance of public and private employment in the West and now increasingly in the East
puts competitive advantage at the heart of many enterprises. Issues of accountability may undermine
trust in individuals to give of their best. And when competition is between individuals within an
organisation this makes it more difficult to collaborate or engage fruitfully in teamwork.
In the second half of the twentieth century most working people in the developed world belonged to
their trade union or professional association, who negotiated with employers on their behalf.
Governments in the UK and US have successfully reduced the power of the unions where there has
been a steady decline in union membership (Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2014).
This has implications for both pay and working conditions that impact on a sense of security in the
workplace (WHO, 1999). Some countries, however, such as Germany, Belgium and the Nordic
countries, continue to have unions for specific trades affiliated to strong National confederations.
Incomes Data Service in the UK (October, 2014) found that between 2000 and 2014 the median total
earnings for FTSE 100 bosses rose by 278%, while the corresponding rise in total earnings for full-
time employees was 48%. Gender differentials also remain a concern in many but not all countries. In
2014 the average gender pay gap in the UK was 19.1%, with the gap in the private sector larger than in
the public (Office for National Statistics, 2014a). In Australia the differential is 18.8 (Australian
Government, 2015) and in the US 21.7% (National Committee on Pay Equity, 2015). As the wellbeing
research consistently finds that equality matters (Wilkinson and Pickett, 2010; Huppert and So, 2011)
these figures are likely to impact on both relationships and wellbeing at work.
These days work is a more fluid activity (HSE, 2006). Some individuals will be working full-time, but
part-time and job shares are increasingly common. Companies increasingly employ people on short-
term contracts or as agency workers. Relationships at work might become more functional and role
driven as people come and go.
In the past you often stayed put, not only working your way up the same organisation but probably
staying in the same town and keeping the same network of friends and family. Today people may go
where the work is - and this may not only be another town but even another country. Mobility for work
across Europe has become a political issue. By contrast families in the US are more likely to live and
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 3
work in the same town, or at least the same state in which they were born. Mobility there appears to be
decreasing rather than increasing (Cohn & Morin, 2008). Relationships at work may take on greater
significance when there is no access to socialisation with an established local network. Loyalty will be
less towards a particular company than in the relationships that people form there (Ragins and Kram,
2007). The social and relational dimensions of work may therefore have more influence than economic
considerations in retention of staff.
Career paths can take twists and turns and there are blurred boundaries around the working day for
many. The culture of an organisation still matters but will depend less on history than on current
processes of engagement and management.
According to Landy and Conte (2010) workplaces are far more diverse than ever. In most
organisations there will be a range of social and cultural backgrounds. Also, many people do not go
‘out’ to work but carry out tasks in a ‘virtual’ environment, such as telemarketers.
Across the board industries engaged in manufacturing, retail, service provision, financial and artisan
services use technology - even landscape designers use computer programs in their creative
endeavours - so our primary communication at work may be with a computer: it is where we find
information, record data, play with ideas, connect remotely with colleagues and clients and even
manage human resources.
All these changes in people’s relationships with work have implications for relationships at work. The
next section addresses some of these.
Relationships at work
When individuals travel away to work their primary relationships as an adult are less likely to be with
the people they knew in childhood including their original family. For some, work itself is away from
home, perhaps for weeks at a time. Those in the military, working on oilfields or mines, employed as
international consultants or as entertainers ‘on tour’ may leave children and spouses behind. This can
put family relationships at risk (Green & Canny, 2003) and is particularly hard for maintaining
positive contact with children after family breakdown - an issue for the wellbeing of young people
(Dowling and Elliot, 2012). Primary relationships may be at work rather than at home - and even these
may be short-term as people move on or out.
On the other hand, the location of work has become much more flexible. In the UK 13.5%of those in
work are based at home (ONS, 2014b) and many employees work from home at least a few days a
week. Initial research on working remotely (telecommuting) is mixed: there are positive outcomes for
family relationships and a sense of autonomy but collegial relationships may not fare well when there
is little chance for face-to-face interaction (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007).
An individual in an organisation will have relationships with line-managers, colleagues, team
members, mentors, clients/ customers, trainees/apprentices and other employees such as cleaners and
caterers. Although each of these roles will differ, some of the basic premises for a positive relationship
are common across all of them. Knowing how to establish a positive relationship, use emotional
literacy in everyday communications and address difficulties with a thoughtful ‘win-win’ approach can
make all the difference to the working environment, even where communications are primarily
conducted via technology. Although a strong industry specific knowledge base is still relevant in the
workplace, personality and interpersonal skills are having more attention than ever. How people relate
to each other matters, not only for personal wellbeing but also for meeting company goals.
Relational quality in an organisation is ecological - it does not depend solely on the micro level, which
focuses on interactions between individuals, but also on management, organisational culture and
expectations across the workplace. Leadership style, communication practices, strengths-based
approaches and human services policies all contribute. This ranges from how diversity is valued, what
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 4
happens when a female employee returns after maternity leave, how meetings are run, the norms for
interaction and teamwork, consultation procedures, induction practices and how someone is
acknowledged for long service. All these things - and more - matter to whether or not the working
environment is healthy or toxic.
The nature of interactions can either promote trust, respect and collegiality, enabling mutually agreed
goals to be met or do the opposite. Dutton and Heaphy (2003) talk about ‘relational micro-moments’
and how the experience of a high quality connection can leave people feeling more energised.
Individuals seek out interactions that make them feel energised and avoid those that deplete them. This
can mean that someone will approach a less knowledgeable colleague because that person feels more
accessible (Casciaro & Lobo ,2008), Relational energy ( Owens et al., 2015) is a construct that
captures how interactions impact on motivation and are positively associated with job performance,
Leadership
It is the executive group in an organisation who usually determine the goals and set the tone for the
quality of the working environment. It is the values of leaders, either overt or covert, that predominate
in the development of organisational culture.
The literature sometimes distinguishes those who are leaders from those who are managers (e.g.
Channer and Hope, 2001). It has been said that managers are concerned with doing things right while
leaders are concerned about doing the right thing: managers control while leaders facilitate, managers
work in the organization, whereas leaders work on the organization (Ellyard, 2001). Managers focus
on rules, leaders on relationships.
“A leader sets the vision but doesn’t stop there. A leader listens, understands, motivates,
reinforces and makes the tough decisions. A leader passes out praise when things go well and
takes responsibility and picks up the pieces when things fall apart. Leadership is about
relationships.” (Hoerr, 2006)
Armstrong (2012) argues for a new paradigm for future leadership - one that does not see a leader as a
super-hero or hero-innovator or someone who has more knowledge than anyone else. She says that
effective leadership is based less on technical expertise and hierarchical power, and more on relational
understanding and facilitative skills. These are sometimes denigrated as ‘soft skills’ but comprise
complex social and emotional intelligences that enable leaders to engage, motivate and stimulate
people - both individually and in teams. This approach recognises that no-one is a ‘born’ leader but
that leadership is a social endeavour - a leader does not exist without a follower and that the ability to
connect well with others is paramount.
According to Wolff and colleagues (2002) leadership often emerges when someone is able to influence
and manage emotions within a group, providing direction in times of ambiguity. This involves both
empathy and modelling of emotional responses that increase solidarity and help others make meaning
of a situation.
When Scott (2003) asked school principals about the most challenging aspects of their job they were
primarily concerned with relationships. They ranked the qualities of effective school leaders as:
1. Emotional intelligence. This included staying calm, keeping things in perspective and
maintaining a sense of humour. Resilience and bouncing back from adversity, learning from
errors and being able to take a hard decision also came under this category - along with
wanting to achieve the best outcome possible.
2. Social intelligence, including dealing effectively with conflict situations, being able to
empathise and work productively with people from a wide range of respect and honour
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 5
people’s values and backgrounds, a willingness to listen to different points of view before
making decisions, and contributing positively to team projects.
3. Intellectual abilities, including identifying priorities and being flexible. Generic and specific
skills covered having a clear justified vision for the school and being able to organise and
manage time effectively.
Like Dutton and Spreitzer (2014), Armstrong highlights the minutiae of interactions - the everyday
conversations that make a difference. Whether those connections are public or private, formal or
informal the feelings engendered by them are critical. Dutton (2014) refers to high quality connections
(HQC) as those that:
•listen attentively to what they have to say
•are constructively responsive
•make requests rather than demands
•are task enabling
•show trust by relying on others to meet their commitments
•encourage playfulness!
Cameron (2014) says that the key tasks of effective leaders are to model and foster HQC amongst all
their employees. They can do this by providing professional development in relational skills,
acknowledging and rewarding those who demonstrate HQC and embedding good practice in meetings,
induction programs and conversations around values such as kindness, compassion, acceptance,
honesty and forgiveness.
Even when difficult decisions have to be made, such as downsizing leading to job loss, a high level of
trust in the executive can limit the adverse reactions of this for employees (Brockner et al., 1997). The
effects of what we do depend on how we do it. Brockner’s research suggests that if downsizing is done
with fairness, justice and compassion it can lead to significantly more positive outcomes for both those
who leave and those who stay.
Wellbeing at work
The New Economics Foundation in the UK (2014) summarised the literature on wellbeing at work,
and concluded that people’s personal lives and working lives are inextricably intertwined and that
there is a need for a more well rounded approach to fostering well-being at work. Their specific
findings and recommendations include:
•People who achieve good standards of wellbeing at work are likely to be more creative, more
loyal, more productive, and provide better customer satisfaction than those who have lower
standards of wellbeing.
•The different features of working lives have varying degrees of influence over different
aspects of wellbeing - a sense of purpose, positive emotions, motivation, morale, job
satisfaction and life satisfaction.
•There is a strong association between good health and wellbeing - employers could encourage
physical activity and healthy eating and ensure that work does not get in the way of good
sleep.
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 6
•Getting the right work-life balance reduces stress and its negative outcomes.
•Organisational wellbeing is promoted by fair pay structures as does job security.
•Employee morale is heightened when they feel tasks are achievable.
•By taking steps to improve relationships at work - with a particular focus on relationships
between staff and managers and by encouraging positive feelings, it appears to be possible to
improve not only job satisfaction but also life satisfaction.
Section two: why promote positive relationships?
A meta-analysis of research appears to indicate that when people experience high levels of job
satisfaction there is lower absenteeism, higher retention rates and better performance (Judge et al.,
2001).
The following are specific but inter-related reasons for the promotion of positive relationships in the
workplace. Some are primarily concerned with the individual and others with the quality of their
interactions. All contribute to promoting the effectiveness of the organisation. They include:
•enhancing subjective wellbeing - the ability of the individual to flourish and thrive
•the reduction of stress and promotion of mental health
•the promotion of good physical health and consequent reduction of absenteeism
•retention of staff
•the promotion of effective collaboration and team-work
•reducing conflict and resolution of difference
•motivation
•the development of conditions which maximise creative innovation
•optimal client and customer interactions
Enhancing individual flourishing
Flourishing at work is a complex construct including engagement, motivation, growth and learning.
Dutton et al (2011) talk about how work-related identities are formed in the workplace, and that when
they become more positive there is enhanced psychological and social functioning and more positive
feelings. Work engagement promotes greater adaptive behaviour and innovation that consequently
affects productivity, profits and customer satisfaction.
Promoting mental health and wellbeing
There have been a number of studies (e.g. Twenge, 2000) illustrating that the focus on economic
prosperity and growth has not been matched by an increase in people’s wellbeing. The World Health
Organisation estimates that over 400 million people worldwide experience mental health difficulties
(WHO, 2001) although only a small proportion have complex and debilitating conditions.
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 7
Czabala et al (2011) reviewed studies published between 1988 and 2009 that addressed mental health
promotion in the workplace. The authors identified 4,865 studies and selected 315 for abstract
screening and 79 for final detailed review. They found that interventions were still predominantly
focused on stress reduction rather than mental health promotion and also that strategies were
overwhelmingly individual, including education programs, relaxation techniques, coping skills and
mindfulness. Others were concerned with organisational structure such as guaranteed breaks but few
addressed social dynamics.
Physical wellbeing, attendance and retention of staff
Positive relationships not only improve psychological wellbeing - they also impact on physical health.
Positive emotions and a consequent reduction in stress impact on our hormonal, cardiovascular and
immune systems (Lewis, 2011). One principal who actively promotes healthy relationships throughout
his school has enough in his budget to pay for a high level of professional development for staff - he
says that this is because of a routine under-spend on sickness cover (Roffey, 2007). Teacher attrition is
a concern in Europe, Australia and the US. Buchanan et al (2013) explored the experiences of 329
early career teachers and identified six factors that made a difference. These included collegiality and
support and how this impacted on their own self-worth and levels of isolation.
The promotion of effective collaboration and teamwork
Fay et al (2014) analysed data from 45 UK organisations in the manufacturing sector, and discovered
that the more widespread the use of teamwork the more innovation in the organisation. However,
putting people together does not necessarily form an effective team.
Stewart’s (2006) meta-analysis of the relationship between team design features and performance
found that factors that correlated with higher performance were autonomy, intra-team co-ordination
and transformational leadership.
According to Richardson and West (2010) an effective team needs to have a task that inspires and
engages team members, be able to both value and use diverse strengths of individuals, ensure clarity of
expectation and that roles evolve as the task progresses. Positive team relationships and a sense of
belonging are encouraged by frequent interaction, quick successes, appreciation of each person’s
efforts, and shared rewards.
Quick et al (2004) summarise the pros and cons of a competitive versus a collaborative working
environment, believing that each have a place in the achievement of excellence. They come to the
conclusion that a win-lose paradigm can lead to a lose-lose one and that a balance between both
paradigms can be found in competition between teams. Intergroup competition has better outcomes for
both.
Paradigm Co-operation Competition
Win-win Win-lose
Benefits Positive interdependence
Mutual support
Experienced security
Personal challenge
Personal competence
Experienced mastery
Emphasis Interpersonal support Individual achievement
Required skills Open communication
Trust and trustworthiness
Interpersonal relations
Monitor one’s position
Fair play - playing according to
an agreed set of rules
Individualistic skills
De-emphasises Individual competence interpersonal comfort
Table 1: Paradigms of cooperation and competition
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 8
Reducing conflict
Poor quality connections can leave people feeling “diminished, frustrated, demotivated, demoralised,
disrespected or worse - this can lead to being revengeful, despairing or annihilated” (Lewis, 2011, p
180). Not only do poor relationships cost individuals in terms of their psychological wellbeing, they
also cost organisations in lack of collaboration, reduced innovation, wasted time and absenteeism.
Conflict is normal - differences between people are inevitable in any relationship; it is how this
difference is managed that matters. Both intra and inter-personal skills are needed to reduce the
frequency, intensity and destructiveness of conflict (Edmund, 2012). Effective approaches include
acknowledging interdependence, exploring intention and analysing communication - especially how
misunderstandings might have developed. The promotion of positive feelings and behaviours can also
mitigate the more unpleasant and undesirable aspects of conflict.
Restorative approaches to address conflict in schools and courts are familiar to many, but there is now
interest in how such approaches might be integrated into the workplace. This is a way of addressing
behaviours that are seen as undermining community connectedness, and acknowledges the ripple
effect of the impact on those who might not be directly involved. In seeking to repair harm and resolve
conflict, relationships and feelings are paramount. Lambert and colleagues (2011) carried out action
research in an organisation in Hull, U.K., and found that although there were challenges, and the
process of implementation and training were critical, there were some promising developments over
time. These included an understanding by staff in how to address problematic issues themselves,
usually before they were referred to management; increased engagement in team meetings and
decision-making. It resolved some poor communication practices between departments and integrated
restorative approaches and language throughout organisational culture. This saved time, greatly
reduced grievance procedures and freed managers for more constructive tasks.
Motivation
Pink (2009) challenged the idea that people were mostly motivated by extrinsic rewards and that the
more you paid someone the more productive they would be. He summarises motivation at work as a
combination of purpose, meaning and mastery. Once you pay people enough - and fairly - people give
of their best for intrinsic reasons. Dik et al (2013) distinguish between meaning in work (how
meaningful is your work?) and meaning of work (what makes it so?). For many, the source of meaning
is those with whom you work, whether these are your co-workers, clients or the community you serve
(Wrzesniewski et al., 2003). Khan and Fellows (2013) outline four dimensions that describe people
who are fully engaged in what they are doing: they are fully present and attending closely to what is
happening; they are connected either with others working towards the same ends or to the bigger
picture or purpose; they are integrated so that they bring their thoughts, intuitions, energies and
feelings to the work; and they are absorbed - fascinated and focused - the opposite of being distant or
standing apart. This brings to mind Csikszentmihalyi’s construct of ‘flow’ (1990). Relationships at
work can enable or inhibit the conditions that promote such engagement.
Creativity and innovation
In a competitive global environment, creativity and innovation are a foundation of competitive
advantage. Saccheti and Tortia (2013) explored the organisational features that favour the
accomplishment of creativity and creativity-related satisfaction with work. They define creativity as
the ability to see and enact in new ways. Self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000) suggests
that such fulfilment relies on specific contextual conditions that allow individuals to pursue ends
harmoniously with their own needs and aspirations. Saccheti and Tortia however, found that
satisfaction with creativity is supported by teamwork, autonomy, domain-relevant competences,
inclusive, fair processes and relationships. Janssen et al (2004) reviewed the factors that contributed to
innovative teamwork. These include knowledge sharing and job rotation, a climate of trust and
reciprocal respect, support and backing from management and participation in decision-making.
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 9
Customer relations
Seybold et al (2001) suggest that customers now have greater control in how they choose and use
services. They have access to many sources of information giving them both options and a level of
expertise. The relationship with clients and their experience therefore matters even more than it used
to (Gillies, 2012). Brand loyalty in the market depends on customer satisfaction and this includes both
price and service. Hanif and colleagues (2010) concluded in their study of mobile phone providers that
“if customers are provided with courteous behaviour of sales person or complaint officer then they feel
emotional attachment with their brand of cellular company. Similarly, if their complaints are solved
promptly and commitments fulfilled then it would provide a sense of belongingness to the brand” (p
50).
Those companies who encourage staff to respond to queries promptly, take clients views seriously and
are clear and courteous at all times are likely to have a competitive advantage. In an ecological model
it is easier to relate well to customers if that is modelled within the organisation and everyone feels
valued by managers and colleagues.
Section three: positive relational values and practices
What makes people want to get up, go to work and give of their best? What feelings do they have
about themselves, their colleagues and what they are doing? What do we know helps to promote the
positive in the workplace?
As Dutton and Ragins (2007) acknowledge, there is no overarching consensus on the definition of a
positive relationship at work. It is a complex and multi-faceted construct with differing emphases
depending on specific perspectives and positions.
The relational beliefs and behaviour of everyone in an organisation, however, matter in the creation of
a relational culture, and each affects the other in a bi-directional ecological model (Bronfenbrenner,
1979; Roffey, 2008). The way teachers are treated in a school by the executive, for instance, has
impact on how they relate to students (Roffey, 2012).
Social capital
There are, however, commonalities for positive relationships that apply across various contexts and
together lead to an increase in social capital. A toxic environment develops where people are silenced,
intimidated, unvalued and demotivated. Social capital is the opposite of this but requires awareness
and active intervention to promote in the workplace.
Lewis (2011) defines social capital as the quality of relationships and interactions within organisations,
and that the key to building good reserves of social capital is an affirmative bias within organisational
life. Social capital facilitates respectful communication and cooperation and enhances employee
commitment. According to Lewis, a high level of social capital has benefits for individuals in that it
can inoculate against a range of dysfunctional behaviours and promote the factors than enhance both
psychological resilience (Werner & Smith, 2001), and optimal physical wellbeing (Baker and Dutton,
2007; Heaphy and Dutton, 2008). At an organisational level social capital helps organisations be
connected, optimistic, pro-active and effective.
Positive relationships are imbued with positive feelings about the self and others. Positive feelings
lead to behaviours that grow social capital. So how can we enhance the relationships that promote both
the behaviours and feelings that enable people to give of their best in the workplace and have an
optimal working experience? The following summarises the research and mirrors my experience
working in educational establishments.
•When people feel respected they are more likely to listen to what others have to say
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 10
•When people feel included they are more likely to actively participate
•When people feel valued and their efforts acknowledged they are more likely to seek
opportunities to contribute and more able to value others
•When people feel cared for they are more likely to have consideration and compassion for
others
•When people feel a sense of belonging they are more likely to be committed to the group that
includes them
•When people laugh together they are less stressed and more resilient
•When people feel accepted they are likely to be motivated to develop their strengths for the
benefit of the organisation
•When negative feeling and concerns are acknowledged and heard they are more likely to be
addressed so there is less need to maintain and increase the negativity.
The ASPIRE principles for positive relationship building
The ASPIRE principles have provided a framework for the development of positive relationships and
group interaction in educational contexts (Roffey, 2013; Dobia et al., 2014), but are applicable across a
range of organisational settings. ASPIRE is an acronym for Agency, Safety, Positivity, Inclusion,
Respect and Equality. This section explores how these relational values are validated in the research,
incorporate relevant constructs such as self determination, trust, compassion and fairness and how
these might be translated into relational practices.in the working environment. There is overlap
between these principles and they foster each other in a virtuous cycle.
Agency
This principle in a relationship refers to the amount of control someone has over actions and decision-
making. Empowerment of employees in a work context gives them encouragement to take initiative,
take pride in their work and experience ownership (Wagner et al., 2010). It would appear to be
beneficial to both the individual and the organisation (Seibert et al., 2011).
Agency incorporates one of the determinants of wellbeing - self-determination. Those who see
themselves as choosing to engage in a task rather than being controlled by demands or being
externally regulated are more likely to see meaning in what they do. Those who are given some choice
in the way a task is undertaken, and find that task both challenging within their sphere of competence
and in line with their goals will experience a degree of autonomous motivation. This contrasts with
pressure that comes from external non-negotiable demands and extrinsic rewards. These are
insufficient to enhance motivation and work performance (Gagne and Deci, 2005). Deci et al. (1989)
found that managers supported autonomy when they acknowledged subordinates’ perspectives,
provided relevant information in a non-controlling way, offered choice, and encouraged self-initiation.
This was associated with employees being more satisfied with their jobs, having a higher level of trust
in corporate management, and displaying other positive work-related attitudes. An example of
agency / autonomy in practice is Google, who give their employees one day a week to work on
whatever they choose: The outcomes have been a range of new ideas and solutions (Pink, 2009).
Safety
A hallmark of a healthy relationship is where people feel physically and emotionally safe. This does
not happen in workplaces imbued with a culture of bullying and intimidation. Workplace bullying
occurs where an employee is subjected to systematic and negative behaviours that cause humiliation
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 11
and distress (Trepanier et al., 2015). This can include persistent criticism, belittling competencies,
unreasonable deadlines, exclusion, excessive teasing, shouting and threatening behaviours. The
outcomes of workplace bullying include absenteeism, poor retention of staff, psychological stress and
physical ill health. It is associated with poor employee functioning, expressed through disengagement,
job dissatisfaction, and symptoms of anxiety, depression, and burnout. As organisations can condone,
and even reward, bullying behaviours there is a need to rethink organisational culture to promote
collaboration over rivalry, enhance social support and foster a safe environment (Yamaha, 2010).
Workplace safety is exemplified where there are high levels of trust in which people are able to
acknowledge vulnerability and ask for guidance.
Trust is a critical facet of a strong relationship. This multi-dimensional construct is being given
increasing attention in the literature on wellbeing at work (e.g. Helliwell and Huang, 2011). Mayer et
al. (1995) suggest that components include trust in someone’s ability and competence to carry out a
task, trust in their benevolence and goodwill and in their integrity - a belief that they will act within a
set of ethical principles. According to Frost and Moussavi (1992), having power without being trusted
diminishes a person’s influence within the workplace. Church and Waclawski (1999) go on to say that,
in today's less authoritarian environment, individuals must work within relationships that require trust
and the ability to influence others in both lateral and hierarchical relationships
Helliwell and Huang (2011) report on studies that found that trust in management has a value in terms
of life satisfaction of more than a 30% increase in monetary income. There is a significant gender
difference across the US, Canada and the UK with women rating social relationships at work more
highly than men.
When someone is trusted, their actions are seen as predictable and dependable. There is a tension in
many workplaces between levels of trust and the need for accountability (Ammeter et al., 2004) and a
suggestion that formal mechanisms for accountability that ignore the social and value dimensions of
work have undermined trust, initiative and wellbeing in the workplace (Berryhill et al., 2009). As Lee
and Teo (2005) found in their study in Singapore, trust is under threat when significant changes are
required of employees. This can be mitigated by involving personnel in re-structuring.
Positivity
Relationships and emotions exist within the workplace all day every day, impacting on both human
and social capital. It makes sense to actively promote the positive, both for the individual and the
effectiveness of the organisation.
Relationships are enhanced by both the experience and expression of positive emotions (Barsade and
Gibson, 2007), whereas negativity undermines the ability to ‘think straight’ Frederickson (2001) found
that positive emotions promote problem-solving and creative thinking. This can help organisations
come up with fresh ideas that give them the edge over competitors (Caruso and Salovey, 2004).
Positive emotions also facilitate collaboration, reduce conflict, raise resilience, promote socially
responsible and helpful behaviour, increase the ability to learn and integrate complex information,
enhance more thorough decision-making and enable change (Isen, 2005). But positive emotion is a
broad term: what do we mean by this? Some aspects are addressed in other sections of this chapter so
our focus here is on the specific emotions generated by presence, playfulness, kindness, gratitude and
celebration.
The Fish philosophy, initiated originally in the Pike Place Fish Market in Seattle, is a framework for
developing more positive relationships at work - both within the organisation and in providing
customer service. These four pillars summarise much of the literature on positive organisational
practice, especially that developed by Dutton (2014) on high quality connections.
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 12
Be there - being present in the moment in order to get the most out of it. This means focusing
and paying attention; being fully engaged with the person that you are with rather than
responding to interruptions or paying attention to other things -
Make their day - turning an everyday interaction, whether this is with a colleague or a client,
into a more pleasant experience - a smile, a small kindness, courtesy or acknowledgement.
Kindness is not a passive state but an active practice. According to Lyubomirsky (2007)
kindness not only changes self-perception leading to more confidence and self worth, it can
also jumpstart a range of positive social consequences.
Play - Injecting a sense of fun into the working day can put problems into a different
perspective and enhance both creativity and resilience. The act of laughing together releases
oxytocin into the body. Oxytocin is the ‘feel-good’ neurotransmitter that is often implicated in
social attitudes and behaviours such as couple bonding, relaxation, trust and cooperativeness
(Olff et al., 2013). Not all tasks in the workplace are inherently engaging, sometimes it is
helpful to approach something creatively so that it becomes challenging or fun. Organisations
can promote opportunities for play in the workplace, from team-building activities to social
events and celebrations. This needs careful introduction as individuals with a negative social
bias may find playfulness threatening rather than rewarding.
You can choose your attitude - If you look for the positive you will identify factors that
energise and engage you. Both are self-fulfilling prophecies in that the person is not passive in
fulfilling expectations but acts to make it happen. Part of this strategy is to not only mindfully
identify individual strengths and engage these in the workplace but also acknowledge and
utilise the diverse strengths of others. In appreciative inquiry and solution focused thinking, it
is the difference between thinking ‘this always happens’ to what is happening in those times
when it doesn’t, and to begin to build small steps to a solution by looking at what already
works
Positivity and gratitude: Grateful people feel better about themselves and the world they are in; they
feel more support from others and give more support. Studies on the efficacy of gratitude-related
exercises have shown that noticing what you can be thankful for promotes a sense of optimism and
reduces depression (Seligman et al., 2005). Rather than gratitude simply being a way of thinking,
Howells (2012) suggests that it is relational: her work, based within educational settings, turns
gratitude into action to impact on organisational culture. Buote (2014) cites an American study that
found 29% of respondents never thank a co-worker and 35% of respondents never thank their boss.
Gratitude begins by noticing - one of the five ways to wellbeing suggested by the New Economics
Foundation (2014). Noticing a clean office, contributions by colleagues, a supportive gesture by a
manager needs to be followed by an expression of gratitude. “A simple ‘ thank you for …’ can have a
spiral of positive consequences for promoting pro-social behaviour and a sense of connection” (Grant
and Gino, 2010).
Celebration is one step on from gratitude. Couple research indicates that active constructive responses
when one person has been successful strengthens relationships (Gable et al., 2004). This contrasts with
disinterest, envy or pointing out the negatives. Acknowledgement and celebration of team success
bonds people together, shares the good feelings in accomplishment and reinforces expectations for the
future. We are not as good at celebration in the workplace as we might be - the term is absent from
much of the literature.
The neurology of emotion: Mirror neurons in our brains make us hard wired to respond and replicate
the emotions of others. This has major implications for the emotional climate of the workplace
(Mukamel et al., 2010). As all emotions are contagious, an emotionally literate leader will know that
their emotional presence will have an impact on the team and will do what they can to promote the
positive. Our experiencing of emotion and the embodiment of this is bi-directional. This means that
we do not only smile when we feel good - the very act of smiling increases our sense of wellbeing
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 13
(Wenner, 2009). The opposite is also true - frowning increases our negative mood - and can affect the
demeanour of others. Anyone who injects gentle humour into the workplace, greets others as valued
colleagues or celebrates another’s success is not only doing a service to individuals, they are
promoting a more successful organisation.
Inclusion
A sense of connectedness is increasingly recognised as a basic psychological need (Baumeister and
Leary, 1995) and a protective factor in resilience and wellbeing (Werner and Smith, 2001).
Putnam (2000) extends the concept of social capital into bonding capital that relates to in-group
connections and bridging capital - inter-group connections. He illustrates this with a vivid metaphor:
bonding social capital constitutes a kind of sociological superglue, whereas bridging social capital
provides a ‘sociological WD-40’ (Putnam, 2000, p 23).
Healthy relationships require both but the former can lead to ‘exclusive’ belonging where those who
are not part of the ‘in-group’ can be demonised and scapegoated (Roffey, 2013).
In order to feel we belong others must act in a certain way (Baumeister and Leary, 1995). We are
unlikely to experience a deep sense of belonging if others are simply pleasant but do not put
themselves out in any way. They need to be positively welcoming and not distant of indifferent to our
presence. When they attend to what we say and treat us an ally then we will feel we are significant to
the organisation and it matters that we are there. We also need to be able to rely on others to be
supportive and committed to our welfare. Catalano and colleagues (2004) say something similar about
connectness in the school environment: a safe, supportive environment is essential for belonging, but
organisations also need to be places where strengths are identified and each individual sees themselves
as progressing, achieving and contributing.
There are particular challenges for promoting a sense of belonging in an organisation when employees
work remotely or on restricted hours.
Respect
“We have discovered that in order to get respect you have to give respect” (Feedback from the
Aboriginal Girls Circle, Dobia et al., 2014)
The first pathway to building high quality connections at work (Dutton and Spreitzer, 2014) is to
‘respectfully engage with others’. Respect is no longer a ‘given’ that comes with authority: it is
demonstrated by giving messages that the people with whom you are engaging are important. Both
verbal and non-verbal messages can be subtle but powerful: they can make people feel acknowledged,
heard and valued or the opposite. Being fully attentive to another is hard for busy people - especially
leaders - as it is assumed that this will take up valuable time that could be better spent. Relationships
can be built, however not by doing more but by small changes in how interactions take place and with
a greater sense of awareness of the longer-term benefits. Simply greeting someone by name and with a
smile can promote feelings of value (Roffey, 2005). Acknowledging a mistake, poor judgement or
lateness and offering an apology prioritises the relationship rather than the ego. The seating
arrangements in a meeting can give messages of power and position in the same way that the depth of
a bow in Japan let’s everyone know who is most important. Egan (2002) defines a respectful
interaction as one in which one person does not overwhelm the other with their own agenda and does
not rush to judgement. Active listening means turning off your phone, tuning into what is being said,
asking for clarification and building on ideas. Respect means showing interest in the other person and
what they can offer. Beginning both conversations and emails with a positive comment or query
personalises the interaction, shows value to the individual and makes it easier to focus on what comes
next.
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 14
Appreciative Inquiry (Cooperrider et al., 2001) is a way of putting respect into practice and is
congruent with positive psychology approaches by building on strengths, focusing on an imagined
ideal future and making meaning within a collaborative framework. It is particularly valuable when
work environments are undergoing changes (Lewis, 2011). As the name suggests, it is more about
asking, finding out and collaboratively crafting ways forward, than making statements and demands.
Chinese working practices are imbued with the principle of Guanxi - which acknowledges the
centrality of relationships. Business transactions can only proceed once a level of trust and familiarity
has been established. Multinational companies need to understand how this operates in order to
conduct successful discussions that the Chinese regard as respectful. (Gold et al., 2004)
Equality
“The leaders who work most effectively, it seems to me, never say ‘I’ … they don’t think ‘I’.
They think ‘we’; they think ‘team’. They accept responsibility and don’t sidestep it, but ‘we’
gets the credit.” (Peter Drucker, cited in Collins and Thompson, 2008)
McCashen (2005) talks about the essence of the strengths based approach as being ‘power with’,
rather than ‘power over’. It is about having a high regard for uniqueness and diversity and also respect
for the commonalities between people. An inclusive and democratic work culture needs opportunities
to discover commonalities in values and goals.
Such activities can acknowledge shared vulnerability and this can promote empathy. Everyone makes
mistakes occasionally and we all face adversity and challenges from time to time. There is often a
denial of this in the workplace where people have to be seen to be on top of everything.
Equal access to information enhances trust. McCashen refers to this as transparency. It enables
personnel to be open and honest about both possibilities and challenges and not engaging in cliques
and secret agendas. Such ‘empire-building’ undermines ownership of organisational development and
can foster a toxic environment.
The human need for fairness is hard-wired. The brain’s reward centre is activated when fairness and
cooperation are experienced (Tabibnia and Leiderman, 2007).
Fairness does not however mean rigid sameness - it means acknowledgement of different
circumstances and flexibility in response to these. This includes recognition and understanding for
those who have young families or ageing parents who may be on call at any time. Supervisors who
model good home-life balance have employees who feel they are able to do the same and are
consequently less exhausted and more engaged in the workplace (Koch and Binnewies, 2015).
Effective Communication
Communication in an organisation covers a number of functions, some of which overlap. These
include information giving and seeking, sharing ideas, decision making, persuading, directing,
motivating and supporting, resolving difficulties and otherwise relationship building.
Communication is however, not an event so much as an unending social and emotional process of
sense-making (Lewis, 2011). It takes place within a context of history, relationships, expectations and
the present setting. And communication is not merely verbal or written - it exists in timing, gestures
and settings. Effective communication processes require a level of emotional literacy that enables the
participants to tune into their own reactions to what is being discussed, the emotional context in which
interactions are taking place and to be able to read and take account of the responses of others. The
quality of communication at work can create or destroy relationships (Langley, 2012). The language
used can either expand or contract conversation and not only does this have an outcome on the
generation of ideas but it also promotes or inhibits the ASPIRE principles described above. Expansive
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 15
communication includes acknowledging the value of what someone has said and asking others their
views. It is putting into operation the ‘no put down’ rule which does not denigrate or dismiss someone
but engages with ‘personal positives’ instead
Losada and Heaphy (2004) found that high performing teams had a ratio of five positive interactions
to each negative one. They also had an equal balance of inquiry to advocacy statements and the same
for self- to other-oriented comments. Poorly performing teams had a ratio of 20 to 1 for advocacy and
self-orientation, indicating a lack of collaboration or connectivity. Lewis (2011) makes the observation
that high performance does not depend on public criticism when someone underperforms but on
generosity, forgiveness, appreciation, encouragement and positive feedback - especially when times
are tough.
People need to disagree - but how this takes place matters as much as the positive. Giving critical
feedback is challenging for some supervisors, which is why some may go at this with all guns blazing
- but ignoring rather than addressing poor practices just condones and increases them. Negative
feedback needs to be on actions never on personalities and blame fairly apportioned - what could you
have done differently, what could others have done differently and what part did chance play. Listen to
what the other person says but getting into arguments or going on the defensive does not help.
Importantly ensure that the person knows what future expectations are and the rationale for these -
linked to organisational values and goals,
Summary and futures
There are many challenges for the future of relationships at work as the nature of working lives
continues to change. Amongst the issues that have arisen in this chapter are the balance of
relationships at work with those at home as boundaries become increasingly blurred, the dichotomy
between competitive and collaborative cultures in a world were work is increasingly focused on
economic advantage, new paradigms for leadership, the nature of high quality connections and how
these are perceived and promoted and how to understand and work with relational differences across
cultures.
The vast majority of studies on positive psychology at work are based in the developed world - within
a Western and capitalist ideology. We therefore do not know so much about the working lives of those
in the third world. There also appears to be a preponderance of studies related to professional, white-
collar occupations.
Positive psychology at work is a broadening field and needs to be to keep pace with a rapidly changing
world. The values and beliefs within a positive psychology paradigm however are not always
congruent with those often espoused in a business environment. A positive psychology approach may
need to address these bigger issues such as how do you continue to maintain a focus on the wellbeing
of those who work across a wide range of roles when economic imperatives undermine this. How can
people continue to be treated as valuable human beings when their role becomes redundant?
Many of the constructs within the field such as empowerment, gratitude and emotional literacy have
traction in the evidence for relationships at work although contextual factors matter to their impact and
sustainable efficacy (Mills et al., 2013). You cannot impose a positive psychology intervention without
taking account of organisational culture. This is exemplified in many studies within education where a
whole school approach for wellbeing is advocated (Noble et al., 2008). Organisation culture is
ecological - and combines the structural with the psychological - what part do relationships have to
play in the changes that lead to both individual wellbeing and flourishing enterprises and what is the
interplay between them?
The ASPIRE framework addresses how relational values might impact on behaviours. Although not
specific to the workplace this takes account of the multiple interactive factors that support high quality
connections across contexts. As an entity, however, it requires empirical validity.
Positive Relationships at Work: Roffey DRAFT 16
Although the literature on positive relationships has offered significant insights there are still questions
to be answered on how to identify, deconstruct and maintain the positive across time and place.
Relationships are complex, bi-directional and fluctuating: how people feel about themselves and
others is embedded in an ecological and often chronological framework. Measuring outcomes of
specific interventions does not guarantee efficacy across contexts or time. More information about
people’s lived experiences would be valuable. Much of the data is positivistic and linear so does not
capture the narratives that illuminate the minutiae of difference.
There is much evidence on what works for wellbeing in relationships but how does this translate into
policy and practice holistically across large institutions and at the macro socio-political level? On the
one hand, for instance we have evidence for positive outcomes for a flatter organisational structure and
more equality, but hierarchical cultures and management behaviours persist. How do we address
power issues in relationships at work and what is the impact of individual psychologies on
organisational systems. (Case and Maner, 2014)? How can we make the evidence of what enables
both individuals and organisations to flourish become a reality for everyday working lives?
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