BookPDF Available

Human-Elephant Conflict Mitigation Measures: Lessons from Bangladesh

November 2016

Publisher: IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Bangladesh Country Office
ISBN: 978-984-34-1219-5

Authors:

Mohammad Rahmat Ullah

University of Bayreuth

Haseeb Md. Irfanullah

Independent Consultant

In Bangladesh, the Asian elephant is categorized as Critically Endangered species due to its small numbers. Now-a-days, death and injury of both humans and elephants have become a common phenomenon in elephant range areas of Bangladesh due to increased human interference in the forests for resources and elephant’s raid within the locality for searching for food. Under the recent ‘Pilot Programs to Identify Effective Measures to Reduce the HEC’ sub-project of the ‘Strengthening Regional Cooperation for Wildlife Protection (SRCWP) Project’ of Bangladesh Forest Department, nine human-elephant conflict mitigation measures have been piloted in the human-elephant conflict-prone south-eastern elephant ranges of Bangladesh (2013−2016). These options include, cultivation of non-preferred crops by farmers, bio-fencing with suitable plant species, solar electric fencing, trip alarm, chilli rope, watchtower, salt lick, plantation in elephant habitats, and creating Elephant Response Teams. This book briefly documents these mitigation technologies and captures the lessons learnt from piloting them.

Content uploaded by Mohammad Rahmat Ullah

Content may be subject to copyright.

Content uploaded by Haseeb Md. Irfanullah

Content may be subject to copyright.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict

Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE

Human-Elephant Conﬂict

Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

Asian Elephant (Elephus maximus)

Human-Elephant Conﬂict

Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

Authors

Md. Ahsanul Wahed

Mohammad Rahmat Ullah

Haseeb Md. Irfanullah

Institutional Advisor

Ishtiaq Uddin Ahmad

IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature

Dhaka, Bangladesh

2016

The designation of geographical entitles in this book and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion

whatsoever on the part of IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature concerning the legal status of any country, territory,

administration, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The information, database and views expressed in this book

are not necessarily reﬂecting those of IUCN, Bangladesh Forest Department and The World Bank.

The publication has been made possible because of the funding received from The World Bank through Bangladesh Forest Department

to implement the subproject entitled ‘Pilot Programs to Identify Effective Measures to Reduce the HEC’ under the ‘Strengthening

Regional Cooperation for Wildlife Protection’ project.

Published by: IUCN Bangladesh Country Ofﬁce, Dhaka

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written

permission of the copyright holders, provided that the source is fully acknowledged.

Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission

of the copyright holders.

Citation: Wahed, M.A., Ullah, M.R. and Irfanullah, H. Md. 2016. Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: Lessons from

Bangladesh. IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Bangladesh Country Ofﬁce, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 30 pp.

Design by: Sheikh Asaduzzaman

ISBN: 978-984-34-1219-5

Cover Photo: Left to Right- Non-preferred crop cultivation © IUCN/Iqram Uddin Al Amran; Bio-fencing © IUCN/Rupon Barua;

Bamboo

seedling raising at nursery for plantation at core zone of elephant

IUCN/Rupon Barua; Trip alarm installation © IUCN/Md. Fazlay Arafat; Watchtower © IUCN/Md. Fazlay Arafat.

Available from: IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature

Bangladesh Country Ofﬁce

House 16, Road 2/3, Banani

Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh

www.iucn.org/bangladesh

Preface

The Asian elephant plays a crucial role in its forest ecosystem. Commonly referred to as a ‘keystone’ species, it helps to

open up forest clearings and distributes the seeds of trees and shrubs. The magniﬁcent animal becomes threatened due to

poaching, destruction of forest and conﬂict with human. In recent years, the magnitude of human-elephant conﬂict (HEC)

has increased due to anthropogenic causes by increased population in many areas of Bangladesh. Due to fragmentation of

habitats, elephant ranges in Bangladesh have become conﬁned to small patches occupied by a single or few small herds.

Some corridors have been abandoned due to degradation of forest cover, extension of human settlements, development of

infrastructure, intensiﬁcation of agricultural practice, unsustainable slash and burn practice, and unplanned road construction,

for example.

The initiative entitled ‘Pilot Programs to Identify Effective Measures to Reduce the HEC’, a sub-project of ‘Strengthening

Regional Cooperation for Wildlife Protection (SRCWP) Project’ has been designed to address and reduce human-elephant

conﬂict with support from Bangladesh Forest Department and The World Bank. The project carried out research on the

nature of human-elephant conﬂict to come up with appropriate solutions. The initiative further piloted a number of mitigation

measures, such as non-preferred crop cultivation, trip alarm, solar electric fencing, chilli rope, establishment of watch tower,

elephant response team and bio-fencing, to identify their effectiveness for reducing human-elephant conﬂict. Side by side,

for habitat improvement, plantation of fodder and shade tree and establishment of salt lick have been carried out.

The production and publication of this book is intended to capture the successes and lessons learnt from the ‘Pilot Programs

to Identify Effective Measures to Reduce the HEC’ project and to document the impacts of piloted initiatives and key lessons

generated. We believe this document will be useful to policy makers, project implementers, academicians and researchers

interested in the ﬁeld of elephant conservation as well as wildlife conservation in general.

Ishtiaq Uddin Ahmad

Country Representative

IUCN Bangladesh Country Ofﬁce

Message

Elephants have ingrained in our culture. The importance of conserving the Asian Elephant in Bangladesh is now established.

Most Asian elephant populations are mostly fragmented and pocketed, and therefore more vulnerable to extinction. Being

one of the Asian Elephant range countries, Bangladesh holds the responsibility to lend a hand to the global effort for

conserving this majestic animal.

The population of Bangladesh has increased in course of time which contributed to land use change and increased

dependency of people over natural resources. Human interference within the forest increased conﬂict with wildlife in different

parts of Bangladesh. The conﬂict between human and resident elephant is conﬁned in Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts

and Cox’s Bazar. Conﬂict with the migratory elephants is a serious concern in the central-north districts, namely Sherpur,

Mymensingh and Jamalpur. Now-a-days, death and injury of both humans and elephants become common phenomenon

in elephant ranges of Bangladesh.

Conﬂict between humans and elephants have become an important issue for conservationists over the last two decades. To

reduce human-elephant conﬂict, Bangladesh Forest Department in association with IUCN Bangladesh initiated the project

entitled “Pilot Programs to Identify Effective Measures to Reduce the HEC” under “Strengthening Regional Cooperation for

Wildlife Protection” project with support from The World Bank.

The initiative has piloted innovative technologies in elephant ranges of Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts that contributed

to minimise human-elephant conﬂict. I believe that the replication of these technologies in conﬂict prone-areas of Bangladesh

will assist conﬂict management at scale.

Md. Yunus Ali

Chief Conservator of Forests

Bangladesh Forest Department

Ministry of Environment and Forests

Acknowledgements

It gives us great pleasure to acknowledge Bangladesh Forest Department and The World Bank, for their support towards

implementation of the sub-project entitled ‘Pilot Programs to Identify Effective Measures to Reduce the HEC’ under the

‘Strengthening Regional Cooperation for Wildlife Protection (SRCWP) Project’ and capture its lessons though this publication.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Md. Yunus Ali, Chief Conservator of Forests, Bangladesh Forest

Department and Ishtiaq Uddin Ahmad, Country Representative, IUCN Bangladesh for their immense support and direction

for implementation of this project.

Special thanks to Dr. Aparup Chowdhury and Akbar Hossain, the former Project Directors of SRCWP Project and Md. Abdul

Mabud, Project Director, SRCWP Project, for their rigorous support during the implementation of the sub-project. Thanks

are also due to the Ashit Ranjan Paul, Conservator of Forests, Wildlife and Nature Conservation Circle and his predecessor

Dr. Tapan Kumar Dey for their continuous support and direction.

We appreciate the effort of relevant Conservator of Forests, Divisional Forest Ofﬁcers and Assistant Conservator of Forests

who have led consultation workshops at the local level and helped in plantation programme. Our thanks especially go

to Abdul Latif Mia, Mohammad Abdul Awal Sarker, Md. Ali Kabir, S.M. Golam Mowla, Bipul Krishna Das, Hoq Mahbub

Morshed, Abu Naser Mohsin Hossain, and Kajal Talukder.

Thanks are also due to relevant Range Ofﬁcers and Beat Ofﬁcers of Bangladesh Forest Department who supported the

project team during project implementation.

Special thanks are due to IUCN Bangladesh project team who supported implementation of the project and the authors in

the creation of this document: Nasim Aziz, Md. Ahsanul Wahed, Md. Fazlay Arafat, Babla Mohajon, Rupon Barua, Iqram

Uddin Al Amran, Bokhtiar Uddin, Md. Akhter Hossain, Dr. Haseeb Md. Irfanullah, Mohammad Rahmat Ullah, Mohammed

Abdul Motaleb, Md. Ashraful Haque, Mohammad Sultan Ahmed and Zubair Hussni Fahad. Thanks are also due to Sheikh

Asaduzzaman of IUCN Bangladesh for designing this book and Ishrat Binte Mahmud for language editing.

Md. Rezaul Karim Chowdhury

Principal Investigator

Pilot Programs to Identify Effective Measures to Reduce the HEC

IUCN Bangladesh Country Ofﬁce

Cultivation of Okra as non preferred crop to mitigate crop damage

Table of Contents

Prologue 10

Elephants in Bangladesh 11

Nature of Human-Elephant Conﬂict 13

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Management in Bangladesh 15

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Techniques 17

Non-preferred Crop Cultivation 19

Bio-fencing 20

Solar Electric Fencing 21

Trip Alarm 22

Chilli Rope 23

Watchtower 24

Salt Lick 25

Plantation in Elephant Habitat 26

Elephant Response Team 27

Way Forward 28

Prologue

Asian Elephant (Elephus maximus)

Elephants in Bangladesh

Elephants have both ecological and cultural importance. They

are known as ecosystem’s engineer and gardener. They play a

vital role in forest enhancement by disbursing seeds and creating

environment for germination. Dung of elephant plays a crucial

role in nutrient cycling by providing nutrients to the soil that is

ultimately used by the ﬂora. It is also a good source of food for

many insect species. It is well understood that elephant is playing

a key role, particularly in maintaining diversity of ﬂora and fauna,

and regenerating the forest environments.

Asian elephants are categorized as Critically Endangered species1

in Bangladesh due to reduction of population. The demand of

land by the increasing human population is changing the land

use system leading to encroachment and fragmentation of

forests and subsequent food scarcity for elephants and human-

elephant conﬂict. Results of studies indicate about 100 years

ago, elephants were apparently found in most of the forests of

Bangladesh2. Even in the middle of last century, existence of 500

elephants throughout the forest of Bangladesh was reported

by the scientists3. With start of this century, a study found the

number of Asian elephant in Bangladesh reduced to 228-3274

due to above mentioned reasons.

1 IUCN Bangladesh. 2015. Red List of Bangladesh Volume 2: Mammals. IUCN, International Union for

Conservation of Nature, Bangladesh Country Ofﬁce, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp. xvi+232.

2 Alam, M.K. 2008. Forests and Forestry in Bangladesh. In: Ahmed, Z.U., Begum, Z.N.T., Hassan, M.A.,

Khondker, M., Kabir, S.M.H., Ahmad, M., Ahmed, A.T.A., Rahman, A.K.A. and Haque, E.U. (eds). Ency-

clopedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh, Vol. 1. Bangladesh Proﬁle. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh,

Dhaka.

3 Choudhury, A. 2007. Impact of border fence along India-Bangladesh border on elephant movement.

Gajah 26: 27-30.

4 IUCN Bangladesh. 2004. Conservation of Asian Elephants in Bangladesh. IUCN, Bangladesh Country

Ofﬁce, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 11

Lessons from Bangladesh

Property damaged by elephant

Nature of Human-Elephant Conﬂict

The conﬂict between human and resident elephant is common in Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Cox’s Bazar

regions of Bangladesh. On the other hand, the conﬂict with the migratory elephants is a serious concern in the central-

north districts, namely Sherpur, Mymensingh and Jamalpur. Now-a-days, death and injury of both humans and elephants

become common phenomenon in elephant range areas of Bangladesh due to increased human interference in the

forests for resources5 and elephant’s raid within the locality for searching for food. Examples of casualty will provide better

understanding on the nature of human-elephant conﬂicts. In March 2016, a resident of Chambol beat in Bashkhali upazila

(sub-district) of Chittagong district went to forest for collecting fuel wood and was killed by wild elephant in the noon.

During April-June 2015, seven people were killed by elephant in Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, Chittagong and most of the

killings took place within the reserve forest by a single elephant. In December 2014, three people were killed and another

one was injured as raiding elephants invaded several villages at Satkania upazila of Chittagong district6. A few months

later in April 2015, dead bodies of two young elephants were discovered in this upazila without any external damage

and the reason behind death is still unknown, while local people guessed poisoning might be the reason of death. The

damage of crops is high in many elephant range areas of Bangladesh than other incidences. It was estimated that 760

conﬂicts were related to crop damage out of 920 conﬂicts occurred during January 2014−May 2016 within the project

areas, namely Rangunia, Khurusia, Jaldhi, Chunati and Bandarban Sadar Ranges.

5 Sarker, A.H.M.R. and Roskaft, E. 2011. Human-wildlife conﬂicts and management options in Bangladesh, with special reference to Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). International Journal

of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services and Management, 6(3-4): 164-175.

6 Sarker, A.H.M.R., Hossen, A. and Roskaft, E. 2015. Fatal elephant encounters on humans in Bangladesh: Context and incidences. Environment and Natural Resources Research, 5(2): 99-

108.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 13

Lessons from Bangladesh

Crop damaged by elephant

Elephant casualty

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Management in Bangladesh

Human-elephant conﬂict minimisation has become a major challenge for the Government of Bangladesh. The

Government has taken different initiatives to minimise the conﬂict. In 2001, Bangladesh Forest Department formed Wildlife

and Nature Conservation Circle for safeguarding biodiversity and wildlife. Formation of Co-Management Committees

(CMCs) in protected areas involving forest-dependent people for conserving forest and wildlife has been practiced by

Bangladesh Forest Department. However, elephant habitats are not conﬁned only within the protected areas. At the

end of 2001, IUCN Bangladesh and Bangladesh Forest Department commissioned a project with support from U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service for elephant census and threat identiﬁcation and prioritisation. In the following decade, these

three organisations continued their efforts in conserving Asian elephants in Bangladesh where human-elephant conﬂict

minimisation remained an important aspect.

In 2013, Bangladesh Forest Department took three

sub-projects under The World Bank-supported

‘Strengthening Regional Cooperation for Wildlife

Protection (SRCWP) Project’ to count elephant,

identify elephant routes and corridors, and to minimise

human-elephant conﬂicts in Sherpur, Chittagong and

Bandarban areas. Bangladesh Forest Department, in

association with IUCN Bangladesh and HEDS, has

taken pragmatic initiatives to reduce human-elephant

conﬂict. The Department, in collaboration with IUCN

Bangladesh, has formalised Elephant Response

Teams for minimising conﬂicts in the central-north and

south-eastern conﬂict-prone areas.

In addition to the formation of Elephant Response

Teams, IUCN Bangladesh has introduced a range of

conﬂict management techniques at the grassroots

level under the ‘Pilot Programs to Identify Effective

Measures to Reduce the HEC’ sub-project of the

SRCWP Project. These human-elephant conﬂict

mitigation technologies include, cultivation of non-

preferred crops by farmers, bio-fencing, solar electric

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 15

Lessons from Bangladesh

Bio-fencing

fencing, chilli rope, watchtower, and setting up early warning systems,

which have been piloted in different conﬂict-prone areas of the south-

eastern part of Bangladesh. In addition, for enriching habitats for wild

elephants, the sub-project has planted suitable species in around 260

hectares of land in Sherpur, Chittagong and Cox’s Bazaar districts. Salt lick

has been established to meet demand of minerals by the wild elephant.

Awareness raising initiatives have been taken to change mind set and

knowledge of people for minimising conﬂicts. For trans-boundary elephant

management, the ﬁrst dialogue took place between the Forest Departments

of Bangladesh and India with an aim to secure elephant habitats and

the free movement of this mega-fauna. Capacities building of Elephant

Response Teams on techniques to stray elephants from the locality and

cultivation of non-preferred crop have also been done.

Before piloting the human-elephant conﬂict mitigation technologies in

the ﬁeld, secondary literature was reviewed to select appropriate o

ptions.

The short-listed options were then consulted with the local stakeholders,

like affected communities, local government representatives and ofﬁcials of

Bangladesh Forest Department for piloting. Selection of people and sites for

piloting of options was done through consultation with these stakeholders. This

gave them an opportunity to accept these technologies and to get involved in

the piloting. Monitoring has been done by the stakeholders and project team

regularly to ﬁnd out the impacts created in the ﬁeld. Along with the piloting,

people have been engaged in awareness programmes and data collection for

knowing the nature of human-elephant conﬂict.

This book brieﬂy documents nine mitigation technologies and captures

the lessons learnt from piloting them under the ‘Pilot Programs to Identify

Effective Measures to Reduce the HEC’ sub-project in the south-eastern

elephant range in Bangladesh. It is expected that the knowledge generated

from this pilot intervention will help wildlife biologists, wildlife managers,

policy-makers, and other stakeholders in minimising human-elephant

conﬂicts in Bangladesh and elsewhere with similar social, environmental and

wildlife management contexts.

16 Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

Cane plant (Daemonorops jenkinsiana)

Human-Elephant

Conﬂict Mitigation

Techniques

Bio-fencing with cane

The techniques piloted to mitigate human-elephant conﬂicts can be divided into three broad categories. The ﬁrst group

includes innovations like i) non-preferred crop cultivation, ii) bio-fencing, iii) solar electric fencing, iv) trip alarm, v) chilli

rope, and vi) watchtowers. The second group is about improving elephant habitat through establishing i) salt lick and ii)

plantation for elephants. The ﬁnal category includes organising community people living in elephant ranges into smaller

groups − Elephant Response Teams – and building their capacity to mitigate human-elephant conﬂict not only for pushing

away elephants invade their localities, but also helping their communities with above mitigation technologies and by

raising their awareness. Piloting of these mitigation measures in the ﬁeld has created a scope to identify the effectiveness

of these techniques in conﬂict mitigation for scaling up.

18 Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

Non-preferred crop (Chilli) cultivation

Chilli rope demonstration

Watchtower

Plantation at Chunati site

Machineries of solar electric fencing

Elephant sign within salt lick

Non-preferred Crop Cultivation

Under natural conditions, elephants mostly prefer

plants, like paddy, grass, bamboo, jackfruit, mango,

and banana. Some unpalatable crops, for example

chilli, citrus, bitter gourd, okra, taro and teasel gourd are

considered as non-preferred crops for elephants as they

do not like these crops because of their tastes. Literature

review and consultations with local farmers helped to

identify non-preferred crops suitable for the project

sites. Through local level consultation, project team also

identiﬁed suitable sites to grow these non-preferred

crops to pilot if these can reduce crop loss and elephant

disturbance in the locality. Before piloting, affected

farmers were selected and subsidised with cultivation

materials.

Piloting has shown that only 3% area of 36 non-preferred

crop plots got damaged by elephants trampling. The

ﬁgure is much less than the damage faced by adjacent

preferred crop plots where 22% area of 102 crop plots

got damaged by elephants. The positive impact of

non-preferred crop cultivation needs to be extensively

channeled through Department of Agricultural Extension

so that farmers of the human-elephant conﬂict zones of

Bangladesh can adopt the technology and reduce crop

and economic losses.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 19

Lessons from Bangladesh

Okra cultivation

Taro cultivation

Chilli cultiation

Teasel gourd cultiation

Bio-fencing

Bio-fences are lines of trees or shrubs planted on the boundaries of farms or human settlements that provide protection

against wildlife. For elephants, bio-fencing technique involves grow cane/rattan (with sharp spines on the stem) on human

settlement boundaries to deter elephants from entering human habitations and crop ﬁelds. This technique is environment-

friendly, cost-effective and more useful than fences made of wood, barbed wire, or stone masonry; and effectively

prevents elephants from intruding into villages. Project team in consultation with Bangladesh Forest Department and

local people selected sites and established bio-fences in Kodukhola of Bandarban, Harbang of Chakaria, Cox’s Bazar,

and Chambol of Bashkhali, Chittagong. Moreover, to reduce human-elephant conﬂicts and to stop elephant coming

from forest to locality, responsibility has been given to Bangladesh Forest Department, local communities and Elephant

Response Teams for monitoring of the bio-fences. To protect these bio-fences, such regular monitoring is essential and

crucial. Sustainable harvesting of bio-fence could be introduced involving community since cane has many uses. Such

closely monitored harvesting system can improve community ownership and enhance community’s interest in protecting

the bio-fences.

20 Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

Establishment of bio-fencing

Plantation of cane seedlings

Solar Electric Fencing

A solar electric fence is a barrier that uses electric shocks (solar panels to

absorb and convert sunlight into electricity) to deter animals or people from

crossing a boundary. Seven kilometers of solar electric fencing has been

established in Borohatia and Suﬁnagar of Lohagora upazila, Chittagong and

Vaggokul village of Sadar Upazila, Bandarban to protect human settlement

from elephant attack. Human settlements of those areas were surrounded

by solar electric fences with a voltage of 10 Kilo Volt and 0.0025 ampere.

This technology is simple and deﬁnitely deters elephants – if it is

continuously kept under good management. The project team engaged

villagers and ofﬁcials of Bangladesh Forest Department in all aspects of

decision making and establishment, such as site selection, the electric fence

assembly, construction of concrete posts, clearing the fence line, digging

holes for fence post, erecting fence posts and lines, and operating the

system. Major equipment and the system have been tested by Bureau of

Research, Testing and Consultation of Bangladesh University of Engineering

and Technology. Villagers have been trained to maintain, repair and operate

the electric fence. Three committees have been formed by Bangladesh

Forest Department engaging Elephant Response Teams, representatives

of Co-Management Committees, local elites along with the ofﬁcials of the

Department in three sites for monitoring and maintenance of the solar

electric fences. A modality of role was also developed for the committee in

consultation with local people and Bangladesh Forest Department to ensure

effective management of solar electric fences, which will help in managing

future human-elephant conﬂicts.

The technique found to be effective to produce sufﬁcient electric shock to

deter elephants from entering human settlement. It has been observed that

after establishing the solar electric fences in June 2016, elephants did not

enter the human settlements, which never happened in the past.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 21

Lessons from Bangladesh

Establishment of solar fencing

Trip Alarm

Trip alarm is a warning system to prevent elephants

from damaging the crop ﬁelds or human settlements. A

thin wire is installed around a ﬁeld or a settlement at the

usual entrance of elephants; whenever the wired circuit

is broken, it makes a loud sound. The noise alerts people

and irritates elephants tending them to go back without

entering the human territory. The installation of this cost-

effective early warning system is easy, requiring regular

maintenance without frequent replacements.

The project team piloted 20 trip alarms in the project sites

which were found very effective in repelling elephants.

The team engaged the local communities for selecting

sites in consultation with the ofﬁcials of Bangladesh

Forest Department. While setting up trip alarms, these

communities were involved in practical training on how

to install and maintain this system. During the period of

February 2015 to March 2016, 13 raids were prevented

by trip alarms at different sites which saved crops and

lives of people. This economical method can be utilized

in a simple way around a large area. Replication of

this initiative in other areas of Bangladesh can help in

reducing human-elephant conﬂicts.

22 Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

Establishment of trip alarm

Trip alarm set-up by community

Setting of trip alarm

Chilli Rope

Chilli rope is a technique where chilli powder is mixed with grease and dry tobacco leaf, and then applied on ropes along

the perimeter of a crop ﬁeld for repelling elephants. This technique uses locally available and affordable materials and a

recommended variety of locally grown hottest chilli as elephants do not like the smell of chilli.

This technique was so much interesting for the communities that they participated in the installation and maintenance

without charging for their labour. Both the project team and the community purchased sun-dried chillies from the local

market to prepare the sticky paste by mixing the chilli powder with tobacco leaf and grease. The paste was then smeared

on ropes and put up around selected plots. The project provided materials to pilot a total length of 10 kilometer chilli rope

fence in the project sites. The low-cost, relative to other barriers, has made chilli rope technique an attractive option to be

used in the dry season as rain washes out the effectiveness of the chilli-tobacco-grease rope fence.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 23

Lessons from Bangladesh

Setting of chilly rope

Materials for chilly rope

Chilly rope

Preparation of chilly paste

Watchtower

Watchtower is a place from where people can do surveillance. Monitoring

elephant activities give an opportunity to take proper action for minimising

loss. Watchtowers for elephant were built with wood, bamboo and

plastic cover/tin-sheet in tall trees (usually 6-9 meters high) with an easy

to climb ladder near the forest boundary and used by guards at night to

detect elephants from a distance. These low cost and simple to construct

watchtowers provide guards the ability to see across the entire farm with

a powerful torch; can be an effective warning system.

A total of 13 watchtowers have been made in different conﬂict-prone

areas. Site selection and construction of watchtower have been done

through consultation with respective communities and Bangladesh Forest

Department ofﬁcials of the forest range. The community-based crop

protection scouts have been formed by community themselves who use

the watchtowers. They have been rotationally guarding for the protection

of crops and property from elephant in all seasons. This option improves

the performance of other farm-based deterrent techniques and reduces

crop damage on vulnerable farms.

24 Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

Watchtower

Salt Lick

Salt licks are artiﬁcial deposit of mineral

salts used by elephants to supplement their

nutrition, ensuring enough minerals in their

diets. A wide range of animals, primarily

herbivores use salt licks to get essential

nutrients, like calcium, magnesium, sodium

and zinc. Elephant digs up the licks content

using their tusks and take materials with

the trunk. Site for salt lick preparation was

selected after consultation with ofﬁcials

of Bangladesh Forest Department and

the communities. All bushes were cleared

keeping only mature trees. Different

proportionate of normal and rock salts were

mixed and spread on the area with watering.

From ﬁeld data, it was observed that

elephants frequently visited the salt lick area

(0.02 hectare area – an experimental plot in

south-eastern Bangladesh). Salt lick reduces

the demand of minerals by elephants and

in turn reduces damage of household

properties for search of minerals. These also

become a sort of rally points where lots of

elephants can be observed and monitored.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 25

Lessons from Bangladesh

Sign of elephant within salt lick area and different steps to prepare salt lick

Plantation in Elephant Habitat

Not getting enough food in the forests, elephants often come to human territory in search of food. Enrichment of

denuded hills with fodder and shade tree species for ensuring a favourable environment for elephant is termed as habitat

improvement. A total 160 hectares of land have been improved with Bangladesh Forest Department in Cox’s Bazar and

Chittagong. While creating new plantations, the Department has given priority to elephant-preferred species, like bamboo,

banana, jackfruit, mango and chapalish. The maintenance responsibility of these plantations has also been given to the

Department as they are the custodian of those forest lands. Establishment of such forest patches help elephants to

survive by providing them with foods and shelter.

26 Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

Banana Plantation at Dhopachar

Nursery at Napura beat

Plantation at Napura beat

Plantation site at Chunati

Elephant Response Team

An Elephant Response Team (ERT) is a group of people (usually 10 persons in a group) working to mitigate human-

elephant conﬂicts with an active role in conﬂict incidents and raising human-elephant co-existence related awareness

activities at local level. The project team trained seven Elephant Response Teams and equipped them with hand mikes,

search lights, torchlights, bee sound machines and whistles. These teams were formed upon consultation with local

communities, ofﬁcials of Bangladesh Forest Department and local government representatives.

Each team is comprised of a team leader and general members. Elephant Response Team members were trained in

the methods on how to stop elephant raid without causing any injury to the elephants to fulﬁll their roles; for example,

the method to chase elephants from villages or crop ﬁelds. Trained members of Elephant Response Team were also

motivated to regulate human-elephant conﬂict to lessen the property losses and death rate. Elephant Response Team

together with Bangladesh Forest Department have been working to support conservation of the natural habitats of

elephant and to control anthropogenic activities in the forest areas.

After formation of Elephant Response Teams in July 2015, 133 raids were stopped in different project areas of Chittagong

and Chittagong Hill Tracts till September 2016. Regular follow-up and coordination by the Bangladesh Forest Department

is indispensable to enhance capacity of this team and to ensure their effectiveness.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 27

Lessons from Bangladesh

Elephant Response Team

Way Forward

Elephant in wild

The piloted mitigation measures

have shown improvement in

human-elephant conﬂict mitigation

in the selected elephant ranges

of south-eastern Bangladesh.

Combination of mitigation measures

may help in conﬂict minimisation

in the future. Based on acquired

knowledge from the ﬁeld, the

following areas need substantial

focus for further improvement in

conﬂict mitigation.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 29

Lessons from Bangladesh

Elephant roaming in the forest

Recognising and strengthening Elephant Response

Teams

The involvement of the Elephant Response Team in conﬂict

minimisation showed better results. So these novice

Elephant Response Teams need further nursing and

support for the continuation of their effective performance.

Coordination with regular monitoring by Bangladesh Forest

Department is still required for the functioning of these

teams. Initiatives to engage the members of these teams

in social safety net and social forestry programmes need to

be taken as they are volunteering in conﬂict management.

Recognition of their effort by the Government will encourage

them to work for the community. More teams need to be

formed with proper training in other human-elephant conﬂict-

prone areas.

Monitoring, maintenance and replication of installed

measures

Installed technologies like, solar electric fencing, trip alarm

and watchtower are found to be effective tools for conﬂict

minimisation. For the maintenance of these measures,

formation of a community-managed fund is needed to bear

the cost of repair, especially after the warranty period of

electronic devices. Assistance from government or non-

government organizations is required in the formation of

the community-managed fund. Regular monitoring from

Bangladesh Forest Department is required for the better

management of these technologies. Replication of these

technologies in other human-elephant conﬂict-prone areas,

like in central-north of Bangladesh, can help in reducing

similar conﬂicts at larger scale.

30 Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures:

Lessons from Bangladesh

Training of Elephant Response Team

Solar electric fencing technology

Scaling up of nature-based solutions

Maintenance and replication of nature-based initiatives, like plantation, salt lick

and bio-fencing are needed to be carried out by Bangladesh Forest Department

in collaboration with local communities and other appropriate stakeholders. In

designing future plantation programmes, the prerequisite is to consider those tree

species that are favourable for elephant as well as for other wildlife. Capacity building

of farmers on cultivation of non-preferred crops and protection of crop ﬁelds using

chilli rope will lead to reduce the number of conﬂict in conﬂict-prone areas. For

non-preferred crop cultivation, selection of appropriate crops and marketing of the

produces at competitive price are crucial to reduce economic losses and to keep

farmers’ interest alive. The Government needs to focus on replication of nature-

based solutions involving appropriate stakeholders of other human-elephant conﬂict-

prone areas.

Public awareness and capacity building

To improve the understanding of the stakeholders who are establishing

infrastructures in or around the forest areas and the people dependent on forest

resources, it is very crucial to engage them in awareness raising programmes on

wildlife conservation and its importance in maintaining ecosystems. In the human-

wildlife conﬂict-prone areas, the conﬂict mitigation opportunities is also a vital agenda

of such awareness campaigns, which may need to be followed by capacity building

initiatives.

Human-Elephant Conﬂict Mitigation Measures: 31

Lessons from Bangladesh

Non-preferred crop cultivation

Knowledge sharing with community

Meeting with Co-management Committee

Given the dynamic nature of human-wildlife conﬂict, continued research and investigations can build our

understanding of the changing nature of these conﬂicts and can help us to identify measures to minimise the

negative impacts of conﬂict on both human and wildlife. As this book has shown, technological innovation can

be a crucial part of minimizing human-elephant conﬂicts. It is very important ﬁrst to test an innovation at a small

scale, to evaluate its impacts and challenges, and, based on these results, to spread it for wider beneﬁts through

scaling up. While promoting innovations, we need to remember the fact that innovation is essentially a continuous

process. We need to modify or improve a system, a tool or a technology to respond to new challenges in new

times and reinvent accordingly.

International Union for Conservation of Nature

Bangladesh Country Ofﬁce

House 16, Road 2/3, Banani

Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh

Tel: +8802 55040938, 55040939, 55040940

Fax: +8802 55040932

www.iucn.org/bangladesh

Review: Status of wild elephant, conflict and conservation actions in Thailand

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2024

This study comprehensively reviewed various aspects of population status, distribution, conflict situations, and conservation strategies for managing human-elephant conflicts (HECs). The primary goal is to foster a clear understanding of the current status, issues, and problem-solving approaches to benefit elephant conservation and management. The key element in elephant conservation is the acceptance of the coexistence between humans and elephants in their respective areas. Managing overlapping areas between humans and elephants is crucial for conservation efforts. A major concern is that elephants venture outside protected areas, increasing risk to both human and elephant populations. Therefore, enhancing the efficiency of conflict management is of the utmost importance to the long-term survival of elephants. This study revealed that vital approaches for managing elephant populations in Thailand include designating conservation areas as the foundation for long-term elephant conservation. In addition, habitat management at the population level, implementing compensation schemes, establishing community-based monitoring groups in conflict areas, improving conflict management practices, and decentralizing decision-making processes in conservation efforts are critical. Other essential elements of successful conservation and management in Thailand include setting population targets for elephants in each conservation area, with the goal of effective management. This was supported by research, community collaboration, decentralization, and performance evaluation to gauge the success of implemented measures in reducing HECs by assessing the number of conflict incidents and fatalities for both humans and elephants. This suggests the need for a fundamental reform of the elephant conservation policy.

The human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka: history and present status

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023
BIODIVERS CONSERV

Human-elephant conflict (HEC) is a severe conservation, socio-economic and environmental issue of forests and ecosystems in elephant inhabiting countries, including Sri Lanka. Due to the rapid growth of human and elephant populations, both struggles to share limited land resources. The major causes and contexts of HEC in Sri Lanka include land use change, habitat loss due to human population growth, crop raiding behavior, problem elephants, and changes in agriculture practices. Since 2019, 125 people and 370 elephants have killed annually on average due to the conflict. Also, Sri Lanka has recorded the highest annual elephant deaths and second-highest human deaths due to HEC. The human death rate has increased by approximately 42% over previous three decades. The Sri Lankan government provides compensation for death and disability of the human caused by elephants and for elephant-damaged houses or properties. The Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) is an endangered subspecies. It’s home range is restricted to 50–150 km² and depends on the availability of food, water, and shelter of the habitat in which they live. Various management strategies have been developed by the government and villagers to prevent and mitigate HEC. Today, Sri Lankan elephants are protected under Sri Lankan law, with punishment by fines and jail terms. This article reviews the history, present status, and traditional conflict management of HEC in Sri Lanka. We suggest a satellite data fusion approach with GIS modeling to identify risk zones of HEC to develop further protective measures for humans and elephants.

Smallholder farmers' knowledge and perceptions towards elephants and the restraining poliwire fences in Mambova wildlife corridor, southern Zambia

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2024

Human-elephant conflict (HEC) poses a major challenge for communities living within large transboundary corridors, affecting livelihoods and personal safety. Elephant-restraining solar-electric poliwire fences were implemented as HEC mitigation from 2017 to 2022 for 17 mixed-produce multi-farmer gardens in Mambova farming community in southern Zambia. To assess the knowledge and perceptions of farmers towards elephants and the newly established solar-electric poliwire fences, we conducted 60 semi-structured interviews (22 females, 38 males) with farmers from both fenced and unfenced gardens. The study found that community perceptions varied, and elephants and hippos caused significant crop damage to unfenced vegetable gardens, particularly during the dry season (95-96.3% of incidents occurring between July and November). Farmers reported elephants mainly damaged their gardens at night (21:00-03:00 h.), affecting crops like maize (Zea mays) and rape plants (Brassica napus). Most respondents (96.7%) found the solar-electric poliwire fence more effective in preventing crop damage than traditional mitigation measures, such as drumming and guarding. While some farmers were uncomfortable with elephants in their area (50%), others valued their presence for tourism and education (47%). A holistic approach, combining education, awareness campaigns, and conservation initiatives, is needed to manage HEC effectively. Understanding farmer perspectives and local knowledge about elephant behaviour and migration is vital for sustainable coexistence of humans with elephants.

Welfare impacts associated with using aversive geofencing devices on captive Asian elephants

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Animal-borne aversive geofencing devices (AGDs, or satellite-linked shock collars) are commercially available and used on livestock to restrict their movement within a virtual boundary. This technology has potential application as a human-wildlife conflict mitigation tool, where problem animals might be conditioned to avoid human-dominated habitats by associating an audio warning with a subsequent electric shock, which is delivered if the audio warning is ignored. Ensuring that high standards of animal welfare are maintained when implementing such tools is important for acquiring manager and community acceptance of such approaches. We conducted two pilot experiments with eight captive Asian elephants using mild electric shocks from a modified dogtraining collar fitted around the neck, as part of an ongoing effort to develop AGDs suitable for mitigating human-elephant conflict. As part of these experiments, we assessed elephants' behavioural and physiological stress before, during and after our experiments. During the experiments elephants wore collars up to nine consecutive days and received a small number of electric shocks on 1–3 consecutive days. Bootstrapped principal component analysis showed that daily activity budgets of individual elephants on experiment days were not different to the pre-experiment days. Generalised linear mixed-effect model (GLMM) showed that anxiety/stress behaviours increased on the first day of acclimatising to the collar and on testing days (i.e. days they received shocks) of the first experiment, but not during the second experiment relative to pre-experiment days. Analysis of faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) concentrations using GLMM showed that FCM concentrations were higher in samples collected ~24 hrs and ~48 hrs after testing days compared to baseline levels as expected given the lag time for excretion of cortisol metabolites. These elevated anxiety/stress behaviours and FCM concentrations returned to baseline levels shortly after the experiment. Therefore, we conclude that AGDs did not produce lasting behavioural or physiological stress effects in elephants during this short term study but recommend further studies with a larger sample of elephants to confirm the transferability of these findings.

Current and Future Approaches to Mitigate Conflict between Humans and Asian Elephants: The Potential Use of Aversive Geofencing Devices

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Asian elephants are a principal cause of human-wildlife conflict. This results in the death/injury of elephants and humans and large-scale crop and property damage. Most current human-elephant conflict (HEC) mitigation tools lack the flexibility to accommodate the ecological needs of elephants and are ineffective at reducing HEC in the long-term. Here we review common HEC mitigation tools used in Asia and the potential of Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) to manage problem elephants. AGDs can be configured to monitor animal movements in real-time and deliver auditory warnings followed by electric stimuli whenever animals attempt to move across user-specified virtual boundaries. Thus, AGDs are expected to condition elephants to avoid receiving shocks and keep them away from virtually fenced areas, while providing alternative routes that can be modified if required. Studies conducted using AGDs with other species provide an overview of their potential in conditioning wild animals. We recommend that the efficacy and welfare impact of AGDs be evaluated using captive elephants along with public perception of using AGDs on elephants as a means of addressing the inherent deficiencies of common HEC mitigation tools. If elephants could be successfully conditioned to avoid virtual fences, then AGDs could resolve many HEC incidents throughout Asia.

A case study on conflict intensity between humans and elephants at Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh OPEN ACCESS EDITED BY

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2023

Humans' and elephants' conflict is considered a common phenomenon in Bangladesh due to extreme anthropogenic interferences on elephant habitats. Concurrently, the landless people were encouraged to encroach on forest land due to their financial hardship and poor and weak forest management systems. We conducted our research work through frequent field visits, site-oriented positioned research correspondents, and an adopted semistructured questionnaire. We recorded a total of 903 conflict-related cases between humans and elephants, including crop raids (N = 337), house raids (N = 200), homestead garden raids (N = 263), and accidental attacks (N = 103), across sites, during August 2018 to July 2019, in Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary (TWS). Elephant attack rates varied significantly between traditional forest dwellers (N = 179), illegal settlers (N = 370), villagers nearest forest (N = 212), Rohingya refugees (N = 53), and traditional forest different tribes (N = 89). It also varied along a space gradient, including inside forests (N = 423), buffer zones (N = 297), and outside forest villages (N = 183). The number of conflicts possessed by elephants varied discriminately and was unparalleled among different professions such as cattle ranchers (N = 104), gardeners (N = 112), paddy cultivators (N = 236), vegetable growers (N = 158), betel-leaf growers (N = 163), and forest resources collectors (N = 130). Most conflicts between humans and elephants occurred significantly during the night (N = 592), many during the morning (N = 154), evening (N = 138), and much less during midday (N = 19). The conflict intensity was also higher on the east coast (N = 552) than on the west coast (N = 351). The seasonal variation, including summer (N = 367), monsoon (N = 274), and winter (N = 262), was also significant. The elephant herd size was also an important factor triggering the conflict in TWS. We conclude that conflict intensity between humans and elephants is driven by settlers' location, forest gradient, the profession of forest-dependent people, their household size and income level, attack time, and season. KEYWORDS forest intruder, season, elephant herd, crop raid, house raid, homestead garden raid, accidental attack, human-elephant conflict Frontiers in Conservation Science

Virtual Fencing of Captive Asian Elephants Fitted With An Aversive Geofencing Device to Manage Their Movement

Article

Dec 2022
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Aversive Geofencing Devices (AGDs) are designed to emit audible warning signals followed by electric shocks when animals reach virtual fences (VFs) with the intent that animals will learn to turn away at audio warnings and thereby avoid receiving shocks. AGDs are a potentially useful tool for mitigating human-elephant conflict, but a greater understanding of captive elephant responses to AGDs is required before they might be confidently used on wild elephants. We conducted experiments with eight, female captive Asian elephants using a modified dog-training collar to deliver mild electric shocks (4 kV) of varying strength (pulse frequencies) to determine the ideal location on the neck to deliver the stimuli and the optimum strength of the shock required to generate desired aversive responses. Ten shocks (<1 s duration) of different strengths were delivered during a 10 min session (i.e., one shock per minute) at two positions on one side of the elephant’s neck. Results indicated that elephants were more likely to display desirable aversive behaviours at the upper position tested on the neck (odds ratio=0.47, 95% CI 0.25–0.87, P = 0.018) and at higher stimuli strengths (odds ratio=1.03, 95% CI 1.01–1.04, P ≤ 0.001). A conditioning experiment was then conducted several months later with five of the same elephants. These were individually trained to walk along a ~100 m path to a food reward on three consecutive days, wearing a dummy collar. On the next three days and on one other day few months later, the elephants were fitted with a similar shock collar (positioned at the upper neck location, and with the highest strength tested earlier) to determine if the AGD could prevent the elephants from accessing the food reward. Three VFs were established at ~30 m, ~50 m and ~60 m points along the path. As the elephant approached the food, a mild audio warning, a more aggressive audio warning, and an electric shock was administered at the first, second and third VFs respectively. Warnings and shocks were not delivered if elephants heeded earlier warnings. A maximum of five such trials were attempted. The VFs successfully kept elephants from reaching the food 77.8% of the time, with elephants responding to the audio warnings and avoiding electric stimulation 47.2% of the trials. These findings suggest that AGDs are a promising method to manage elephant movement, but further research is needed to develop a reliable approach for wild elephants.

Species diversity, composition, and distribution of the herpetofauna in the Northwestern Region of Bangladesh

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

Species diversity is an important parameter for monitoring ecology that can accelerate conservation planning. A study on the diversity, composition, and distribution of the herpetofauna in four districts of northwestern Bangladesh was conducted through direct field observations and plot counting during day and night from April 2017 to March 2018. A total of 33 species of herpetofauna were recorded, representing 20 reptiles and 13 amphibians, and the estimated species richness was 37. The highest number of species (22) was found in both Kornai (Thakurgaon) and Mollapara (Nilphamari), while the lowest (10) was in Nolabari (Nilphamari) and Koyagolahat (Nilphamari). The highest number of amphibian species (11) was recorded in Singra forest and Kornai, while Mollapara harbored the most reptilian species (12). Based on the Shannon-Wiener index of diversity, the highest diversity was in Kornai (H' = 2.562) while the lowest was in Singra forest (H' = 1.304). The Jaccard similarity index varied from 0.33 to 0.71, indicating the variations of species compositions among different sites. Among the 2,421 herpetofauanal individuals recorded, Common Toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus (n = 639) represented the highest number among the amphibians and Yellow-green House Gecko, Hemidactylus flaviviridis (n = 130) represented the highest number among reptiles. The baseline data on herpetofaunal diversity reported here will help the scientific community and policymakers to effectively accelerate the conservation plans for this region.

Rohingya refugee crisis and human vs. elephant (Elephas maximus) conflicts in Cox's Bazar district of Bangladesh

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2019

Md. Habibur Rahman

About 930,000 Rohingya people were migrated in the Cox's Bazar district of Bangladesh following the ethnic cleansing violence in the Rakhine State of Myanmar. They built their camps by clearing the natural forests and social forestry plantations which was one of the important natural habitat and corridor of critically endangered wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Bangladesh. The Rohingya people extensively collected timber and fuelwood for construction and cooking from the forests and destroyed nearly 2,000 hectares of forest land. As a result, in search of food and route for natural movement, E. maximus entered into the camps, destroyed the settlements and a severe human-elephant conflicts arose resulted in 13 refugees were killed and nearly 50 people were injured. Studies revealed that there are 48 E. maximus is roaming around the camps, and all most all the incidents occurred during the dawn time where male and children were the main victims. Government, aid agencies and NGOs are operating in the field to take on the state of affairs. They commenced to enhance consciousness, setting up 56 watchtowers and 30 volunteer elephant response teams to warn residents when elephants enter the camp. Reduction in demand of fuelwood through supplementing the alternative fuel, reforestation with native and fruit-bearing tree species, agroforestry practices, plantation of elephant preferred fodder species, ensure safe trans-boundary corridors, and non-forestry income-generating activities can reduce and mitigate the Rohingya and. E. maximus conflicts.

Effectiveness of physical barriers in mitigating human–elephant negative interactions in North-East India

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022

Physical barriers, like solar fences, elephant-proof trenches, stone, or rubble walls, are installed as conflict mitigation interventions in India’s major Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) ranges. However, installations lacking a priori scientific assessment of site specificity for reducing elephant incursion in the human settlements often fail in the intended goals of the resource-intensive management interventions. Since humans are central to conflict issues, research focusing on social aspects is essential for devising solutions. Despite the use of barriers in the Golaghat district in Assam, human–elephant conflict (HEC) cases are increasing, which offers an opportunity to evaluate their efficacy. Optimized hotspot analysis of the historic HEC records from 2010 to 2019 was done to check the spatial extent of the conflict and its dispersion in the district. We also assessed the efficiency of a 4.2-km long solar fence and a 2-km long elephant-proof trench through generalized linear modeling. We evaluated the encounter rates of elephant signs and other site covariates at the barrier and non-barrier sites. Multinomial logistic regression was applied to assess the perception of local people on the barriers and overall HEC in their areas based on their willingness to pay (WTP) for maintenance of the barriers. The highest cases occurred between 2016 and 2017, making up 25% of the total conflict cases. It was noticed that the extent of these hotspots was concentrated, and there was no dispersion of the conflict to other areas. Furthermore, a significant difference in the encounter rates of elephant signs between barriers and no barrier sites was observed. Solar fenced areas showed relatively lower encounter rates than areas with the trench, suggesting better efficiency of solar fencing than trench in the landscape. In addition, only five out of seven explanatory variables, viz. , the persistence of HEC cases, amount of ex-gratia compensation, time taken in getting compensation, change in elephant behavior (incursion), and crop-raiding frequency significantly explained people’s perception of the barrier and non-barrier sites. According to local people, physical barriers are essential in managing HEC; hence, installing and maintaining solar fences in the high conflict hotspots is crucial for this landscape.

ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.

Human-Elephant Conflict Mitigation Measures: Lessons from Bangladesh

Abstract

Recommended publications

Conservation Conundrum

Hamiguitan Range: A sanctuary for native flora

Assessing Africa-Wide Pangolin Exploitation by Scaling Local Data

Effects of human-induced disturbances and weather on herbivore movement