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Autonomous vehicles and moral uncertainty

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Abstract

Our chief purposes in this chapter are to motivate the problem of moral uncertainty as it pertains to autonomous vehicles and to outline possible solutions. The problem is the following: How should autonomous vehicles be programmed to act when the person who has the authority to decide the ethics of the autonomous vehicle is under moral uncertainty? Roughly, an agent is morally uncertain when she has access to all (or most) of the relevant non-moral facts, including but not limited to empirical and legal facts, but still remains uncertain about what morality requires of her. We argue that the problem of moral uncertainty in the context of autonomous vehicles is an important problem and then critically engage with two solutions to the problem. We conclude by discussing a solution that we think is more promising—that of the philosopher Andrew Sepielli—and offer some support in its defense.
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AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES AND MORAL
UNCERTAINTY
Vikram Bhargava and Tae WanKim
Autonomous vehicles have escaped the connes of our imaginations
and found their way onto our roadways. Major companies, including
GM, Nissan, Mercedes- Benz, Toyota, Lexus, Hyundai, Tesla, Uber,
and Volkswagen, are developing autonomous vehicles. Tech giant
Google has reported that the development of autonomous vehicles
is among its ve most important business projects (Urmson 2014).
Autonomous cars are here, not going away, and are likely to become
increasingly prevalent (Fagnant and Kockelman 2013; Goodall
2014a,b).
As the number of autonomous vehicles on roadways increases, sev-
eral distinctively philosophical questions arise (Lin2015):
Crash: Suppose a large autonomous vehicle is going to crash
(perhaps due to hitting a patch of ice) and that it is on its way
to hitting a minivan with ve passengers head on. If it hits the
minivan head on, it will kill all ve passengers. However, the
autonomous vehicle recognizes that since it is approaching an
intersection, on the way to colliding with the minivan it can
swerve in such a way that it rst collides into a small roadster,
thus lessening the impact on the minivan. is would spare the
minivan’s ve passengers, but it would unfortunately kill the
one person in the roadster. Should the autonomous vehicle be
programmed to rst crash into the roadster?
is scenario of course closely resembles the famous trolley problem
(Foot 1967; omson 1976).1 It also raises a question at the inter-
section of moral philosophy, law, and public policy that is unique
to autonomous vehicles. e question is, who should be able to
choose the ethics for the autonomous vehicle— drivers, consumers,
1
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passengers, manufacturers, programmers, or politicians (Lin 2015; Millar 2014)?2
ere is another question that arises even once we settle who ought to be able to
choose the ethics for the autonomous vehicles:
e Problem of Moral Uncertainty:How should autonomous vehicles be
programmed to act when the person who has the authority to choose the
ethics of the autonomous vehicle is under moral uncertainty?
Roughly, an agent is morally uncertain when she has access to all (or most) of the
relevant non- moral facts, including but not limited to empirical and legal facts,
but still remains uncertain about what morality requires of her. is chapter is
about how the person who is ultimately chosen to make the decisions in the Crash
scenario can make appropriate decisions when in the grip of moral uncertainty.
For simplicity’s sake, in this chapter we assume this person is a programmer.
Decisions are oen made in the face of uncertainty. Indeed, there is a vast
literature on rational decision- making under uncertainty (De Groot 2004; Raia
1997). However, this literature focuses largely on empirical uncertainty. Moral
uncertainty, on the other hand, has received vastly less scholarly attention. With
advances in autonomous vehicles, addressing the problem of moral uncertainty
has new urgency. Our chief purpose in this chapter is a modest one:to explore
the problem of moral uncertainty as it pertains to autonomous vehicles and to
outline possible solutions to the problem. In section 1.1, we argue that the prob-
lem is a signicant one and make some preliminary remarks. In section 1.2, we
critically engage with two proposals that oer a solution to the problem of moral
uncertainty. In section 1.3, we discuss a solution that we think is more promising,
the solution provided by the philosopher Andrew Sepielli. In section 1.4, we oer
some support in its defense. We conclude in section1.5.
. Motivation and Preliminaries
Let’s return to the Crash scenario. Suppose Tegan, a programmer tasked with
deciding the appropriate course of action in the Crash scenario, thinks she should
program the autonomous vehicle to collide into the roadster on the way to the
minivan, under the consequentialist rationale that the roadster has fewer pas-
sengers than the minivan. She hesitates because she recalls her ethics professor’s
deontological claim that doing so would be seriously wrong3it would use the
one passenger in the roadster as a mere- means in a way that is morally impermis-
sible. Tegan is not persuaded by her professor’s prior guidance and gives 90%
credence (subjective probability) to the view that she should program the vehicle
to rst crash into the roadster; she gives only 10% credence to her professor’s con-
clusion that she should not crash into the roadster on the way to the minivan.4
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From Tegan’s own perspective, how should she program an autonomous vehicle
to deal with Crash- like scenarios? Tegan faces the problem of moral uncertainty.
Caveat:Any real driving situation an autonomous vehicle will face is likely to
be much more complicated than the foregoing scenario. Nevertheless, the sce-
nario contains enough relevant factors for our purposes. For Tegan, moral argu-
ments are the source of normative uncertainty, but it is worth noting that other
types of normative views (e.g., legal, cultural, religious) can play similar roles, cre-
ating prescriptive uncertainty. Also, Tegan faces just two competing arguments,
while many decision makers can face more than two. For simplicity’s sake, how-
ever, we discuss scenarios in which two arguments are competing, although some
of the frameworks we discuss can, in principle, accommodate scenarios with
more than two competing arguments.
e problem of moral uncertainty derives primarily from the following con-
ditions:(1)the two normative propositions corresponding to Tegan’s decision—
“I should program the vehicle to crash into the roadster” and “I should not
program the vehicle to crash into the roadster”— are mutually exclusive, and
(2) Tegan’s credence is divided between the two propositions— she is uncer-
tain about which of the two propositions is true (Sepielli 2009).5 Put another
way:even if Tegan is certain about a range of empirical facts, she may still remain
uncertain about the reasons that those very facts give her with respect to what
to do (Sepielli2009).
We acknowledge that a solution to Crash is not complete unless we oer a
plausible framework of decision- making under empirical uncertainty (e.g., Hare
2012). We assume for now that the solution we discuss can coherently be com-
bined with the best account of decision- making under empirical uncertainty—
ascertaining whether this assumption is in fact true is a promising future avenue
of research.6
Tegan requires a meta- normative framework to adjudicate between the nor-
mative prescriptions of competing moral theories. In this chapter, we argue for
the importance of such a framework and encourage scholars of robot ethics to
pay more attention to the problem of moral uncertainty. But rst, it is worth
dealing with a thought that might be lurking in some readers’ minds, namely,
that the very notion of moral uncertainty is a misguided one. Specically, some
readers might be thinking that of the two competing moral arguments, only one
of them is right. erefore, there is no uncertainty ab initio and the problem is
only apparent. For instance, if it is in fact morally true that one should never use
another as a mere- means, then Tegan should not program the car to rst crash
into the roadster.
We agree that there may be no moral uncertainty from the perspective of
objective reason or objective “should” (Harman 2015). Moreover, we do not
deny the importance of guring out the objectively correct answer, assuming
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one exists— that is, that ethics is not relative. But it is important to note that
the aforementioned concern is consistent with the view we defend. ough
programmers should strive to ascertain the objectively correct answer, this does
not eliminate the fact that a decision might have to be made prior to one’s hav-
ing secured the objectively correct answer. Tegan, in the above scenario, cannot
make her decision purely on the basis of objective reasons, since her doxastic
state is already plagued with moral uncertainty. Yet she needs to decide how to
program the car. e given reality is that Tegan cannot help but base her deci-
sion on her degree of belief in a moral view— that is, from her representation of
the objective “should” (Sepielli 2009). us Tegan ought to make the best deci-
sion given her degree of belief in the relevant normative prescription. So Tegan
requires an additional decision framework, one that is not designed primarily
for objective reason or objective “should”— that is, a framework that begins with
her own uncertain normative beliefs but still helps her make more appropriate
and rational decisions.
. Two Possibilities
We now consider (and ultimately reject) two proposals for making decisions
under moral uncertainty. e rst proposal— the “Continue Deliberating
view— suggests that Tegan should not make a decision; instead, she should con-
tinue deliberating until she gures out what morality requires of her. We are
sympathetic to this position. Indeed, we too think that programmers should con-
tinue to deliberate about moral problems insofar as they are able. Nevertheless,
we believe that there are circumstances in which programmers may lack the lux-
ury of time or resources to continue deliberating but must nevertheless decide
how to act. Tegan might deliberate for some time, but she cannot put all of her
time and eort into guring out what to do in Crash and will need to make a
decision soon enough.
Perhaps more important, continuing to deliberate is in some contexts, in
eect, making a decision about one of the very choices the programmer is uncer-
tain about. For example, if Tegan opts not to program the autonomous vehicle to
rst swerve into the roadster, she in eect already commits to the prescription of
one of the moral views. at is, if she decides not to program the autonomous car
to rst swerve into the roadster, she rejects the prescription of the consequential-
ist view and allows more lives to be killed. Inaction is oen a choice, and it is typi-
cally a choice of status quo. e “Continue Deliberating” view lacks the resources
to explain why the existing state of aairs is the most appropriate choice.
e second proposal— call it the “My Favorite eory” view— is an initially
tempting response to moral uncertainty (Gustafsson and Torpman 2014). at
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is, do what the conclusion of the normative argument you think is most likely to
be correct tells you to do. For instance, if Tegan thinks the consequentialist pre-
scription to crash into the roadster is most likely true, then she should program
the car to do just that. But this view has some problems, an analysis of which
will yield an important condition any adequate solution to the problem of moral
uncertainty must meet. We can better understand this problem by considering a
parallel problem in empirical uncertainty (Sepielli 2009). Consider a hypotheti-
cal variant of the real case of the FordPinto:
Pinto:e CEO of Ford is deciding whether to authorize the sale of its
recently designed hatchback car, the Pinto. She is not sure how to act,
because she is empirically uncertain about how the Pinto’s fuel tank will
aect the life of its drivers and passengers. Aer reading a crash- test
report, she has a 0.2 degree of belief that the Pinto’s fuel tank will rupture,
causing a potentially fatal re if the car is rear- ended, and a 0.8 degree of
belief that there will not be any such problems. inking she should go
with what she thinks is most likelythat there will not be any problems
with the fuel tank— she authorizes the sale of thePinto.
Here the CEO clearly makes a poor choice. One cannot simply compare 0.2 and
0.8. One must consider the value of the outcomes. Of course, car designs can-
not be perfect, but a 20% probability of a life- threatening malfunction is obvi-
ously too high. e CEO failed to weigh the consequences of the actions by their
respective probabilities. If she had taken into consideration the value of the out-
comes, it would not have made sense to authorize the sale of the Pinto. Asimilar
problem applies in the moral domain— the weight of the moral value at stake
must be taken into consideration.
For instance, returning to the situation Tegan faces, even if she thinks that the
proposition “I should program the vehicle to crash into the roadster” is most likely
true, it would be a very serious wrong if the competing proposition, “I should not
program the vehicle to crash into the roadster,” is correct, since treating someone
as a mere- means would be a serious deontic wrong. In other words, though Tegan
thinks that her professor’s view is mistaken, she recognizes that if her professors
arguments are correct and she nevertheless programs the car to rst crash into the
roadster, then she would commit a serious deontologicalwrong.
As such, an adequate solution to the problem of moral uncertainty must take
into account the moral values associated with the particular normative proposi-
tion, weighted by their respective probabilities, not merely the probability that
the normative proposition in question is true. Another way to put the point is
that a programmer, in the face of moral uncertainty, must hedge against the view
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with the greater moral value at stake or meet what we shall call the “expected
moral value condition,” which we apply to programmers in the followingway:
e Expected Moral Value Condition:Any adequate solution to the prob-
lem of programming under moral uncertainty must oer the resources by
which a programmer can weigh the degree of moral harm, benet, wrong,
right, good, bad, etc., by their relevant probabilities.7
On an account of moral uncertainty that meets this condition, there may very
well be instances when a programmer should act according to what she consid-
ers the less probable normative view because the less probable normative view
has something of signicant moral value at stake. But we’ve gotten ahead of
ourselves. Making this sort of ascription requires being able to compare moral
value across dierent moral views or theories. And it is not obvious how this
can be meaningfully done. In the next section, we will elucidate what we think
is a promising approach for making comparisons of moral value across dierent
moralviews.
. An Expected Moral Value Approach
Suppose Tegan is convinced of the importance of weighing the moral value at
stake and decides she wants to use an expected moral value approach to do so.8 In
other words, Tegan must gure out the expected moral value of the two mutually
exclusive actions and choose the option that has the higher expected moral value.
But she soon realizes that she faces a serious problem.
Tegan might have some sense of how signicant a consequentialist good it is
to save the ve lives in the minivan, and she also might have some sense of how
signicant a deontological bad it is to use another as a mere- means (namely, the
person in the roadster); but still, troublingly, she may not know how the two
compare. It is not clear that the magnitude of the moral value on the consequen-
tialist view is commensurable with the magnitude of the moral value on the
deontological view. is has been called the “Problem of Inter- theoretic Value
Comparisons” (PIVC) (Lockhart 2000; Sepielli 2006, 2009, 2013; MacAskill,
forthcoming).
e PIVC posits that moral hedging requires comparing moral values across
dierent normative views. And it is not obvious that this can be done. For exam-
ple, it is not clear how Tegan can compare the consequentialist value of maximiz-
ing net lives saved with the deontic wrong of using someone as a mere- means.
Neither consequentialist views nor deontological views themselves indicate how
to make inter- theoretic comparisons. Any adequate expected value proposal
must explain how it will handle this problem.9
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Although the PIVC is thorny, we maintain it can be overcome. We nd
Sepielli’s works (2006, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013) helpful for this purpose.
Signicantly, Sepielli points out that just because two things cannot be com-
pared under one set of descriptions does not mean they cannot be compared
under an analogous set of re- descriptions. Sepielli’s nuanced body of work is
more complex than the following three steps that we articulate. Still, these three
steps form the essence of what he calls the “background ranking approach” and
are also helpful for our investigation.10 Using the background ranking approach
to solve the problem of inter- theoretic value comparisons is simple at its core,
but its execution may require practice, much as with employing other rational
decision- makingtools.
Step 1:e rst step involves thinking of two morally analogous actions to pro-
gramming the vehicle to crash into the roadster. e rst analogy should be such
that, if the moral analogy were true, it would mean that crashing into the roadster is
better than not crashing into the roadster. e second analogy should be such that,
if the moral analogy were true, it would mean that not crashing into the roadster is
better than crashing into the roadster. Suppose the rst analog y to crashing into the
roadster is donating to an eective charity that would maximize lives saved, instead
of donating to a much less eective charity that would save many fewer lives. (In
this case, the analogy is in line with the consequentialist prescription. It is a decision
strictly about maximizing net lives saved.) Call this the “charity analogy.” Suppose
the second analogy to crashing into the roadster is a doctor killing a healthy patient
so she could extract the patient’s organs and distribute them to ve other patients
in vital need of organs. (In this case, the analogy is in line with the deontological
prescription of not using a person as a mere- means.) Call this the “organ extrac-
tion analogy.” Note that performing this step may require some moral imagination
(Werhane 1999), skill in analogical reasoning, and perhaps even some familiarity
with what the moral literature says on anissue.
Step 2:Identify one’s credence in the two following mutually exclusive propo-
sitions:“I should program the vehicle to crash into the roadster” and “I should
not program the vehicle to crash into the roadster.” As stated earlier, Tegan has a
0.9 credence in the rst proposition and a 0.1 credence in the second proposition.
Step 3: e third step involves identifying the relative dierences in the
magnitude of the moral value between the two propositions from Step 2 on the
assumption that each of the analogies from Step 1 in question holds. Let’s call
the dierence in the moral value of programming the vehicle to crash into the
roadster versus not doing so, given the charity analog y is true, “W.” Suppose then
that the dierence in moral value of programming the vehicle to crash into the
roadster versus not doing so, given the organ extraction analogy is true, is “50W”
(i.e., the dierence in moral value is y times that of the dierence in moral
value associated with the charity analogy).
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Keep in mind that Tegan can do this because her views about the relative dif-
ferences in the magnitude of the moral value between the two propositions, con-
ditional on each analogy holding true, can be independent of her beliefs about the
two mutually exclusive prescriptions of “I should program the vehicle to crash
into the roadster” and “I should not program the vehicle to crash into the road-
ster.” As Sepielli notes, “Uncertainty about the ranking of a set of actions under
one set of descriptions in no way precludes certainty about the ranking of the
same set of actions under a dierent set of descriptions. at every action falls
under innite descriptions gives us a fair bit of room to work here” (2009, 23).
e fact that one can make this sort of comparison through analogical reasoning
is an important feature of the background ranking procedure.
One might reasonably wonder where “y” (in 50W) came from. We have
admittedly imputed this belief to Tegan in an ad hoc manner. However, as we
noted, given that the source of uncertainty for Tegan is regarding the decision
to program the car to rst crash into the roadster or not, we think it is indeed
plausible that Tegan may have a good sense of how the other analogies we have
introduced fare against eachother.
ese three steps capture the essence of the background ranking procedure.
Now we are in a position to perform an expected moral value calculation:
(1) Tegan’s credence in the proposition, “I should program the autonomous
vehicle to crash into the roadster” [insert value] × the dierence in the
magnitude of the moral value between crashing into the roadster and not
crashing into the roadster, on the condition that the charity analogy holds
[insertvalue]
(2) Tegan’s credence in the proposition, “I should not program the autonomous
vehicle to crash into the roadster” [insert value] × the dierence in the mag-
nitude of the moral value between crashing into the roadster and not crash-
ing into the roadster, on the condition that the organ extraction analogy
holds [insertvalue]
whichis
(1) (0.9)(W)=0.9W
(2) (0.1)(50W)=5W
Finally, to determine what Tegan should do, we simply take the dierence
between the expected value of programming the vehicle to crash into the road-
ster (.9W) versus not programming the vehicle to do so (5W). When the value
is positive, she should program the vehicle to crash into the roadster, and when it
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is negative, she should not. (If the dierence is zero, she could justiably choose
either.) Given that .9W5W is a negative value (4.1W), from Tegan’s perspec-
tive, the appropriate choice is “I should not program the autonomous vehicle to
crash into the roadster.
We recognize that the proposal we have just articulated has problems (some
readers might think serious problems). For instance, some readers may nd it
objectionable that the procedure does not always prevent one from achieving
the intuitively wrong outcomes. is unseemly feature is inherent to any ratio-
nal decision procedure that incorporates one’s subjective inputs. However, it is
important to note that we do not claim that the expected moral value approach
guarantees the moral truth from the view of objective reason. We aim only to
show that the expected value approach oers rational decision- making guidance
when the decision maker must make a decision in her current doxasticstate.
Perhaps most worrisome is that the procedure on oer might strike some
as question- begging. at is, some readers might think that it presupposes the
truth of consequentialism. But this is not quite right for two reasons. First, an
assumption underlying this worry is that a view that tells in favor of “numbers
mattering,” as it were, must be a consequentialist view. is assumption is unten-
able. In the trolley problem, for instance, a Kantian can coherently choose to save
more lives because she believes doing so is the best she can do with respect to her
deontological obligations (Hsieh, Strudler, and Wasserman 2006). Likewise, the
fact that the procedure we defend employs an expected value approach need not
mean it is consequentialist. It can be defended on deontological grounds aswell.
More fundamentally, the procedure we defend is a meta- normative account
that is indierent to the truth- value of any particular rst- order moral theory.
is brings us to the second reason the question- beg ging worry is not problematic.
e approach we defend concerns what the programmer all things considered
ought to do— what the programmer has strongest reason to do. is sort of all-
things- considered judgment of practical rationality incorporates various types of
reasons, not exclusively moralones.
A range of reasons impact what one has strongest reason to do:self- interested,
agent- relative, impartial moral, hedonistic, and so on. e fact that moral reasons
favor Φ- ing does not settle the question of whether Φ- ing is what one ought to do
all things considered. As Derek Partnotes:
When we ask whether certain facts give us morally decisive reasons not
to act in some way, we are asking whether these facts are enough to make
this act wrong. We can then ask the further question whether these mor-
ally decisive reasons are decisive all things considered, by outweighing any
conicting non- moral reasons. (Forthcoming)
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What practical rationality requires one to do will turn on a range of normative
reasons including moral ones, but not only moral ones. It would indeed be wor-
risome, and potentially question- begging, if we were claiming that the procedure
provides the programmer with morally decisive guidance. But this is not what we
are doing. We are concerned with helping the programmer determine what the
balance of reasons favors doing— what the programmer has strongest reason to
do— and this kind of judgment of practical rationality turns on a range of dier-
ent kinds of reasons (Sepielli2009).
In sum, what practical rationality requires of the programmer is distinct from
what the programmer ought to believe is wrong, and even what the program-
mer has most moral reason to do. e procedure on oer helps the programmer
reason about her moral beliefs, and this in itself is not a moral judgment (though
what the programmer ought to do all things considered could, of course, coincide
with what she has most moral reason to do). e procedure we are defending can
help the programmer gure out what the balance of reasons favors doing, what
she has strongest reason to do all things considered.11
. ABrief Moral Defense and Remaining Moral
Objections
While the procedure itself concerns practical rationality, we nevertheless think
that there may be good independent moral reasons that favor the programmer’s
using such a procedure in the face of moral uncertainty. First, an expected value
approach can help a programmer to avoid acting in a morally callous or indier-
ent manner (or at least to minimize the impact of moral indierence). If the pro-
grammer uses the expected value procedure but arrives at the immoral choice, she
is less blameworthy than had she arrived at the immoral choice without using the
procedure. is is because using the procedure displays a concern for the impor-
tance of morality.
If Tegan, in the grip of moral uncertainty, were to fail to use the expected value
procedure, she would display a callous disregard for increasing the risk of wrong-
ing other human beings.12 As David Enoch says, “[I] f Ihave a way to minimize
the risk of my wronging people, and if there are no other relevant costs why
on earth wouldn’t Iminimize this risk?” (2014, 241). Aprogrammer who in the
face of moral uncertainty chooses to make a decision on a whim acts recklessly.
Using the expected moral value approach lowers the risk of wronging others.
A second moral reason for using an expected value approach to deciding
under moral uncertainty is that it can help the programmer embody the virtue
of humility (e.g., Snow 1995). Indeed, as most professional ethicists admit, moral
matters are deeply complex. Aprogrammer who in the grip of moral uncertainty
insists on using the “My Favorite eory” approach fails to respect the diculty
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of moral decision making and thereby exhibits a sort of intellectual chauvinism.
Karen Jones’s remark seems apt:“If it is so very bad to make a moral mistake, then
it would take astonishing arrogance to suppose that this supports a do- it- yourself
approach” (1999, 66– 67). e fact that a programmer must take into account the
possibility that she is mistaken about her moral beliefs builds a kind of humility
into the very decision procedure.
Some may worry that a programmer who uses the expected moral value
approach is compromising her integrity (Sepielli, forthcoming). e thought is
that the programmer who follows the approach will oen have to act in accor-
dance with a normative view that she thinks is less likely correct. And acting in
accordance with a theory one thinks less likely to be correct compromises one’s
integrity. ough this line of thought is surely tempting, it misses its mark. e
value of integrity is something that must be considered along with other moral
values. And how to handle the importance of the value of integrity is again a
question that may fall victim to moral uncertainty. So the issue of integrity is not
so much an objection as it is another consideration that must be included in the
set of issues a programmer is morally uncertainabout.
Another objection to a programmer using an expected value procedure holds
that the programmer would forgo something of great moral importance— that
is, moral understanding. For instance, Alison Hills (2009) claims that it is not
enough to merely make the right moral judgments; one must secure moral under-
standing.13 She argues that even reciting memorized reasons for the right actions
will not suce. Instead, she claims, one must develop understanding— that is,
roughly, the ability to synthesize the moral concepts and apply the concepts in
other similar contexts. And clearly, a programmer who is inputting her credences
and related normative beliefs into an expected moral value procedure lacks the
sort of moral understanding that Hills requires.
But this sort of objection misses the point. First, it is important to keep in
mind that while the outcome of the procedure might not have been what a pro-
grammer originally intended, it is the programmer herself who is deciding to use
the procedure that forces her to consider the moral implications of the possibility
of deciding incorrectly. Second, it would indeed be the ideal situation to develop
moral understanding, fully exercise one’s autonomy, and perform the action that
the true moral view requires. However, we agree with Enoch, who aptlynotes:
Tolerating a greater risk of wronging others merely for the value of moral
autonomy and understanding is thus self- defeating, indeed perhaps even
practically inconsistent. Someone willing to tolerate a greater risk of act-
ing impermissibly merely in order to work on her (or anyone else’s) moral
understanding, that is, independently of the supposed instrumental
payos of having more morally understanding people around, is acting
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wrongly, and indeed exhibits severe shortage in moral understanding (of
the value of moral understanding, among other things). (2014,249)
One can imagine how absurd an explanation from a programmer who decided
on her own and acted in a way that wronged someone would sound if she were
asked by the person who was wronged why she did not attempt to lower the risk
of wronging another and she responded, “Well, Iwanted to exercise my personal
autonomy and work on my moral understanding.14 Such a response would be
patently oensive to the person who was wronged given that the programmer did
have a way to lower her risk of wronging another.
. Conclusion
In this chapter we aimed to show that programmers (or whoever will ultimately
be choosing the ethics of autonomous vehicles) are likely to face instances where
they are in the grip of moral uncertainty and require a method to help them
decide how to appropriately act. We discussed three proposals for coping with
this uncertainty:Continue Deliberating, My Favorite eory, and a particular
expected moral value approach. We oered some moral reasons for why the
programmer has reasons to employ the third procedure in situations with moral
uncertainty.
While there are surely many remaining issues to be discussed with respect to
the question of how to deal with moral uncertainty in programming contexts,
this chapter aims to provide a rst step to oering programmers direction on how
to appropriately handle decision- making under moral uncertainty. We hope it
encourages robot ethics scholars to pay more attention to guiding programmers
who are under moral uncertainty.
Notes
1. Patrick Lin (2014, 2015)is one of the rst scholars to explore the relevance of the
trolley problem in the context of autonomous vehicles.
2. ere are important moral questions that we do not consider in this chapter. For
instance, should the age of passengers in a vehicle be taken into account in deciding
how the vehicle should be programmed to crash? Who should be responsible for an
accident caused by autonomous vehicles? Is it possible to confer legal personhood
on the autonomous vehicle? What liability rules should we as society adopt to regu-
late autonomous vehicles? (Douma and Palodichuk 2012; Gurney 2013). For ethical
issues involving robots in general, see Nourbakhsh (2013), Lin, Abney, and Bekey
(2012), and Wallach and Allen (2009).
3. Robotics Institute of Carnegie Mellon University, for instance, oers a course named
“Ethics and Robotics.
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4. Here we mirror the formulation of an example in MacAskill (forthcoming).
5. As will become clear, we owe a signicant intellectual debt to Andrew Sepielli for his
work on the topic of moral uncertainty.
6. One might think that technological advances can soon minimize empirical uncer-
tainties. But this is a naive assumption. Existing robots are far from being able to fully
eliminate or account for possible empirical uncertainties. We are grateful to Illah
Nourbakhsh, professor of robotics at Carnegie Mellon University, for bringing this
point to our attention.
7. e solution we support resembles the celebrated Pascal’s Wager argument that
Blaise Pascal oers for why one should believe in God. Pascal states, “Either
God is or he is not. But to which view shall we be inclined? Let us weigh
up the gain and the loss involved in calling heads that God exists. Let us assess
two cases:if you win you win everything, if you lose you lose nothing. Do not
hesitate then; wager that he does exist” (1670, § 233). We recognize that many
nd Pascal’s wager problematic (Du 1986), although there are writers who
nd it logically valid (Hájek 2012; Mackie 1982; Rescher 1985). At any rate,
we are not concerned here to intervene in a debate about belief in divine exis-
tence. Nevertheless, we do think insights from Pascal’s Wager can usefully be
deployed, with relevant modications, for the problem of programming under
moral uncertainty.
8. Sepielli considers a scenario much like the one Tegan is in. He notes, “Some conse-
quentialist theory may say that it’s better to kill 1 person to save 5 people than it is to
spare that person and allow the 5 people to die. Adeontological theory may say the
opposite. But it is not as though the consequentialist theory has, somehow encoded
within it, information about how its own dierence in value between these two
actions compares to the dierence in value between them according to deontology”
(2009,12).
9. Philosopher Ted Lockhart oers a proposal that aims to hedge and also claims
to avoid the PIVC. Lockhart’s view requires one to maximize “expected moral
rightness” (Lockhart 2000, 27; Sepielli 2006) and thus does indeed account
not only for the probability that a particular moral theory is right, but also for
the moral weight (value, or degree) of the theory. One important problem with
Lockhart’s view is that it regards moral theories as having equal rightness in every
case (Sepielli 2006, 602). For a more detailed criticism of Lockhart’s position, see
Sepielli (2006,2013).
10. e example we use to explain the three steps also closely models an example from
Sepielli (2009). It is worth noting that Sepielli does not break down his analysis
into steps as we have. We have oered these steps with the hope that they accurately
capture Sepielli’s important insights while also allowing for practical application.
11. We are grateful to Suneal Bedi for helpful discussion regarding the issues in this
section.
12. David Enoch (2014) oers this reason for why one ought to defer to a moral expert
with regard to moral decisions.
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13. Hills states, “Moral understanding is important not just because it is a means to act-
ing rightly or reliably, though it is. Nor is it important only because it is relevant to
the evaluations of an agent’s character. It is essential to acting well” (2009,119).
14. is sort of objection to Hills (2009) is due to Enoch (2014). Enoch objects in the
context of a person failing to defer to a moral expert for moral guidance.
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Some philosophers have recently argued that decision-makers ought to take normative uncertainty into account in their decisionmaking. These philosophers argue that, just as it is plausible that we should maximize expected value under empirical uncertainty, it is plausible that we should maximize expected choice-worthiness under normative uncertainty. However, such an approach faces two serious problems: how to deal with merely ordinal theories, which do not give sense to the idea of magnitudes of choice-worthiness; and how, even when theories do give sense to magnitudes of choice-worthiness, to compare magnitudes of choice-worthiness across different theories. Some critics have suggested that these problems are fatal to the project of developing a normative account of decision-making under normative uncertainty. The primary purpose of this article is to show that this is not the case. To this end, I develop an analogy between decision-making under normative uncertainty and the problem of social choice, and then argue that the Borda Rule provides the best way of making decisions in the face of merely ordinal theories and intertheoretic incomparability.
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The act of driving always carries some level of risk. With the introduction of vehicle automation, it is probable that computer-driven vehicles will assess this changing level of risk while driving, and make decisions as to the allowable risk for itself and other road users. In certain situations, an automated vehicle may be forced to select whether to expose itself and its passengers to a small risk in order to protect other road users from an equal or greater amount of cumulative risk. In legal literature, this is known as the duty to act. The moral and legal responsibilities of an automated vehicle to act on the behalf of other road users are explored.
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In some cases the morality of action is an inter‐personal affair. I am obliged to do something and there is a person to whom I am obliged to do it. I do wrong and there is a person I wrong. Some routine examples: I do wrong, and wrong you, by doing something bad for you, by feeding you contaminated meat. I do wrong, and wrong you, by failing to do something good for you, by ignoring your S.O.S. I do wrong, and wrong you, by violating your rights, by stealing your stuff. I do wrong, and wrong you, by disrespecting you, by brazenly discounting your opinions.