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... Approximately 45 species have been reported to occur in India. The Cymbopogon species that produce volatile oils are called aromatic grasses (Rao, 1997). Different types of essential oils, such as palmarosa oil, lemongrass oil, citronella oil and ginger grass or rusa oil, are very popular in perfumery (Rao, 1997; Sangwan et al. 2001a). ...
... The Cymbopogon species that produce volatile oils are called aromatic grasses (Rao, 1997). Different types of essential oils, such as palmarosa oil, lemongrass oil, citronella oil and ginger grass or rusa oil, are very popular in perfumery (Rao, 1997; Sangwan et al. 2001a). Cymbopogon species display wide variation in morphological attributes and essential oil composition at inter-and intraspecific levels (Rao, 1997). ...
... Different types of essential oils, such as palmarosa oil, lemongrass oil, citronella oil and ginger grass or rusa oil, are very popular in perfumery (Rao, 1997; Sangwan et al. 2001a). Cymbopogon species display wide variation in morphological attributes and essential oil composition at inter-and intraspecific levels (Rao, 1997). Knowledge of germplasm diversity is important for plant conservation and improvement, therefore there is interest in determining the genetic diversity in Cymbopogon germplasm. ...
Genetic diversity of 25 accessions of Cymbopogon aromatic grasses including eight species, two hybrids and one mutant strain were analyzed using DNA markers generated by employing 20 primer pairs derived from cDNAs containing simple sequence repeat (SSR) of rice genome. A total of 151 bands were produced ranging from 3 to 12 per primer pair. The polymorphic information content values varied from 0.143 to 0.916 with an average 0.715. Jaccard’s similarity coefficient ranged from 64 to 87% among the paired accessions. The level of diversity among different taxa/accessions observed during the present study was, however, low relative to the diversity level obtained due to RAPD markers in earlier studies. The pattern of genetic diversity neither matched with the known taxonomic classification, nor did it always match with the distribution of chemical constituents of the essential oils available in these accessions. Thus, present investigation though revealed poor correlation between the molecular and chemical diversity, indicating that chemical diversity in medicinal and aromatic species is not only result of genetic variability, but it also depends on a number of other factors. Thus this study may prove useful in several ways in Cymbopogon conservation and breeding programs and in the development of perfect markers though association mapping for genes involved in controlling agronomically important traits.
... Cymbopogon (Poaceae) represents an important natural resource of about 140 species that grow in tropical and subtropical regions around the world (Thara Saraswathi et al., 2014). They exhibit a large variation in morphology and essential oil composition (Rao 1997) [14] . These species are classified into three distinct series based on their chemo types: Citratii (aldehyde type), Rusae (alcohol Type) and Shoeanthi (intermediate type that accumulates both alcohol and aldehydes) (Lavania et al., 2012). ...
... Cymbopogon (Poaceae) represents an important natural resource of about 140 species that grow in tropical and subtropical regions around the world (Thara Saraswathi et al., 2014). They exhibit a large variation in morphology and essential oil composition (Rao 1997) [14] . These species are classified into three distinct series based on their chemo types: Citratii (aldehyde type), Rusae (alcohol Type) and Shoeanthi (intermediate type that accumulates both alcohol and aldehydes) (Lavania et al., 2012). ...
Cymbopogon species are high value aromatic grasses accounting for about 140 species worldwide. Globally renowned Cymbopogon citratus (C.citratus) which is native to South West Asia is occasionally found growing in wild locations of Karnataka. Natural habitat of Cymbopogon species, phenotypically appearing as C. citratus was sourced out at Thonnur Lake, Mandya district, Karnataka. Fresh leaves were subjected to hydro distillation for essential oil extraction. Qualitative analysis of the essential oil was made by GC-MS analysis. Major constituents in the essential oil were found to be geranial (48%), neral (34%) and beta-myrcene (6.16%). These are the biochemical marker constituents of C.citratus. Besides, geranial and neral constituent composition in total was 82% which was found to be higher when compared to the standard references on essential oil composition reported in the cultigen relative, RRL-J (72-75%) developed from Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow. In addition, molecular marker based taxonomical identification of the wild Cymbopogon species was performed using DNA barcoding technique. Standard DNA barcode primer ITS-2 was used in the study. Morphological observation, cytogenetic, biochemical and molecular analyses validated the wild Cymbopogon species as C.citratus. Uninhabited aromatic grasses are innately adapted to withstand environmental stress which results in the production of higher amounts of secondary metabolites and diverse components naturally and occasionally, adapt newer pathways and mechanisms to produce novel compounds for sustenance. This presents an opportunity to explore natural compounds for the benefit of mankind. The present study suggests utilization of digitally authenticated native gene pool of C.citratus in molecular breeding program and genetic resource management strategies.
... The name Cymbopogon is derived from Greek words "Kymbe" (boat) and "pogon" (beard) referring to the flower spike arrangement. The genus Cymbopogon comprises of about 140 species, which are indigenous in tropical and sub-tropical areas of Asia and cultivated in South and Central America, Africa and other Tropical countries (Soenarko, 1997;Rao, 1997;Khanuja et al., 2005;Padalia et al., 2011;Shah et al., 2012). Of the 140, about 45 species occur in India. ...
... motia and sofia, C. nardus var. nardus, C. pendulus, C. winterianus, C. jwarancusa and C. khasianus yields essential oils of vivid composition referred as lemongrass oil, palmarosa oil, citronella oil, ginger grass or rusa oil (Rao, 1997;Gupta & Jain, 1978;Kumar et al., 2000). The unique characteristics of these aromatic grasses are that they have wide adaptability to grow in different types of soils in different agri-climatic conditions and cropping sequences. ...
Economic and pharmacological significance of the essential oils of members of the genus Cymbopogon is rapidly increasing. Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus), wild lemongrass (C. citratus), palmarosa (C. martinii) and citronella (C. winterianus) are the elite essential oil producing aromatic grasses of the genus Cymbopogon. Lemongrass essential oil is mainly comprises of cyclic and acyclic monoterpenes. Citral (a racemic mixture of two isoforms geranial and neral) is the major constituent which gives a characteristic lemon like aroma to lemongrass oil. Lemongrass oil and citral are mainly used in flavors, fragrances, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Beside citral is also used for the synthesis of vitamin B and ionones. In this chapter we have thoroughly discussed the various aspects of lemongrass essential oil like biosynthesis, accumulation, chemical compositions and biological properties. C li c k h e r e t o b u y AB B Y Y P D F Trans fo r m e r 2 .0 w w w .A B B Y Y .c o m C li c k h e r e t o b u y AB B Y Y P D F Trans fo r m e r 2 .0 w w w .A B B Y Y .c o m
... The genus Cymbopogon comprised of about 140 species world wide, out of which 45 species have been reported to occur in India. The members of the genus Cymbopogon occur abundantly in tropics and sub tropics regions of Asia, Africa and America with a regular distribution ranging from mountains and grassland to arid zones [1][2][3]. Cymbopogon species display wide variation in morphological attributes and essential oil composition at inter and intra specific level and over the years different chemo cultivars varying in their aroma have been selected or breed by crossing with other cultivars or closely related species. The most common economic species viz., C. winterianus, C. flexuosus, C. martinii var. ...
... nardus,C. citratus, C. pendulus, C. warancusa, C. khasianus produces different types of essential oil, such as palmarosa oil, lemongrass oil, citronella oil, ginger grass or rusa oil of commercial interest [3][4][5]. ...
The essential oil compositions of total nineteen cultivars of Cymbopogon Spreng. (Poaceae) species viz. C. martinii (Roxb.) Wats. var. motia Burk., C. flexuosus Nees ex Steud, C. winterinus Jowitt., C. pendulus Nees ex Steud. and a hybrid of C. khasianus (Hack) Stapf. ex Bor and C. pendulus Nees ex Steud. Were examined and compared using capillary GC and GC-MS. The analysis led to the identification of 48 constituents forming 90.1% to 99.7% of their total oil compositions with monoterpenoids (78.9% to 97.4%) as the most exclusive constituents. The comparative results showed considerable variation in the qualitative and quantitative compositions of essential oils from nineteen different cultivars of the studied Cymbopogon species. On the basis of chemical similarity the cultivars of genus Cymbopogon was divided into five chemical variants/groups within two series viz. Citrati and Rusae. The volatile profile of existing cultivars of Cymbopogon are useful for their commercial utilization as they possess range of essential oils and aroma chemicals used in perfumery, flavour, pharmaceutical and other allied industries. Moreover, the marker constituents in their essential oils may be utilized as an important tool in oil authentication.
... Other constituent like citral is used in vitamin A and ionone synthesis. Several Cymbopogon species possessed significant anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-ageing, pesticidal, antimicrobial, mosquito repellant and larvicidal activities and thus, are used in native medicine for curing a number of diseases (Rao, 1997) [16] . Studies on the oil composition of various Cymbopogon species have been carried out time to time, who reports geraniol, geranyl acetate, citral, piperitone, limonene, elemecin, monoterpene alcohols and sesquiterpenes as the major constituents in their essential oils (Kulkarni et al., 1992;Khanuja et al., 2005) [11,10] . ...
... have a unique character, that they can be cultivated in different types of soils even with less fertile status of the land and have good adaptability to diverse agro-climatic conditions. The most commonly cultivated and economic species of Cymbopogon are C. nardus, C. flexuosus, C. pendulus, C. citratus, C. khasianus, C. martini, C. winterianus, and C. jwarancusa, yields essential oils which are having commercial value viz.,lemongrass oil, citronella oil, palmarosa oil, ginger grass (Gupta and Jain, 1978;Rao 1997;. More than 60000 hectares area is under cultivation of aromatic grasses in India distributed in different states viz., Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Assam, Kerala, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh (Husain, 1994;Padalia et al., 2011). ...
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) is an important perennial aromaticplant and natural source of citral that is used in the preparations ofvariousperfumes.In the present study, eight lemongrass cultivars wereevaluated for growth, herbage, and essential oil yield during 2018-2019inthe southern region of Karnataka, India. Results revealed that significantdifferences were noticed in the growth and yield parameters of eightlemongrass cultivars studied. The plant height and the number of tillersvaries, ranging from 108.47-136.75cm and 38.13-47.60, respectively.Significantly higher herbage yield (t/ha/year) was recorded in CIM-Shikar(24.25), followed by Krishna (22.50) and CKP-25 (20.72). The lowest herbageyield wasrecorded in the Cauvery cultivar. Essential oil content varied from0.70-1.35% (v/w) and essential oil yield varies from 133.56- 302.40 kg/ha/year in different cultivars. The amount of citral varied from 2.20% to 88.14%among eight lemongrass cultivars. The varieties arranged according to thecitral content as follows, Cauvery (88.84 ± 0.99) >Nima (88.57 ± 0.70)>CIM-Shikar (84.97 ± 4.08) >OD-19 (85.90 ± 0.59) >CIM-Suvarna (82.53± 1.10) >CKP-25 (81.84 ± 0.30) >Krishna (79.26 ± 0.44) >CIM-Atal (2.15± 0.07). CIM-Atal was superior in geraniol (88.92 ± 1.00%) compared tocitral (geranial and neral) content among lemongrass cultivars studied; thiscultivar may be a partial replacement/ substitute for geraniol rich essentialoil-bearing plant in the future. Overall, cultivar CIM-Shikar was superiorto other cultivars in terms of essential oil yield (302.40 kg/ha/year) andsuperior in citral content (84.97 ± 4.08).
... This genus contains between 102 and 104 species [1], of which 42, 45, 6, 4 and 2 have been reported in Africa, India, Australia, Europe and North America, respectively, while the rest are distributed in South Asia [2]. The plant is found mainly in the tropics and sub-tropics of America, Asia and Africa, extending from grassland and mountains to arid regions [3,4]. Among the different Cymbopogon species, Cymbopogon flexuosus and Cymbopogon citratus are the most esteemed species in terms of essential oil production and their phytochemical and pharmacological properties [5]. ...
This paper investigated the influence of three agroecological zones (AEZs) in Kenya, namely upper, middle and lower zones on Cymbopogon flexuosus agronomic traits, oil yield and oil quality. Plant height (PHT), number of leaves per clump (NoLC), number of tillers per clump (NoTC), survival rate, herbage yield and oil yield were evaluated at the harvesting time (90 and 150 days after planting) during February and April 2022. The C. flexuosus oil was recovered by steam distillation technique and subsequently assessed for quality using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis. Results showed that C. flexuosus grown in lower and middle zones had higher PHT, NoLC and NoTC compared to those grown in the upper zone. Plant survival ranged from 73.75 to 90.50%, herbage yield ranged between 10,200 and 13,027 kg/ha and oil yield ranged from 25.34 to 31.74 l/ha across the zones. In total, 49 compounds were identified from the extracted C. flexuosus oil cultivated under the three AEZs using the GC-MS method, with the middle zone characterized by the greatest number of constituents, out of which, 11 oil compounds differed significantly among the three AEZs. The oil yield of C. flexuosus on a fresh weight basis across the three zones ranged from 0.17 to 0.24%, and the main constituents in the essential oil were citral (54.80-71.45%), geranyl acetate (3.73-7.96%), geraniol (3.04-7.02%) and isogeranial (2.29-2.71%). Further, citral, a racemic compound of two isomers neral and geranial, was 69.92 and 71.45% in the oil in upper and lower zones, respectively, indicating that the oil from the two zones attained acceptable quality for its applications. The citral content was lower in the middle ecological zone (54.80%) as compared to the other two zones. The present work reflects that AEZs in Kenya affected the C. flexuosus oil yield, oil quality and various agronomic traits.
... have a unique character, that they can be cultivated in different types of soils even with less fertile status of the land and have good adaptability to diverse agro-climatic conditions. The most commonly cultivated and economic species of Cymbopogon are C. nardus, C. flexuosus, C. pendulus, C. citratus, C. khasianus, C. martini, C. winterianus, and C. jwarancusa, yields essential oils which are having commercial value viz.,lemongrass oil, citronella oil, palmarosa oil, ginger grass (Gupta and Jain, 1978;Rao 1997;. More than 60000 hectares area is under cultivation of aromatic grasses in India distributed in different states viz., Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Assam, Kerala, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh (Husain, 1994;Padalia et al., 2011). ...
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) is an important perennial aromatic plant and natural source of citral that is used in the preparations of variousperfumes.In the present study, eight lemongrass cultivars were evaluated for growth, herbage, and essential oil yield during 2018-2019 inthe southern region of Karnataka, India. Results revealed that significant differences were noticed in the growth and yield parameters of eight lemongrass cultivars studied. The plant height and the number of tillers varies, ranging from 108.47-136.75cm and 38.13-47.60, respectively. Significantly higher herbage yield (t/ha/year) was recorded in CIM-Shikar (24.25), followed by Krishna (22.50) and CKP-25 (20.72). The lowest herbage yield wasrecorded in the Cauvery cultivar. Essential oil content varied from 0.70-1.35% (v/w) and essential oil yield varies from 133.56-302.40 kg/ha/ year in different cultivars. The amount of citral varied from 2.20% to 88.14% among eight lemongrass cultivars. The varieties arranged according to the citral content as follows, Cauvery (88.84 ± 0.99) >Nima (88.57 ± 0.70) >CIM-Shikar (84.97 ± 4.08) >OD-19 (85.90 ± 0.59) >CIM-Suvarna (82.53 ± 1.10) >CKP-25 (81.84 ± 0.30) >Krishna (79.26 ± 0.44) >CIM-Atal (2.15 ± 0.07). CIM-Atal was superior in geraniol (88.92 ± 1.00%) compared to citral (geranial and neral) content among lemongrass cultivars studied; this cultivar may be a partial replacement/ substitute for geraniol rich essential oil-bearing plant in the future. Overall, cultivar CIM-Shikar was superior to other cultivars in terms of essential oil yield (302.40 kg/ha/year) and superior in citral content (84.97 ± 4.08).
... Other examples of simple monogenic inheritance include citronellal synthesis in Cymbopogon nardus var. confertiflorus (Rao 1997), dominant gene C in capsicum involved in capsaicin production (Blum et al. 2002) and Frc gene controlling fructan synthesis in Allium cepa (McCallum et al. 2006). Similar genetic inheritance was also seen in case of potato, where a single locus was considered to be involved in leptinine metabolism in Solanum chacoense (Ramakrishnan et al. 2015). ...
As suggested by the reports of the World Health Organization, the ancient knowledge of medicinal and aromatic plants still forms the basis of traditional and indigenous health system in most developing countries. Almost 80% of the world population depends on plant secondary metabolites (such as alkaloids, phenolics, terpenes, etc.) as a safer alternative than synthetic medicines. Traditional breeding method falls short to meet the huge demands, and technological intervention like biotechnology-based breeding methods (BBBMs) becomes a necessity. Plant tissue culture techniques like Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer, bioreactor technology, etc. helps to improve yield to satisfactory levels, while methods like cryopreservation, micropropagation, synthetic seeds, etc. help in conservation and storage of the products. Formation of hairy roots from Agrobacterium rhizogenes transformation is one of the most exploited methods for mass production of secondary metabolites. Use of elicitors, improved media constitution, precursor feeding and engineering metabolic pathways helps to drive the flux towards our desired products. Emergence of medicinal plant genomics consortium and functional genomics technologies such as expressed sequence tag (EST) databases, microarrays and restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) allows transcriptome profiling and study of yet unexcavated wild plant resources. Biotechnological intervention is also used to impart stress tolerance and reduce the toxicity of the metabolic products. Specific gene editing techniques like CRISPR/Cas9, COSTREL, TALENs and polyploidy generation are also being applied to medicinal and aromatic plants for improved industrial strain generation. The present book chapter represents an overview of the latest technological advancements in improving the quality of the medicinal plants to exploit maximum benefit out of them in a sustainable way.
... The essential oils from Cymbopogon species such as lemongrass, palmarosa and citronella contains a wide variety of cyclic and acylic monoterpene such like citral(3,7-dimethyl 2,6-octadienal; a mixture of two isomer geranial and neral)is used in vitamin A and ionone synthesis.. Other constituent like geraniol and its ester, citronellol and citronellal are important perfume materials. Several Cymbopogon species possessed significant anthelmintic, anti inflammatory, analgesic, antiageing, pesticidal, antimicrobial, mosquito repellant and larvicidal activities and thus, are used in native medicine for curing a number of diseases (Rao, 1997). Studies on the oil composition of various Cymbopogon species have been carried out time to time, who reports geraniol, geranyl acetate, citral, limonene, elemecin, monoterpene alcohols and sesquiterpenes as the major constituents in their essential oils (Kulkarni, et al., 1992;Khanuja, et al., 2005;Rao,et al., 2009;Verma, et al.,2009).The commercial aspects of the essential oils of these aromatic grasses and their cultivars prompted us to carry out detailed comparative terpenoid composition of cultivated species C. flexuosus in Northern part of India. ...
The essential oils of Cymbopogon flexuosus (lemon grass) of the family Poaceae collected from different altitudes of the Uttarakhand region of Himalaya were subjected to detailed GC/MS analysis in order to determine the variation of concentration in their constituents. The GC/MS analysis led to the identification of 29 constituents forming 90.62 to 93.58% of their total oil content. The major constituents were citral, geraniol, citronellol,citranellal, linalool, borneol, ?-myrcene limonene, ?-caryophyllene, camphene, ?-cadinene, ? terpineol, neryl acetate and heptenone. Plants collected from 450 m altitude afforded citral (74.58 %) [a isomeric mixture of geranial and nearl] as a major constituents whereas only a less percentage of citral (64.21%, 68.29%) was found in the plants collected from two other altitudes i.e 250m and 1000m respectively. The geraniol, cam-phene and neryl acetate were obtained in a high concentration form the plants collected at 250 m altitude but in the plant from two other altitudes, it was found only in less proportion. Similarly, ?-cadinene, ?-terpineol and camphene were the major constituents of plants at 1000m altitude but in other plants it was detected in very low concentration. Since, the concentration of plant constituents affected by altitude and season, medicinalproperties of such plants and their use in biological application would vary accordingly.
... Cymbopogon species exhibits a large variation in morphological characteristics and essential oil composition at inter and intra specific levels [4]. In general, Cymbopogon distans medicinal materials are collected from wild, making its quality of unstable. ...
Morphological resemblance among Cymbopogon distans species and their adulterants which are procured from different markets in the form of dried or fresh plant tissues represents a serious problem for quality and safety of medicinal plants, as it supports frauds for substitution. In order to assure the quality control of C. distans species, DNA barcode, microscopic identification and High Performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprint were synergistically used to discriminate C. distans from its adulterants. In this work, the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) was chosen for distinguishing C. distans from their usual adulterants from 5 provinces of China. Sequences were obtained after removal of the 5.8S and 28S sections. A multiple sequence alignment was finalized. Results exhibited that ITS2 performed well, with 100% of genera being accurately distinguished. Additionally, finding indicates that the upper epidermis in leaf of C. distans was composed of one layer of wide elongated cells called Bulliform cells whereas in C. distans the upper epidermis consist of one layer cell, thus these feactures are very important for the anatomy identification. The HPLC fingerprint method was also developed, the similarities of 6 batches of C. distans samples were all more than 0.93, indicating that the samples from different geographical origins shared similar HPLC fingerprints. And the similarities between C. distans, C. citratus, C. flexuosus and Imperata cylindrica were all less than 0.93, suggesting that there was significance difference between C. distans and its adulterants. Finally, it was concluded that the DNA barcode, HPLC fingerprint and microscopic methods could effectively authenticate the quality of C. distans from their adulterants and can provide accurate and reliable information to tackle the complex quality issue of C. distans in markets. This is the first report of detailed analysis of the C. distans for effective quality and safety.
... Several Cymbopogon species possessed significant anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antiageing, pesticidal, antimicrobial, mosquito repellant and larvicidal activities and thus, are used in native medicine for curing a number of diseases (Khanuja et al., 2005). Studies on the oil composition of various Cymbopogon species have been carried out time to time, reports geraniol, geranyl acetate, citral, piperitone, limonene, elemecin, monoterpene alcohols and sesqui-terpenes as the major constituents in their essential oils (Rao, 1997;Kulkarni et al., 1992). In Cymbopogon, the essential oil composition showed significant qualitative and quantitative variation across the species/cultivars (Padalia et al., 2011). ...
The present study was aimed to find out the chemical constituents of essential oils of cymbopogon species,viz. Cymbopogon martinii var motia, Cymbopogon flexuosus Nees., Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt., growing in Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, India. The essential oils were obtained by hydro-distillationand subjected to detailed Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis in order to determine the variation in their volatile constituents. Twenty seven compounds are α-pinene, β-myrcene, Limonene, Cis-b-Ocimene, pCymene ,Terpinolene,6-Methyl hept-5-en-2-one, Citronellal, Linalool, Linalyl acetate, β-Elemene, β-Caryophyllene, Citronellyl acetate, Neral, α– Terpineol, Borneol,Gerainal, γ-Cadinene,Geranyl acetate, Citronellol,Nerol,Geraniol, Caryophyllene oxide,Germacrene—D-4-ol,Elemol, Epi-α-cadinol, δ-Cadinol representing 92.24 to 95.86% of the oil compositions as identified. While comparing the common constituents of three different species of cymbopogon taxa , the remarkable variation in compositions of essential oil was observed and it was in concentration of nearl (0.40;34.9;1.6), gerainal (nil;47.5;0.96) geraniol (82.5;4.5;20.15) , citronellol (T;0.2;12.39) , citronellal (0.1;0.5;36.19) , and linalool (0.8;1.6;0.96) for C.martini, C.flexuosus, C. winterianus respectively
... ex Bor, C. winterianus Jowitt., C. nardus (L.) Rendle and C. martinii (Roxb.) W. Watson are of commercial importance and cultivated for production of high-value essential oils of trade, such as lemongrass, citronella, palmarosa, jamarosa and ginger-grass or rusa oil used extensively in perfumery, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products [3][4][5][6]. In addition to these, some of the other species, viz. ...
Cymbopogon distans (Nees. ex. Steud.) W. Watson (family: Poaceae) is a perennial aromatic grass widely distributed in tropical and subtropical zones of north-western Himalaya. The essential oil of C. distans has industrial potential for aromatherapy, fragrances and for natural aroma isolates. In view of chemotypic variations and industrial potential of the essential oil of C. distans, the present study was carried out to investigate the variability in chemical composition of p-menthenols chemotype of the C. distans harvested in different seasons during annual growth, and to evaluate the antimicrobial potential of its essential oil against pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains. The major constituents identified in essential oil of C. distans were cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (24.5–26.7%), δ-2-carene (19.9–28.2%), cis-piperitol (10.9–23.6%), trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (8.4–13.3%) and trans-piperitol (5.4–7.3%). The essential oil showed antagonist activity against nine bacterial strains (MIC: 250–1000 μg/mL) and three fungal strains (MIC: 130–530 μg/mL). Results revealed that the essential oil of C. distans possessed >50.0% of p-menthenols viz., cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol, trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol, cis-piperitol and trans-piperitol as major constituents, with a significant antimicrobial potential for pathogenic microbial strains.
... nardus, C. citratus, C. pendulus, C. winterianus, and C. martinii var. motia and sofia are the economically important species of the genus [1][2][3][4] . Cymbopogon martinii is a tall perennial grass about 5-8 feet long. ...
Cymbopogon martinii var. sofia an important medicinal plant, was collected from forest nursery Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. Plant is very known among local tribal and sub-tribal community due to their medicinal importance. Oil was extracted through hydrodistillation method using Clevenger’s apparatus. GC/GC-MS analysis of C. martinii essential oil exhibited presence of 37 compounds. The major constituents were sabinol (19.19 %), trans-p-mentha-2,8-dienol (18.67 %), trans-carveol (18.27 %), cis-p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol (11.11 %), cis-carveol (7.66 %), delphone (7.47 %), carvone (3.72 %), durenol (3.01 %), limonene (1.76 %) and camphene (1.59 %). Antidermatophytic activity of C. martinii leaves essential oil was carried out against selected dermatophytic fungi and Candida albicans using disc diffusion technique and by minimum inhibitory concentration determinations. Maximum 80.67±0.289 mm inhibition zone and activity index 3.2 was observed against Trichophyton mentagrophytes (MTCC 7687) followed by 78.33±1.527 mm against M. fulvum (MTCC 2837) and 45.5±0.500 mm against T. rubrum (MTCC 296). Minimum inhibitory concentration was ranged from 2 μl/ml to 3 μl/ml against tested fungi. Present study concluded that essential oil of Cymbopogon martinii Var. Sofia have strong antimicrobial properties.
... The species display wide variations in morphological attributes and EO compositions at inter-and intraspecific levels. [25] Previous research had confirmed that EOs of Cymbopogon spp., e.g. West-Indian lemongrass (C. ...
Toxicity of twenty-two essential oils to three bacterial pathogens in different horticultural systems: Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli (causing blight of bean), Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis (bacterial wilt and canker of tomato), and Pseudomonas tolaasii (causal agent of bacterial brown blotch on cultivated mushrooms) was tested. Control of bacterial diseases is very difficult due to antibiotic resistance and ineffectiveness of chemical products, to that essential oils offer a promising alternative. Minimal inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations are determined by applying a single drop of oil onto the inner side of each plate cover in macrodilution assays. Among all tested substances, the strongest and broadest activity was shown by the oils of wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens), oregano (Origanum vulgare), and lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus. Carvacrol (64.0–75.8%) was the dominant component of oregano oils, while geranial (40.7%) and neral (26.7%) were the major constituents of lemongrass oil. Xanthomonas campestris pv. phaseoli was the most sensitive to plant essential oils, being susceptible to 19 oils, while 11 oils were bactericidal to the pathogen. Sixteen oils inhibited the growth of Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis and seven oils showed bactericidal effects to the pathogen. The least sensitive species was Pseudomonas tolaasii as five oils inhibited bacterial growth and two oils were bactericidal. Wintergreen, oregano, and lemongrass oils should be formulated as potential biochemical bactericides against different horticultural pathogens.
... Cymbopogon sp. occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and America, from hilly areas to arid zones (3,8,30,34). Its species have been widely studied for variation in morphological features, biomass, aroma, essential oil and total citral yields, and other chemical components (2). ...
The essential oil composition of five elite Cymbopogon varieties (OD-19, Pragati, RRL-16, NLG-84) and a hybrid (CPK-25) and four new selections (LS-1 to LS-4) were determined by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The oil yield ranged from 0.31% to 1.0% with CPK-25 (1.0%) and LS-2 (0.95%) containing the highest. A total of 66 compounds, constituting 84.6–94.3% of the oils, were identified. The main compounds were geranial (29.9–41.6%), neral (25.8–32.5%), citronellol (0.3–12.8%), geranyl acetate (1.2–8.4%), and geraniol (1.8–8.2%). Of the cultivars, OD-19 (74.1%) had the highest and LS-3 (55.7%) contained the lowest amount of total citral. CKP-25 and LS-2 contained the highest amounts of oil (1.0% and 0.95%) with similar (67.9% and 68.3%) total citral concentrations. Essential oil yield in the CPK-25 cultivar was similar. LS-2, a new cultivar, had higher essential oil yield (0.95%) in the region, compared to the commercial cultivars Caveri (0.8%), OD-19 (0.7%), Pragati (0.7%), and Parman (0.8%) of Cymbopogon flexuosus.
... Its species are widely distributed in semi-temperate to tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. The species display wide variations in morphological attributes and EO compositions at interand intraspecific levels (Rao, 1997). It was confirmed by many authors that EOs of Cymbopogon spp., e.g. ...
Disease control with few or no chemicals is a major challenge for mushroom growers in the 21st century. An alarming incidence of resistance to antibiotics in bacteria, and to fungicides among mycopathogenic fungi requires effective alternatives. Previous studies have indicated that various plant oils and their components demonstrate strong antimicrobial effects against pathogens on cultivated mushrooms. The strongest and broadest activity to pathogens obtained from mushroom facilities in Serbia was shown by the oils of oregano, thyme and basil. Five oils inhibited the growth of pathogenic bacteria Pseudomonas tolaasii: wintergreen, oregano, lemongrass, rosemary and eucalyptus. The essential oils of oregano, geranium and thyme were considerably toxic to the pathogenic fungi Mycogoneperniciosa, Lecanicillium fungicola and Cladobotryum spp. The strongest activity against Trichoderma aggressivum f. europaeum was shown by the oils of basil and mint. Oils of juniper and pine showed neither inhibitory nor lethal effects on mushroom pathogens. Although the fungitoxic activity of oils is not strong, they could be used as a supplement to commercial products for disease control, which will minimize the quantity of fungicides used.
... Approximately forty-five species have been reported to occur in India (1). The Cymbopogon species that produce volatile oils are called aromatic grasses (2). Different types of essential oils, such as palmarosa oil, lemongrass oil, citronella oil and ginger grass or rusa oil extracted from this genus are very popular in perfumery (3).The Cymbopogon essential oils are mainly characterized by monoterpene constituents like citral, citronellol, citronellal, linalool, 1,8-cineole, limonene, geraniol, methyl heptenone, geranyl acetate and geranyl formate (4,5). ...
The members of Cymbopogon genus are of commercial importance owing to have essential oils, which are highly prized in flavor and fragrance industries. Cymbopogon distans (Nees ex Steud.) Wats. is an under-explored aromatic member of this genus which is found abundantly wild in western and central Himalayan region. The lemon-scented chemotype of C. distans, domesticated in foothills was studied for post harvest storage under shade and open field conditions. The results revealed that there were no losses in essential oil content up to 15 days of storage (0.46%) under shade conditions. However, in field conditions a loss of 6.52% and 10.87% of essential oil was observed over a fresh herb after 7 days and 15 days of storage, respectively. Major constituents of the essential oil, viz.geranial (20.3–25.9%), neral (13.2–17.5%), geraniol(15.3–18.6%), and geranyl acetate (17.2–23.0%) showed change under post harvest storage. In conclusion, C. distans should preferably be distilled a fresh or it may be stored in shade conditions up to 15 days without any loss of essential oil.
... The genus Cymbopogon is comprised of about 140 species worldwide, out of which 45 species have been reported to occur in India. Cymbopogon is one of the most important essential oil yielding genera of the family Poaceae [347][348][349]. The most common economic species viz., C. winterianus Jowitt ex Bor, C. flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) ...
Aromatic plants have played key roles in the lives of tribal peoples living in the Himalaya by providing products for both food and medicine. This review presents a summary of aromatic medicinal plants from the Indian Himalaya, Nepal, and Bhutan, focusing on plant species for which volatile compositions have been described. The review summarizes 116 aromatic plant species distributed over 26 families.
... perLdulus) and hybrid (C. h,hasianus x C. pendulus) lemongrass oils are produced and traded in India (Sobti et al., L982;Rao, 1997). Litsea cubeba oil is produced and exported by China. ...
Cymbopogon Sprengel (Poaceae) species C. flexuosus (Nees ex Steudel) Watson (East Indian/Cochin/ Malabar), C. citratus (D.C.) Stapf (West Indian/fever grass), C. pendulus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats. (North Indian)
and C. khasianus (Munro ex Hackel) Stapf ex Bor × C. pendulus (hybrid) are known as lemongrass, drought-tolerant, multi-harvest, perennial, aromatic-cum-medicinal-cum-ornamental plants cultivated in several countries for their lemon-scented essential oils rich in citral (stereo isomers neral + geranial: 60.0–85.0%). Lemongrass is widely used in herbal tea, soups, for flavoring oriental and western cuisine. The oil is employed in flavoring, fragrances, cosmetics and aromatherapy. Lemongrass oil contains myrcene, neral, geranial and other (>200) compounds. Akpha-Bisabolol, geraniol, methyl eugenol, methyl isoeugenol, neryl acetate, geranyl acetate, geranial and elemicin rich chemotypes have been identified. Triterpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, saponins and phenolic compounds have been isolated. Lemongrass is traditionally used for treating fever, stomach/headaches, diabetes, rheumatism, hypertension, wounds, bone fractures etc. Extracts, phytochemicals, essential oil and its constituents possess pharmacological, antimicrobial, antioxidant and pesticidal properties.
... Approximately 45 species have been reported to occur in India. The Cymbopogon species that produce volatile oils are called aromatic grasses [1]. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) ...
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf commonly known as lemon grass is used extensively as green tea and even as herbal tea ingredient across the world. Plants have the ability to uptake metals as nutrient from the soil and its environment which are so essential for their physiological and biochemical growth. Concentrations of these twelve trace elements, namely, Mg, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, As, Cd, and Pb, are analysed by graphite furnace-atomic absorption spectroscopy (GF-AAS) and are compared with the permissible limits of FAO/WHO, ICMR, and NIH, USA, which are found to be within permissible limits. Toxic metals like As, Cd, and Pb, analysed are within the tolerable daily diet limit and at low concentration.
... Some important examples of simple monogenetic inheritance involve biosynthesis of the following metabolites: (1) S-linalool in Clarkia breweri: a dominant gene LIS encodes linalool synthase, which is similar (but may or may not be homologous) to a dominant I gene controlling accumulation of linalool in Mentha aquatica (Raguso and Pichersky 1999); (2) citronellal in Cymbopogon nardus var. confertiflorus (Rao 1997); and (3) capsaicin in Capsicum: a dominant gene, C, mapped on chromosome 2 has been shown to be essentially involved in capsaicin production. However, homozygous recessive condition, cc, results in a complete lack of capacity to synthesize capsaicinoids (Blum et al. 2002). ...
Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are important sources for plant secondary metabolites, which are important for human
healthcare. Improvement of the yield and quality of these natural plant products through conventional breeding is still a
challenge. However, recent advances in plant genomics research has generated knowledge leading to a better understanding of
the complex genetics and biochemistry involved in biosynthesis of these plant secondary metabolites. This genomics research
also concerned identification and isolation of genes involved in different steps of a number of metabolic pathways. Progress
has also been made in the development of functional genomics resources (EST databases and micro-arrays) in several medicinal
plant species, which offer new opportunities for improvement of genotypes using perfect markers or genetic transformation.
This review article presents an overview of the recent developments and future possibilities in genetics and genomics of MAP
species including use of transgenic approach for their improvement.
Seeking an opportunity for genetic improvement in aromatic grasses lead to an explorative study on the aspects of genetic variability, character association and path analysis between essential oil yield/plot and its contributing traits in twenty five genotypes of Cymbopogon sp. collected from different agro-climatic zones of India, grown in RBD with three replicates. Highly significant differences between genotypes were recorded for the traits that were brought under study. High genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation coupled with high heritability and moderate to high genetic advance over mean were recorded in geraniol content, citral content and geranyl acetate content indicating predominance of additive gene effects controlling these traits. Correlation and path analysis revealed that oil content, herb yield/plot and geranyl acetate content are overriding traits among all other growth and yield parameters, therefore more emphasis should be laid upon them while designing selection indices for improvement of essential oil yield.
Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) W. Watson, commonly known as lemongrass, is a member of Cymbopogon genus renowned for their highly prized essential oils for flavor and fragrance industries. A field experiment was conducted to standardize the postharvest storage practices for a prevalent high oil yielding cultivar ‘Krishna’ of lemongrass during 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 under open field, shade, and ventilated room; up to 10 days after harvest. Results revealed significantly higher essential oil content (1.14%) for freshly distilled herb as compared to stored herbs under different condition.The highest geranial and neral ratio (1.45 to 1.58) recorded in essential oil i.e. distilled at first day of harvest (T1) as compared to 1.37 to 1.44 in essential oil i.e. distilled at 10th day of harvest (T10). In conclusion, C flexuosus should preferably be distilled as fresh i.e. same day of harvest for higher yield of quality essential oil.
The global demand for lemongrass oil is increasing tremendously due to high citral content. In order to study the acclimatization of lemongrass cultivation with respect to citral content in the agroclimatic conditions of a Himalayan state i.e. Uttarakhand (India), a total 132 essential oil samples were collected from different farmers’ fields of Uttarakhand during six years (2009-2014) and subjected to GC fingerprinting for citral estimation. A total 22 samples were analyzed in each year and it has been observed that the mean citral content steadily increased from 69.1 to 78.7% during six years. In the year 2009 and 2010, most of the oil samples (77 and 82%, respectively) showed citral content between 60.0-72.0%. In 2011, 50% of the samples have shown an increased range of citral (72.1-76.0%). Similarly, during 2012 and 2013, more than 68% samples constituted 72.1-76.0% citral in the oils; while in the year 2014, citral content has increased in the lemongrass crop and most of the oil samples (86%) shown citral more than 76.0%. The increasing citral content during six years showed that lemongrass crop is being gradually acclimatized with respect to citral content in the agro-climatic conditions of Uttarakhand.
Cymbopogon Spreng, is one of the major aromatic plant genera, belonging to the tribe Andropogoneae of the family Poaceae. The number of species recognized by different workers in this genus varies from 55 to over 100 (Bor 1960; Chase and Niles 1962; Soenarko 1977). With the exception of the cultivated and introduced species, Cymbopogon occurs only in the Old World tropics and subtropics. Like other members of the tribe Andropogoneae, Cymbopogon is adapted to hot moist conditions. The species are more or less evenly distributed in the area, but several rather diffuse centers of diversity such as Indo-China, India, East Africa, and Queensland can be recognized (Soenarko 1977). The species of Cymbopogon are either densely or loosely tufted plants ranging in height from 20 cm to 3 m. They are mostly perennial; culms of most species are erect and unbranched (Fig. 1).
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon spp.) yields a commercial essential oil, which is a natural source of citral. In the present study, essential oil productivity and chemical compositions of the eight lemongrass cultivars from the Himalayan region were evaluated. The herb yield, essential oil content and essential oil yield varied from 168 to 208 kg per 100 m2, from 0.50% to 1.13% (v/w) and from 1.01 to 2.35 L per 100 m2, respectively in different cultivars. Altogether, twenty-eight constituents, comprising 86.6–98.5% of the total oil compositions, were identified using gas chromatography–flame ionization detector (GC–FID) and GC–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Comparative results showed substantial variations in the essential oil compositions due to cultivars and season of harvest. The amount of citral varied from 70.8% to 91.6% in different cultivars during the summer, rainy and winter seasons. According to the citral content, lemongrass cultivars could be arranged as Nima (88.8–91.6%) > Pragati (84.1–91.2%) > Cauvery (83.9–87.3%) > Krishna (70.8–86.8%) > OD–19 (82.0–86.0%) > Chirharit (78.6–82.8%) > Praman (75.2–82.5%) > CKP-25 (77.6–79.4%). In conclusion, cultivar Krishna was found to be superior over other cultivars in term of essential oil yield (2.35 L per 100 m−2). The average citral content in this cultivar was ≈80.0%.
Cymbopogon distans (Nees ex Steud.) Wats is a perennial aromatic grass growing wild in the temperate Himalayan region. In order to find new ecological areas for its commercial cultivation, an attempt has been made to introduce this plant to the sub-tropical region. In the present study, successfully domesticated lemon-scented strain of C distans was evaluated for their essential-oil yield and chemical composition throughout the year. The essential-oil yields observed in the initial two years were 3.85 +/- 0.22 mL/plant/year. The essential-oil content varied from 0.34 +/- 0.05 to 0.44 +/- 0.04% in different seasons. A total of thirty-eight constituents, representing 85.5-94.7% of the total oil compositions were identified using gas chromatography (GC) and GC-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) methods. Geraniol (10.7-20.8%), neral (15.0-18.0%), geranyl acetate (16.0-22.7%), geranial (19.7-24.7%), and limonene (1.9-6.1%) were identified as the major constituents of the essential-oil. Besides seasonal changes, variations in the essential-oil composition were also noticed between the first and second harvests of the plant.
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